DC CIRCUITS

Ohm’s Law: volts = amps Network analysis using Kirchoff’s Laws: The procedure
× ohms E = IR is as follows:
1. Letter all junctions on the network A, B, C, etc.
Power: watts = volts × amps P = EI 2. Identify current directions and voltage polarities, and
E2 number them according to the resistor involved.
watts = volts2 / ohms P= 3. Identify each current path according to the lettered
R junctions and, applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law, write
watts = amps2 × ohms P = I2R the voltage equations for the paths. i.e. for the path
Coulomb: coulombs = amps × seconds Q = I t ABCDE, E1 = I1 R1 + I 2 R2
4. Applying Kirchhoff’s current law, write the equations
Kirchhoff's Voltage Law: In any closed electric circuit, for the currents entering and leaving all junctions
the algebraic sum of the voltage drops must equal the where more than one current is involved. (as shown
algebraic sum of the applied emfs. above)
5. Solve the equations by substitution to find the
unknown currents. (I1, I2, etc.)
Voltage Divider Theorem: In a series circuit, the
portion of applied emf developed across each resistor Note that in some circumstances currents and voltage polarities
is in the ratio of that resistor's value to the total series will turn out to be negative when the circuit is analyzed. This
resistance. simply means that the assumed current directions and voltage
polarities were incorrect.
The applied emf is divided up between the series
resistors. The voltage across each of two resistors Network Analysis using Loop Equations: The procedure
can be calculated by: is as follows:
ER1 ER2 1. Draw all loop currents in a clockwise direction and
V1 = V2 =
R1 + R2 R1 + R2 2.
identify them by number. i.e. I1, I2, etc.
Identify all resistor voltage drops as + to - in the
direction of the loop current. (Sometimes there may be
where E is the supply voltage. voltage components in both directions.)
3. Identify all voltage sources according to their correct
Kirchhoff's Current Law: The algebraic sum of the polarity. (The voltage loop may not be in the same direction as
current flow.)
currents entering a point in an electric circuit must
4. Write the equations for the voltage drops around each
equal the algebraic sum of the currents leaving that loop in turn, by equating the sum of the voltage drops
point. to zero.
5. Solve the equations to find the unknown currents.
When two resistors are in parallel: (This may be referred
to as a current divider.) R1 R2
E E
I1 = I2 = I = I1+ I 2 + – + –
R1 R2
+ + – +
Loop Current Loop Current
For multiple resistors in parallel, the current is: E1 I1 R3 I2 E2
 1 – – + –
1 1 1 
I = E  + + +L+ 
 R1 R 2 R3 Rn 

For multiple resistors in parallel, the equivalent

resistance is:
1 1 1 1 1
= + + +L +
R R1 R2 R3 Rn

Tom Penick [email protected] www.teicontrols.com/notes 06/09/98

Nodal Analysis: A voltage node is a junction in an Thévenin's Theorem: Any two-terminal network containing
electrical circuit at which a voltage can be measured resistances and voltage sources and/or current sources
with respect to another (reference) node. The may be replaced by a single voltage source in series with a
procedure for nodal analysis is as follows: single resistance. The emf of the voltage source is the
open-circuit emg at the network terminals, and the series
1. Convert all voltage sources to current sources, and resistance is the resistance between the network terminals
redraw the circuit. when all sources are replaced by their internal impedances.
2. Identify all nodes and choose a reference node.
3. Write the equations for the currents flowing into and Procedure: 1) Calculate the open-circuit terminal voltage of
out of each node, with the exception of the reference the network; 2) Redraw the network with each voltage
node. source replaced by a short circuit in series with its internal
4. Solve the equations to determine the node voltages resistance, and each current source replaced by abn open
and the required branch currents. circuit in parallel with its internal resistance; 3) Calculate
the resistance of the redrawn network as seen from output
terminals.
Internal resistance is the characteristic of all voltage
Norton's Theorem: Any two-terminal network containing
sources that tends to reduce the voltage and current
resistances and voltage source and/or current sources may
they can deliver under load. be replaced by a single current source in parallel with a
V − V FL V NL is the noload voltage
Ri = NL where: single resistance. The output from the current source is the
IL V FL is the full load voltage short-circuit current at the network terminals, and the
I L is the amperage under parallel resistance is the resistance between the network
load terminals when all sources are replaced by their internal
With Ri known, the voltage source circuit can be impedances.
represented by an ideal voltage source in series with Procedure: 1) Calculate the short-circuit current at the
a resistor Ri . network terminals; 2) Redraw the network with each voltage
source replaced by a short-circuit in series with its internal
Delta-Wye Transformation: resistance, and each current source replaced by an open
circuit in parallel with its internal resistance; 3) Calculate
the resistance of the redrawn network as seen from the
output terminals.
Ra Rab Rac
Millman's Theorem: Multiple current sources in parallel can
Rb Rc be represented by a single current generator having the
sum of the individual source currents and the resistance of
Rbc the parallel combination of the individual source
Rab Rac Ra Rb + Ra Rc + Rb Rc resistances.
Ra = Rab =
Rab + Rac + Rbc Rc
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem: Maximum output
Rab Rbc Ra Rb + Ra Rc + Rb Rc
Rb = Rac = power is obtained from a source when the load resistance
Rab + Rac + Rbc Rb is equal to the output resistance of the network or source
Rac Rbc Ra Rb + Ra Rc + Rb Rc as seen from the terminals of the load.
Rc = Rbc =
Rab + Rac + Rbc Ra

Superposition Theorem: In a network containing more A voltage source having a voltage E and a source
than one source of voltage or current, the current through resistance RS can be replaced by a current source
any branch is the algebraic sum of the currents produced with a current E/RS and a source resistance RS.
by each source acting independently.
A current source having a current I and a source
Procedure: 1) Select one source, and replace all other
resistance RS can be replaced by a voltage source
sources with their internal impedances; 2) Determine the
level and direction of the current that flows through the with a voltage IRS and a source resistance RS.
desired branch as a result of the single source acting alone;
3) Repeat steps 1 and 2 using each source in turn until the Conductance: The reciprocal of resistance in units of
branch current components have been calculated for all siemens (S). For multiple resistors in parallel, the
sources; 4) Sum the component currents to obtain the conductances are:
actual branch current. G = G1 + G2 + G 3 +L+ G n

Tom Penick [email protected] www.teicontrols.com/notes 06/09/98

 Ceramic Capacitors consist of a ceramic disc with films
CAPACITANCE of metal on both sides. There are two types of
ceramic material; one with extremely high permittivity
The farad is the SI unit of capacitance, equal to the but low leakage resistance which allows smaller
capacitance of a capacitor that contains a charge of 1 physical size, and the other has lower permittivity and
coulomb when the potential difference between its leakage resistances of about 7500 MΩ but with large
terminals is 1 volt. physical size.
Q = CE where Q = the charge in coulombs Electrolytic Capacitors are constructed with two sheets of
C = capacitance in farads aluminum foil separated by a fine gauze soaked in
E = voltage across the capacitor electrolyte and rolled up and encased in an aluminum
cylinder. When assumbled, a direct voltage is applied
The dielectric is the insulating material between the to the capacitor terminals causing a thin layer of
conducting plates. After a capacitor is discharged, a aluminum oxide to form on the surface of the positive
small charge may remain due to polarized atoms in plate next to the electrolyte. The aluminum oxide is
the dielectric; this phenomenon is known as dielectric the dielectric and the electrolyte and positive sheet of
absorption. foil are the capacitor plates. High capacitances in a
relatively small size are obtained. Working voltages
Permittivity is the ease with which electric flux is
are low and leakage current is high. The capacitors
permitted to pass through a given dielectric material.
are polarized, and if connected incorrectly, gas forms
Dielectric constant is the term for relative permittivity ∈0 . within the electrolyte and the capacitor may explode.
Nonpolorized electrolytic capacitors are available
∈r ∈o A ∈r = relative permittivity which consist of two capacitors in one package
C= where
d ∈o = permittivity of free space connected back to back.
A = plate area in m2 Tantalum Capacitors are essentially another type of
d = dielectric thickness in m electrolytic capacitor. Tantalum is sintered (baked)
into a porous solid. This is immersed into a container
Some Dielectric Constants ∈r of electrolyte which is then absorbed into it.
Vacuum 1 Glass 5-100 Paper 4-6
Air 1.006 Mica 3-7 Polystyrene 2.5 Capacitors in Series:
Ceramic, low loss 6-20 Mylar 3 Teflon 2 1 1 1 1 1
Ceramic, hi ∈r >1000 Oxide Film 5-25 = + + +L +
C C1 C2 C3 Cn
Capacitor equivalent circuit RD C
Capacitors in Parallel: The total capacitance is the sum
RD = resistance of the plates of the individual capacitances:
RL = leakage resistance of the C = C1 + C2 + C3 + L + Cn
dielectric
RL
Voltage on a Capacitor:
+
Air Capacitors are usually variable type. R
E
Paper Capacitors consist of layers of paper and metal foil –
or just metalized paper that is rolled up, dipped, and C
terminated. A band on one end may indicate the
outside foil so that it may be grounded for shielding, eC = E − (E − E 0 )2.718 − t (CR ) or
not necessarily polarity. Values range from 500 pF to
t  E 
50 µF to 600 V. Lowest cost but physically larger. = ln  
Plastic Film Capacitors are similar to paper capacitors CR  E − eC 
but use polystyrene or Mylar instead of paper. where eC = capacitor voltage at time t
Insulation resistance is greater than 100 000 MΩ. E = supply voltage
Values typically range from 5 pF to 0.47 µF to 600 V.
E0 = initial level of capacitor voltage
Mica Capacitors consist of layers of mica and metal foil t = time in seconds
or layers of silvered mica. Precise values and wide C = capacitance in farads
temperature ranges are possible. Values typically R = resistance (series) in ohms
range from 1 pF to 0.1 µF to 35 000 V.

Tom Penick [email protected] www.teicontrols.com/notes 06/09/98

 Magnetic field strength The number of turns on a
MAGNETISM toroidal coil times the number of amps divided by the
length of the magnetic path, expressed in amps/meter
Flux: magnetic lines of force which form closed loops. (A/m).
Right-hand rule: When the thumb points in the direction NI
H=
of current flow, the fingers show the direction of the l
magnetic lines of force around a conductor. When a
solenoid is gripped with the right hand such that the Force on a conductor Flux density times current times
fingers are pointing in the direction of current flow in length, expressed in newtons.
the coils, the thumb points in the direction of the flux,
toward the N-pole of the solenoid. F = BIl
When a magnet in motion is brought near a coil, a
voltage is generated. This effect is electromagnetic Torque on a coil of radius r in newton meters.
induction.
When a coil is energized in proximity to a second coil an torque = BIl Nr
emf will be generated in the second coil as the flux is
builds from 0 to its maximum level. At maximum Hysteresis is the effect of lagging flux density relative to
level, the flux becomes stationary and no emf is changes in magnetic field strength. This is due to the
generated in the second coil. When the coil is core material becoming magnetized and its resistance
deenergized, the flux falls to 0 and emf is again to change. This retained flux density is called
generated in the second coil while the flux is in remanence or residual magnetism. The magnetic
motion. field strength required to reduce the remanence to
zero is called the coercive force. If a graph is drawn
Nonmagnetic materials have no effect on a magnetic
with remanence on the y-axis and coercive force on
field.
the x-axis, the resulting figure is called a hysteresis
Diamagnetic materials exhibit a very slight opposition to loop. A soft iron core material yields a narrow loop,
magnetic lines of force. They tend to be repelled meaning that hysteresis losses would be a minimum,
from both poles of a magnet and align at right angles making this material suitable for coils undergoing a
to the field. large number of reversals per second. A hard steel
core yields a wide loop, indicating a large core loss,
Paramagnetic materials slightly assist the passage of
making it unsuitable for coils undergoing reversals but
magnetic lines of force. i.e. aluminum, platinum
is a good material for permanent magnets. A ferrite
Ferromagnetic materials greatly assist the passage of core also has a wide loop but with a more vertically
magnetic lines of force. These materials are used in compact graph approaching a square shape. This
permanent magnets and as electromagnets. i.e. iron, characteristic lends the material to use in magnetic
nickel, cobalt, ferrite memory.
Weber (Wb) The unit of magnetic flux which, in a single-
turn coil, porduces an emg of 1 V when the flux is
reduced to zero at a uniform rate in 1 s.
Tesla (T) The unit of flux density in a magnetic field
when 1 Wb of flux occurs in a plane of 1 m2; i.e. 1
tesla is equal to 1 Wb/m2. Greatest near the poles or
within the magnet.
Φ
B= B = teslas
A where
Φ = webers
A = m2

Magnetomotive force (mmf) The number of turns on a

coil times the number of amps equals the mmf in
amps.
ℑ = NI

Tom Penick [email protected] www.teicontrols.com/notes 06/09/98

 INDUCTANCE i=
E
(1 − 2.718 − t ( R / L ) ) or t
R  E 
= ln  
R L  E − iR 
Lenz's Law: The induced current always develops a flux
which opposes the motion or change producing the where i = instantaneous current at time t
current. E = supply voltage
Faraday's Law: The EMF induced in an electric circuit is L = inductance in henrys
proportional to the rate of change of flux linking the t = time in seconds
circuit. R = resistance (series) in ohms
∆Φ
eL = e L is in volts
∆t where Energy stored in an inductive circuit:
∆Φ is in Wb W = 21 LI 2
∆t is in seconds where W is stored energy in joules
L is in henrys
I is in amperes
If N is the number of turns on the secondary winding, the
induced emf is
Mutual Inductance: When the flux from one coil cuts
∆ΦN
eL = another adjacent (magnetically coupled) coil, an emf
∆t is induced in the second coil. The emf in the second
Self-inductance: The property in which a coil induces a coil sets up a flux that opposes the original flux from
counter voltage in itself as the current through it the first coil. The induced emf is a counter-emf and is
grows. referred to as mutual inductance. Two coils have a
Henry (H): The SI unit of inductance. The inductance of mutual inductance of 1 H when an emf of 1 V is
a circuit is 1 henry when an emf of 1 V is induced by induced in one coil by current changing at the rate of
the current changing at the rate of 1 A/s. 1 A/s in the other coil. Depending on how much of
the primary flux cuts the secondary, the coils may be
eL
L= where L is in henrys classified as loosely coupled or tightly coupled. The
∆i / ∆t e L is in volts amount of flux linkage is also defined in terms of a
∆i / ∆t is amps per second coefficient of coupling, k = flux linkages between
primary and secondary ÷ total flux produced by
∆ΦN ∆Φ is in Wb
L= where primary. When both coils are wound on the same iron
∆i N is number of turns core, k = 1.
∆i is the change in amps eL
M=
A ∆i / ∆t where M is mutual inductance in
L = µr µo N 2 where µ r relative permeability of henrys
l material involved (air = 1) e L is the voltage induced in the
µ o the permeability of free secondary coil
space (4π × 10-7) ∆i / ∆t is the rate of change of
A is the cross-sectional area current in the primary coil in
l is the coil length amps per second
∆ΦN s
eL = e L is the voltage induced in the
∆t where
Inductors in Series: secondary coil
L = L1 + L2 + L3 + L + Ln ∆Φ is the total change in flux
linking with the secondary
Inductors in Parallel: The total capacitance is the sum of winding
the individual capacitances: N s is the number of turns on the
1 1 1 1 1 secondary winding
= + + +L + ∆t is the time required for the
L L1 L2 L3 Ln
flux change
Instantaneous current of a coil and resistor in series: M = k L1 L2
where k is the coefficient of coupling
L1 is the inductance in henrys of
the primary coil
+ R L2 is the inductance in henrys of
E the secondary coil
–
C

Tom Penick [email protected] www.teicontrols.com/notes 06/09/98