William Stallings

Computer Organization
and Architecture
7th Edition

Chapter 8
Operating System Support
Objectives and Functions
• Operation System (OS)
—Software that controls the execution of
programs on a processor and that manages
the processor’s resources.
• Objectives
—Convenience
– Making the computer easier to use
—Efficiency
– Allowing better use of computer resources
O/S as a User/Computer Interface
Layers and Views of a Computer System
Operating System Services
See Page 236
• Program creation
• Program execution
• Access to I/O devices
• Controlled access to files
• System access
• Error detection and response
• Accounting
O/S as a Resource Manager
Types of Operating System
• Interactive
• Batch ( 批次 )

• Single program (Uni-programming)

• Multi-programming (Multi-tasking)
Simple Batch Systems

• Resident( 常駐的 ) Monitor

program
• Users submit jobs to operator
• Operator batches jobs
• Monitor controls sequence of
events to process batch
• When one job is finished,
control returns to Monitor
which reads next job
• Monitor handles scheduling
Job Control Language
• Instructions to Monitor
• Usually denoted by $
• e.g.
—$JOB
—$FTN
—... Some FORTRAN instructions
—$LOAD
—$RUN
—... Some data
—$END
Desirable Hardware Features
• Memory protection
—To protect the Monitor
• Timer
—To prevent a job monopolizing( 獨佔 ) the
system
• Privileged ( 特權 ) instructions
—Only executed by Monitor
—e.g. I/O
• Interrupts
—Allows for relinquishing( 交出 ) and regaining
control
Multi-programmed Batch Systems
• I/O devices very slow
• When one program is waiting for I/O,
another can use the CPU.
Single Program
Multi-Programming with
Two Programs
Multi-Programming with
Three Programs
Utilization
Time Sharing Systems
• Allow users to interact directly with the
computer
—i.e. Interactive
• Multi-programming allows a number of
users to interact with the computer
Scheduling
• Key to multi-programming
• Four types of scheduling:

• Process
• A program in execution
• The entity to which a processor is assigned
Long Term Scheduling
• Determines which programs are submitted
for processing
• i.e. controls the degree of multi-
programming
• Once submitted, a job becomes a process
for the short term scheduler
• (or it becomes a swapped( 交換 ) out job
for the medium term scheduler)
Medium Term Scheduling
• The decision to add to the number of
processes that are partially or fully in
main memory
• Part of the swapping function (later…)
• Usually based on the need to manage
multi-programming
• If no virtual memory, memory
management is also an issue.
Short Term Scheduler
• Dispatcher
• Fine grained decisions of which job to
execute next
• i.e. which job actually gets to use the
processor in the next time slot
Process States
Process Control Block

• Identifier
• State
• Priority
• Program counter
• Memory pointers
• Context data
• I/O status
• Accounting information
Scheduling Example
Key Elements of O/S
Process Scheduling
8.3 Memory Management
• Uni-program
—Memory split into two
—One for Operating System (monitor)
—One for currently executing program
• Multi-program
—“User” part is sub-divided and shared among
active processes
Swapping
• Problem: I/O is so slow compared with
CPU that even in multi-programming
system, CPU can be idle most of the time
 Allow more processes
• Solutions:
—Increase main memory
– Expensive
– Leads to larger programs
—Swapping
What is Swapping?
• Long term queue of processes stored on
disk
• Processes “swapped” in as space
becomes available
• As a process completes it is moved out of
main memory
• If none of the processes in memory are
ready (i.e. all I/O blocked)
—Swap out a blocked process to intermediate( 中
間的 ) queue
—Swap in a ready process or a new process
—But swapping is an I/O process...
Use of Swapping
Partitioning
• Splitting memory into sections to allocate
to processes (including Operating System)
• Fixed-sized partitions
—May not be equal size
—Process is fitted into smallest hole that will
take it (best fit)
—Some wasted memory
—Leads to variable sized partitions
Fixed
Partitioning
Variable Sized Partitions (1)
• Allocate exactly the required memory to a
process
• This leads to a hole at the end of memory,
too small to use
—Only one small hole - less waste
• When all processes are blocked, swap out
a process and bring in another
• New process may be smaller than
swapped out process
• Another hole
Variable Sized Partitions (2)
• Eventually have lots of holes
(fragmentation)
• Solutions:
—Coalesce( 癒合 ) - Join adjacent holes into one
large hole
—Compaction - From time to time go through
memory and move all hole into one free block
(c.f. disk de-fragmentation)
Effect of Dynamic Partitioning
Relocation
• No guarantee that process will load into
the same place in memory
• Instructions contain addresses
—Locations of data
—Addresses for instructions (branching)
• Logical address - relative to beginning of
program
• Physical address - actual location in
memory (this time)
• Automatic conversion using base address
Physical Address = Base Address + Logical Address
Paging
• Split memory into equal sized, small
chunks( 厚片 ) - page frames
• Split programs (processes) into equal sized
small chunks - pages
• Allocate the required number of page frames
to a process
• Operating System maintains list of free
frames
• A process does not require contiguous page
frames
• Use page table to keep track
Allocation of Free Frames
Logical and Physical Addresses - Paging
Virtual Memory
• Demand paging
—Do not require all pages of a process in
memory
—Bring in pages as required
• Page fault
—Required page is not in memory
—Operating System must swap in required page
—May need to swap out a page to make space
—Select page to throw out based on recent
history
Thrashing ( 扭動 )
• Too many processes in too little memory
• Operating System spends all its time
swapping
• Little or no real work is done
• Disk light is on all the time

• Solutions
—Good page replacement algorithms
—Reduce number of processes running
—Fit more memory
Bonus
• We do not need all of a process in memory
for it to run
• We can swap in pages as required
• It is possible for a process to be larger
than all of main memory.

• Main memory is called real memory.

• User/programmer sees much bigger
memory - virtual memory.
Inverted Page Table Structure
Translation Lookaside Buffer
• Every virtual memory reference causes
two physical memory access
—Fetch page table entry
—Fetch data
• Use special cache for page table
—Translation Lookaside Buffer (TLB)
TLB Operation
TLB and Cache Operation
Segmentation ( 分割 )

• Paging is not (usually) visible to the

programmer
• Segmentation is visible to the programmer
• Usually different segments allocated to
program and data
• May be a number of program and data
segments
Advantages of Segmentation
• Simplifies handling of growing data
structures
• Allows programs to be altered and
recompiled independently, without re-linking
and re-loading
• Lends itself to sharing among processes
• Lends itself to protection

• Some systems combine segmentation with

paging.
Pentium II
• Hardware for segmentation and paging
• Unsegmented unpaged
— virtual address = physical address
— Low complexity
— High performance
• Unsegmented paged
— Memory viewed as paged linear address space
— Protection and management via paging
— Berkeley UNIX
• Segmented unpaged
— Collection of local address spaces
— Protection to single byte level
— Translation table needed is on chip when segment is in memory
• Segmented paged
— Segmentation used to define logical memory partitions subject to
access control
— Paging manages allocation of memory within partitions
— Unix System V
Pentium II Address Translation
Mechanism
Pentium II Segmentation
• Each virtual address is 16-bit segment and
32-bit offset
• 2 bits of segment are protection
mechanism
• 14 bits specify segment
• Unsegmented virtual memory 232 = 4
GBytes
• Segmented 246=64 terabytes
—Can be larger – depends on which process is
active
15 3 2 10
—Half (8K
Indexsegments T × 4 GBytes) is global
TI: Table Indicator (Global or Local)
I RPL
RPL: Requested Privilege Level
—Half is local and
Segment Selector distinct for each process
Pentium II Protection
• Protection bits give 4 levels of privilege
—0 most protected, 3 least
—Use of levels software dependent
—Usually level 3 for applications, level 1 for O/S
and level 0 for kernel (level 2 not used)
—Level 2 may be used for apps that have
internal security e.g. database
—Some instructions only work in level 0
Pentium II Paging
• Segmentation may be disabled
—In which case linear address space is used
• Two level page table lookup
—First, page directory
– 1024 entries max
– Splits 4G linear memory into 1024 page groups of 4Mbyte
– Each page table has 1024 entries corresponding to
4Kbyte pages
– Can use one page directory for all processes, one per
process or mixture
– Page directory for current process always in memory
—Use TLB holding 32 page table entries
—Two page sizes available 4k or 4M