CLASS HANDOUT - 1

SMN6014 - Di¤erential and Integral Calculus

- The Real Number System -
Semester 2 Session 2010/2011

The Real Number System

Sets of Real Numbers R
Natural Numbers: N = f1; 2; 3; : : :g : Sometimes called positive integers Z+ :
Negatives integers and zero: f0g [ Z = f0; 1; 2; 3; : : :g :

– Z = Z+ [ f0g [ Z
n a o
Rational Numbers: Q = x = : a; b 2 Z; b 6= 0
b
n a o
Irrational Numbers: R Q = y 6= : a; b 2 Z; b 6= 0
b
Note that: N Z Q R

Decimal Representation of Real Numbers

Any real numbers x 2 R can be expressed in decimal form.
18
Example 1 1. = 1:8
10
1
2. = 0:1666 : : : = 0:16
6
1
3. = 0:142857
7
p
4. 2 = 1:41423 : : :
5. = 3:14159 : : :

Properties of Real Numbers

Algebraic Properties
Let a; b; c 2 R: De…ne functions +; : R ! R. Then:

– (CP) 8a; b 2 R; a + b 2 R and a b 2 R

– (A1) 8a; b 2 R; a + b = b + a
– (A2) 8a; b; c 2 R; a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c
– (A3) 90 2 R; 8a 2 R; a + 0 = a
– (A4) 8a 2 R; 9 a 2 R; a + ( a) = 0
– (M1) 8a; b 2 R; a b = b a
– (M2) 8a; b; c 2 R; a (b c) = (a b) c
– (M3) 91 2 R; 8a 2 R; a 1 = a
– (M4) 8a 6= 0 2 R; 9a 1 2 R; a a 1 = 1
– (DP) 8a; b; c 2 R; a (b + c) = a b + a c

1 1
Denote: ab = a b; a + ( b) = a b; a =
a

1
Ordered Properties
Let a; b; c 2 R: De…ne a relation <: R ! R. Then:

– (O1-Trichotomy) (a < b) _ (b < a) _ (a = b)

– (O2-Transitive) [(a < b) ^ (b < c)] ) (a < c)
– (O3-Additive) [(a < b) ^ (c 2 R)] ) [(a + c) < (b + c)]
– (O5-Multiplicative)
[(a < b) ^ (c > 0)] ) (ac < bc)
[(a < b) ^ (c < 0)] ) (ac > bc)

Exercise 2 Proof the following properties:

1. 8a; b; c 2 R; a + c = b + c
2. 8a 2 R; a 0 = 0
3. 8a; b 2 R; ( a) b = ab
4. 8a; b 2 R; ( a) ( b) = ab
5. 8a; b; c 2 R; [(ac = bc) ^ (c 6= 0)] ) (a = b)
6. 8a; b 2 R; (ab = 0) ) [(a = 0) _ (b = 0)]

Solution 3 1. 8a; b; c 2 R; a + c = b + c
Proof.

a+c = b+c
a + c + ( c) = b + c + ( c)
a+0 = b+0
a = b

2. 8a 2 R; a 0 = 0
Proof.

a 0 = a (0 + 0) = a 0 + a 0
0+a 0 = a 0+a 0
0 = a 0

3. 8a; b 2 R; ( a) b = ab
Proof.

( a) b + ab = ( a + a) b = 0 b = 0
0 = ab + ab
( a) b + ab = ab + ab
( a) b = ab

4. 8a; b 2 R; ( a) ( b) = ab
Proof. Exercise.

2
 5. 8a; b; c 2 R; [(ac = bc) ^ (c 6= 0)] ) (a = b)
Proof. Exercise.
6. 8a; b 2 R; (ab = 0) ) [(a = 0) _ (b = 0)]
Proof.

(ab = 0) ^ (b 6= 0)
1 1
ab b = 0 b =0
1
a bb = 0
a 1 = 0
a = 0

Absolute Value

Let a 2 R: 8
< a if a > 0
jaj = a if a < 0
:
0 if a = 0

Theorem 4 The absolute value satis…es the following properties:

(Positive De…nite) 8a 2 R; jaj 0

Proof.
Case 1 a 0. Then jaj = a 0:
Case 2 a < 0. Then a > 0; and hence, jaj = a>0

(Multiplicative) 8a; b 2 R; jabj = jaj jbj

Proof.

Case 1 a 0 and b 0: Then ab 0; and so, jaj jbj = ab = jabj :

Case 2 a 0 and b 0: Then b 0 and a ( b) 0; and hence jaj jbj = a ( b) = (ab) = jabj
Case 3 Exercise.
Case 4 Exercise.

(Symmetric) 8a; b 2 R; ja bj = jb aj - Distance between a and b

(Triangle Inequalities) 8a; b 2 R

– ja + bj jaj + jbj
– ja bj jaj jbj
– jjaj jbjj ja bj

3
The Completeness Axiom
Maximum and Minimum
De…nition 5 Let S 6= ? R:

If a 2 S and s a for all s 2 S; then a = max S: (Maximum of S )

If b 2 S and s b for all s 2 S; then b = min S: (Minimum of S )

Example 6 1. max f1; 2; 3; 4; 5g = 5; min f1; 2; 3; 4; 5g = 1

2. max fn 2 Z : 4<n 100g = 100; min fn 2 Z : 4<n 100g = 3

3. The sets Z and Q have no maximum or minimum. The set N has no maximum, but min N = 1
p p
4. min q 2 Q : 0 q 2 = 0: The set has no maximum since 2 2
=Q

1)n 1 1
5. The set n 2 N : n( = 1 1
; 2; 3 1
; 4; 5 1
; 6; : : : = 1; 2; ; 4; ; 6; : : : has no maximum and
3 5
no minimum.

Intervals
Let a; b 2 R:

– (Closed Intervals) [a; b] = fx 2 R : a x bg ; [a; 1) ; ( 1; b] ; ( 1; 1)

– (Open Intervals) (a; b) = fx 2 R : a < x < bg ; (a; 1) ; ( 1; b) ; ( 1; 1)
– (Half Open/Half Closed Intervals) [a; b) = fx 2 R : a x < bg ; (a; b]

Example 7 1. max [a; b] = b; min [a; b] = a

2. (a; b) has no maximum or minimum

Bounded
De…nition 8 Let S 6= ? R:

If M 2 R such that s M for all s 2 S; then M is called an upper bound of S; and S is said to be
bounded above.
If m 2 R such that s m for all s 2 S; then m is called an lower bound of S; and S is said to be
bounded below.

S is said to be bounded if it is bounded above and bounded below, i.e. S is bounded if there exist
m; M 2 R such that S [m; M ]

Example 9 1. (Bounded Intervals) [a; b] ; (a; b) ; [a; b) ; (a; b]

2. (Unbounded Closed Intervals) [a; 1) ; ( 1; b] ; ( 1; 1)
3. (Unbounded Open Intervals) (a; 1) ; ( 1; b) ; ( 1; 1)

4
Supremum and In…mum
De…nition 10 Let S 6= ? R:

If S is bounded above, then M 2 R is called the least upper bound of S (or the supremum of S;
denoted by M = sup S) if and only if

–s M; 8s 2 S
– whenever M1 < M; there exists s1 2 S such that s1 > M1

If S is bounded below, then m 2 R is called the greatest lower bound of S (or the in…mum of S;
denoted by m = inf S) if and only if

–s m; 8s 2 S
– whenever m1 > m; there exists s1 2 S such that s1 < m1

Example 11 1. If S has a maximum and minimum, then max S = sup S and min S = inf S; respectively.
2. If a; b 2 R and a < b; then b is the upper bound for each of the sets [a; b] ; (a; b) ; (a; b] ; [a; b) : Every
number larger than b is also an upper bound for each of these sets, but b is the least upper bound. So,

b = sup [a; b] = sup (a; b) = sup (a; b] = sup [a; b)

a = inf [a; b] = inf (a; b) = inf (a; b] = inf [a; b)

3. None of the sets N; Z and Q is bounded above, but N is bounded below, and min N = inf N = 1
p
4. Any nonpositive real number is a lower bound for q 2 Q : 0 q 2 and 0 is the set’s greatest lower
p
bound. The least upper bound is 2: So,
n p o
inf q 2 Q : 0 q 2 = 0
n p o p
sup q 2 Q : 0 q 2 = 2

1
5. The set x2R: <x 1 has 2 and 3 as the upper bound and lower bound respectively.
2

1
sup x 2 R : <x 1 = 1
2
1 1
inf x 2 R : <x 1 =
2 2

1)n 1)n
6. The set n 2 N : n( is bounded below with inf n 2 N : n( =0

The Completeness Axiom

Every nonempty subset S of R that is bounded above has a least upper bound, i.e., sup S exists and
is a real number.
We write sup S = +1 if S is not bounded above.
Every nonempty subset S of R that is bounded below has a greatest lower bound, i.e., inf S exists and
is a real number
We write inf S = 1 if S is not bounded below.

5
Neighborhood
De…nition 12 The set of all points x such that jx aj < where > 0; is called a neighborhood of a
(centered at a ); that is:
fa <x<a+ g

De…nition 13 The set of all points x such that 0 < jx aj < where > 0; in which x = a is excluded is
called a deleted neighborhood of a (or an open ball of radius about a ); that is:

fa < x < ag and fa < x < a + g

- End of Lecture 1 -

(17 Dec 2010)