Maintenance of Instruments & Systems

2nd Edition

Lawrence D. Goettsche, Editor

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Maintenance of Instruments & Systems

2nd Edition

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Lawrence D. Goettsche, Editor

Practical Guides

for Measurement and Control

Notice

The information presented in this publication is for the genera! education of the reader. Because neither the author nor the publisher have any control over the use of the information by the reader, both the author and the publisher disclaim any and all liability of any kind arising out of such use. The reader is expected to exercise sound professional judgment in using any of the information presented in a particular application.

Additionally, neither the author nor the publisher have investigated or considered the affect of any patents on the ability of the reader to use any of the information in a particular application. The reader is responsible for reviewing any possible patents that may affect any particular use of the information presented.

Any references to commercial products in the work are cited as examples only. Neither the author nor the publisher.endorse any referenced commercial product. Any trademarks or tradenames referenced belong to the respective owner.of-the mark or name. Neither the author nor the publisher make any representation regarding the availability of any referencedcommercial product at any time. The manufacturer's instructions OIl1!Se of any commercial product must be followed at all times, even if in conflict with the informatioa.in this publication .

. Copyright © 2005 ISA - The Instrumentation, Systems, and Automation Society

At! rights reserved.

Printed in the United States of America. 109876543

ISBN -10: 1-55617-879-4 ISBN-13: 978-1-55617-879-5

No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher.

ISA

67 Alexander Drive P.O. Box 12277

Research Triangle Park, NC 27709

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data in progress Maintenance of instruments & systems I Lawrence D. Goettsche, editor.-- 2nded.

p.cm.

Includes index.

ISBN 1-55617-879-4 (hardcover)

1. Engineering instruments=Maintenance and repair. 2. Systems engineering. I. Title:Maintenance of instruments and systems. II. Goettsche, L. D. (Lawrence D.)

TA165.M242004

68! '.2'0288--dc22

2004019596

Table of Contents

About the Editor and Contributors xi

Chapter 1 Introduction 1 Overview 1

History of Instrumentation and Control Maintenance 1

Need for Instrumentation and Control Maintenance and Engineering 6

Chapter 2 Fundamental Principles 9 Overview 9

Electronic Field Instrumentation 9 Why Maintain? 10

Maintenance vs. Troubleshooting 19 Calibration and Reasons to Calibrate 20 Troubleshooting 21

Basic Troubleshooting Techniques 22 Designed with Maintenance in Mind 25

Chapter 3 Diagrams, Symbols, and Specifications 31 Overview 31

Process (Piping) & Instrumentation Diagram 31 Instrument Loop Diagrams 32

Logic Diagrams 39

Highway Drawings 49

Specifications 51

I nstrument Symbols 54 Instrument Symbols 58

Chapter 4 Maintenance Personnel 73 Overview 73

Multi-Disciplined 74 Continuous Training 74

Training of Maintenance Workers 74 MulticraWMultiskilled, Multi-Disciplined 78 Knowledge Factors 80

Skills 85

Job Titles and Descriptions 88 Credentialing 91

Certification 94

v

Table of Contents

Chapter 5 Maintenance Management and Engineering 97 Overview 97

The Need for Maintenance Management 98 Maintenance Philosophy 98

Maintenance Management Organization 99

Basic Requirements for a Maintenance Department 100 Planning and Scheduling 102

Work Order System 102

MTTF, MTTR, and Availability 104 Training Maintenance Workers 107 Preparing Functional Specifications 109

Computerized Maintenance Management Systems 110 Office/Shop Layout 115

Centralized/Decentralized Shops 118

Chapter 6 Pressure and F~ow Instruments 121 Overview 121

Pressure Transmitters 121 Differential Pressure Technology 132 Level Transmitters 138

Flow Transmitters 143

Magnetic Flowmeters 146

Mass Flowmeters 151

Turbine Flowmeters 156

Open Channel Flowmeters 158 Vortex Shedding Flowmeter 161 Vortex Shedding Meters 161

Positive Displacement Flowmeters 162 Positive Displacement Meters 164 Target Flowmeters 164

Thermal Mass Flowmeters 166 Ultrasonic Flowmeters 167

Variable Area Flowmeters 168 Insertion (Sampling) Flowmeters 170

Chapter 7 Maintenance Engineering 171 Overview 171

Engineering Assistance 173

Maintenance Involvement in New Projects 174 Successful Maintenance 177

The High Maintenance System 178 Documentation Control 179

Alternative Methods of Maintenance 180 Service/Contract Maintenance 180

In-House Maintenance versus Contract Maintenance 181 New Systems Installations and Checkout 184

Preventive Maintenance 185

Power, Grounding, and Isolation Requirements 186 Instrument Air Requirements 196

Communication Requirements 197

Heating, Ventilating, Cooling, and Air Conditioning Systems 198

vi

Table of Contents

Chapter 8 Temperature Devices 201 Overview 201 Thermocouples 206

Resistance Temperature Devices 213· Thermistors 217

Integrated Circuit Temperature Transducer 218 Infrared Temperature Transducers 218

Optical Fiber Thermometry 220

Thermometers 220

Chapter 9 Panel and Transmitting Instruments 233 Overview 233

Panel and Behind-Panel Instruments 233 Panel Meters 241

Discrete Switches 241

Potentiometers 242

Recorders 242

Transducers 242

Smart Transmitters 244

Chapter 10 Analytical Instruments 259 Overview 259

Field Analytical Instrument Systems 259

. Field Analytical Instruments 260 Organization 262

Personnel 262

Maintenance Approaches 263 Service Factor 263 Maintenance Work Load 264 Spare Parts 265 VendorSupport 265 Application Unique Issues 265 Installation Issues 266

Chapter 11 Primary Elements and Final Control Devices 267 Overview 267

Temperature 267

Primary Elements 273

Primary Element Location 276

Control Valves 277

Troubleshooting Guide 283

Chapter 12 Pneumatic Instruments 287 Overview 287

Instrument Air Requirements 287 Pneumatic Field Instruments 288

vii

Table of Contents

Chapter 13 Calibration 299 Overview 299

Field Calibration 300

Calibrating in Hazardous Locations 313 In-Shop Calibration 324

Other Aspects of Calibration 328

Chapter 14 Tuning 337 Overview 337

Loop Classification by Control Function 337 Control Algorithms 339

Loop Tuning 347

Flow Loops 351

Chapter 15 Distributed Control Systems 353 Overview 353

Distributed Control System Maintenance 3-53 Maintenance Goals and Objectives 353 Programmable Logic Controllers 368

Chapter 16 . Software and Network Maintenance 373 Overview 373

Computer Operating Environment 374 21st Century Maintenance Technology 383

Chapter 17 Safety 389

Overview 389

Electrical Hazards 390 Hazardous Areas 392 Contamination 398 Pressures and Vacuums 399 High Voltage 400

Moving and Rotating Machinery 401 High and Low Temperatures 401

Gases and Chemicals 402

Heights and Confined Spaces 403 Program Changes, Software Control 404 Process Considerations 406 Communication 406

Cryogenic Considerations 406

. Nuclear Plants 409 Ergonomics 412 Acknowledgment 413

Standards and Recommended Practices 413

Chapter 18 Fiber Optics 417 Overview 417 Construction 418 Classification 418 Sensing Modes 418 Advantages 419

viii

.................................................................................................................................................................................................. - _ ..

Table of Contents

Disadvantages 419 Applications 420

Analog Input/Output Modules 423 Sensors 423

Appendix A Glossary of Terms 427 Appendix B Bibliography 441

Index 447

ix

About the Editor and

Contributors

Lawrence (Larry) D. Goettsche, Editor onSA'sfirst (1995) Maintenance of Instruments & Systems, part ofISA's Practical Guides Series, has added considerable new information - and significantly updated other material in the 1995 publication - for this 2nd Edition.

Jim Tatera, owner of Tatera Associates, a process analytical systems consulting firm in Madison, Ind., authored Chapter 10, Maintaining Analytical Instruments. Mr. Tatera is a past director of ISA's Analysis Division; past chair of SP76, and technical advisor for IEC SC65D of the U.S. National Committee.

Diana Churchill Bouchard, a Scientist at the Pulp and Paper Research Institute of Canada who has lectured at McGill, Concordia University and Universite du Quebec a Trois-Rivieres, contributed to Chapter 16, Software and Network Maintenance. Robert Hasselbaum, former Director, Services Marketing for Invensys Process Systems, Foxboro, Mass., contributed to the same chapter.

Mr. Goettsche has more than fifty years experience in instrumentation, measurement and automatic controls. Holder of a BS degree from New Hampshire College, he is owner of LG Process Automaton Services. During his career, he has been employed in the following capacities: Electrical and Control Designer for Kennecott Copper Environmental Engineering Projects Group, Electrical & Instrumentation Engineering at Roberts and Schaefer Company, Senior Systems Service Specialist at Johnson Yokogawa Corporation, Maintenance Engineer at Hercules Aerospace, Field Service Engineer at Leeds and Northrup Company, and Training Device Chief Petty Officer in the U.S. Navy.

Mr. Goettsche has authored and presented several articles on instrumentation, control system maintenance, fiber optics, and finding employment in the I&C field. He was the subject matter expert for the ISA Involve Interactive Training Program on Interpreting Process Control Diagrams. He is also a member of several ISA Standards Committees, including SP12.6, SP12.21, and SP5.1. Mr. Goettsche also was Editor of The Maintainer, newsletter for the ISA Maintenance Division, and The Intermountain Transmitter, the newsletter for the ISA Great Salt Lake Section. In Addition. he has held many positions and has been a member of the Executive Committee of the Great Salt Lake Section of ISA.

For the first (1995) Maintenance of Instruments & Systems, Mr. Goettsche was the sole author of the introductory chapter and chapters covering Fundamental Principals and Instrumentation and Control System Maintenance Personnel.

xi

About the Editor and Contributors

For this (2004) updated version, Mr. Goettsche also used much material authored by others for the 1995 book. Therefore, they also deserve credit.

Besides Mr. Goettsche, contributors to the 1995 Maintenance of Instruments & Systems included:

Lowell E. McCaw, president of ISA in 2004 who also served as one of Mr.

Goettsche's technical reviewers for this book. For the 1995 book, Mr. McCawwhose distinguished career includes considerable U.S. military service, professor emeritus at Monroe Community College and industrial instrument training consultant for Eastman Kodak - co-authored chapters on Maintenance Management

. and Tuning Details.

Dale E. Polmateer, a DuPont veteran and consultant/educator specializing in maintenance, instrumentation and controls, co-authored the chapter on Maintenance Management.

William Mostia, Jr., a longtime petrochemical industry engineer for Amoco.

Previously, Dow Chemical and Texas Eastman, co-authored chapters on Maintenance Engineering and Configuration and Programming.

Keith D. Otto, co-founder and president of Otto Engineering Inc. of Neenah, Wis., and a pulp and paper industry veteran, co-authored the chapter on Maintenance Engineering.

Robert (Bob) E. Sherman, president of pulp and paper maintenance consulting firm USAFEMATIC Inc. who also served on Technical Advisory Boards of Dupont, Applied Automation Inc., and Precision Scientific Inc., co-authored chapters on Service/Contract Maintenance and Maintenance and Troubleshooting.

H. Pierce Rumph, an experienced electronics, instrumentation, process automation, and process optimization engineer, co-authored a chapter on Configuration and Programming.

Robert J. Rosenberg, then senior representative sales manager for Transmation Inc. with degrees in electrical engineering and business administration, co-authored a chapter on Calibration.

Robert Zielske, longtime chief instrument engineer for Georgia-Pacific Corp., Central Engineering, who also has held numerous ISA leadership positions, co-authored chapters on Calibration and Maintenance and Troubleshooting.

John Shaw, engineering consultant and owner of Process Control Solutions in Rochester, NY, whose more than 30-year career including working for Duke Power and Taylor Instrument Co., co-authored a chapter on Tuning Details.

Sheriff Ahmed, a Rosemount Inc. veteran who served as that company's Business Development Manager for China and held other business development, application support, and market development positions, co-authored. a chapter on Safety.

xii

1

Introduction

Overview

The Maintenance volume is key to the Practical Guides Series and certainly a key to the profitability of companies through ensuring that the control system is maintained so the plant can produce its products. This volume includes some history and speculates about future advances of instrumentation and control (I&C) system maintenance; it also covers some of the fundamental principles, vocabulary, symbolism, standards, and safety. It suggests the necessary basic knowledge required of I&C technicians and the interaction of maintenance in the retrofitting and start-up of control systems.

History of Instrumentation and Control Maintenance

From pneumatic instrumentation to computer-controlled systems - what a change! Is a seasoned instrument mechanic expected to troubleshoot a state-ofthe-art computer-controlled system? Should a new instrument technician be expected to maintain pneumatic instrumentation? This volume documents experiences in the older types of systems as well as in the newer, state-of-the-art systems.

19305

Distributed control is not new. In 1938, when Chemical Processing published its first issue, mechanisms for control were indeed distributed throughout the plant. Process control consisted of operator adjustments to hand valves that were .. based on direct readings of local gages. Control room instrumentation has taken some dramatic turns along the way - from large-scale pneumatic recorders to miniature analog electronic controllers to microprocessor-based digital systems.

Chemical and petroleum plants were among the first to use control systems for their processes. Pneumatic instrumentation became the leader in automatic control because of its safety. Pipe fitters were asked to perform maintenance on these early pneumatic instruments. In many cases, outmoded control room hardware is still operating effectively today - a tribute to the worldwide manufacturers of process control instrumentation.

In the late 1930s and early 1940s, operators relied on local instrument gages to monitor production processes. Control panels that did exist were located in the field near process sensing points. Typically, only a handful of indicators, recorders, and controllers were mounted on a local panel. Often, the process fluids were piped directly into control panels.

Where fill fluids were needed, mercury was commonly used. Control panels served as a convenient means for improving control coordination by allowing operators to adjust valves in response to visual instrument readings.

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Introduction

19405

In the 1940s the use of pneumatic proportional controllers was increasing, so the early pipe fitters had to understand more of the theory of process and control. New words such as integral, derivative, sensors, and final control elements were added to their vocabularies.

By the late 1940s, a trend toward the concentration of controls in centralized locations had begun.

19505

In the 1950s, operating unit control rooms were built to centralize operations and to accommodate operators assigned to monitor control boards on a full-time basis. With the growing number and complexity of the indicators, recorders, and controllers and the ''need'' to operate the plant remotely from these panels, the instrument mechanic was specialized to maintain the pneumatic control systems.

By the mid 1950s, electronic analog instrwnentation had been formally introduced but did not win industry acceptance until the late 1950s and early 1960s. With the exception of chemical and petroleum plants, most new plants used electronic analog instrumentation because of the greater cost of tubing work between pneumatic transmitters and controllers and the expensive pneumatic auxiliaries, such as air compressors, filters, and dryers.

Increasing plant complexity necessitated increasing amounts of accurate, up-todate operating information.

Now the instrument mechanic needed to know electronics and electricity in addition to pneumatics. Larger plants formed Electrical and Instrument (E&I), Instrument and Electronic (I&E), or Electrical and Control (E&C) groups; some formed an Instrument and Control (I&C) Group and had both instrument mechanics and instrument technicians. The knowledge required by I&C mechanics and technicians meant training was necessary, so vendors provided training on the equipment they sold.

19605

Digital computers began to appear in control rooms in the 1960s. The computer's initial role was essentially that of a data logging device from which paper printouts could be obtained. However, the concept of direct digital control (ODC) gained notoriety in the 1960s.

19705

By the mid 1970s, the drawbacks to DDC had become apparent. The central computer approach depended on the availability of a single large computer. Highly trained computer personnel were needed to maintain the computer hardware and to deal with the high-level software languages.

Single-loop analog control continued to flourish during the early 1970s.

Thousands of electronic signal wires crisscrossed central control rooms, adding complexity to the pursuit of improved coordination. Recognizing multiple functions inherent in panel instruments, split architecture systems were introduced. Analog display stations were segregated from rack-mounted printed circuit cards in the quest for functional modularity .

. I&C groups flourished, everyone was retrofitting and updating plants, and new plants provided more and more instrumentation requirements. Instrumentation vendors were training the instrument mechanics and electricians to maintain their equipment.

2

History of Instrumentation and Control Maintenance

Standards for instrumentation were being developed, and manufacturers started listening to ISA when developing their new instruments.

A marriage between single-loop electronic analog control and pneumatic control developed because of the need for powerful control valve actuators.

. The simplicity and accuracy of electronic controllers, recorders, and indicators made them the choice for instrument panels.

Current-to-pneumatic converters and pneumatic-to-current converters linked electronic instruments to pneumatic instruments and sensors and actuators. Chemical plants used pneumatic instruments in the hazardous areas along with signal wires to transmit the signals to central control rooms in safe areas.

Most plants built after the mid 1970s used electronic rather than pneumatic instrumentation. Pneumatic valves, however, are still used almost exclusively for throttling control and even on-off controL About the same time in this period Honeywell® and Yokogawa® introduced the first distributed digital control systems (DDCS), now called the distributed control system (DCS). Multiple minicomputers, geographically and functionally distributed, performed monitoring and control tasks that had been previously handled by the central DDC computer. Each microprocessor-based controller was shared by up to eight control loops. Serial bit communication over coaxial cable linked individual system devices.

As these distributed control systems became the standard for newer chemical and petroleum plants and the older single-loop pneumatic and electronic controllers were replaced, the I&C groups were trained on the new DCS. This was the first introduction of computers to the I&C technicians, and DCS manufacturers designed their systems to be configured and maintained by I&C groups - not highly trained computer personnel. As a technological breakthrough, the microprocessor accelerated advances in control system design. At the operator interface level, distributed control contributed to an unforeseen development. For the first time, CRT display consoles gained acceptance as the primary operator interface, and conventional single-loop analog stations were reduced to an emergency backup role at many early distributed control system installation sites. Long, floor-to-ceiling panelboards were replaced with low-profile CRT workstation consoles. Keyboards, CRTs and printers served as modem tools for seated control room operators.

By the end of the 1970s, control system innovations had advanced beyond industry's capacity to keep pace. Most plant sites contained an assortment of control technologies that spanned three decades. Instrwnentation and control specialists (mechanics, technicians, and engineers) were commonplace in industry. Special I&C groups were established, as shown in the organizational chart of Figure 1-1.

3

1980s

DCS operator interfaces were refined in the 1980s (see Figure 1~2). Intelligent CRT stations utilized multiple-display formats to condense and organize extensive operating information. Hierarchical arrangements of plant-, area-igroup-, and loop-level displays simplified on-screen database presentation. Real-time color graphics added further comprehensive overviews of unit operations.

Most microprocessor-based control systems had a vast array of alarms and diagnostics to help operators and maintenance personnel determine if there were any problems. Distributed control systems had many on-line and off-line diagnostics, including process and input alarms, reportable events, error messages, and hardware and software failure reporting.

Introduction

XYZCOMPANY

OPERATIONS MANAGER

STORES

ELECTRICAL

OPERATORS

FACILITY ENGINEERING

MECHANICAL

PROCESS ENGINEERING

Figure 1·1. Typical 1970s I & C Group Organization Chart.

19908

Trends for the 1990s were computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM) and management information systems (MIS). These interlaced the real-time devices (field devices at the machinery/process level) through distributed controllers to multiple-station coordination, then on to scheduling, production, and management information to the plant level for overall planning, execution, and control. Further development of artificial intelligence and expert systems gave advanced control new meaning.

With the introduction of computers and databases, maintenance management systems (MMS) helped maintenance and management personnel determine repair frequency and spare parts availability and made decisions on when to replace obsolete equipment.

Distributed control systems (DCS), programmable logic controllers (PLC), computer control systems (CCS), supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) and smart field devices were the norm. A digital signal was superimposed on the 4-20 rnA signal for ranging and calibrating field devices. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model and interconnection of devices made by different manufactures has opened systems architecture, replacing proprietary communications among devices.

2000s

Historically, factory tloor maintenance methods and practices have been developed across a wide range of vertical industries. where the focus was to keep the assembly lines and processes running rather than preserving assets. Today, manufacturers are focused on the long-term benefits of factory floor support practices

4

History of Instrumentation and Control Maintenance

Figure 1-2. Multiple-Display Distributed Control System.

that incorporate methods and procedures which ensure production lines are operational and preserve capital assets.

Skids and modular systems became the norm in the design of new plants. New gas electrical generating plants have been built from start to operational within a two year period. These plants are designed to be operated with a skeleton crew of 25 to 30 personnel, including operators, maintenance crew, and supervisors.

A crew of three operate and maintain in 12 hour shifts. Major overhaul periods are contracted to the system manufacturer, and contract maintenance is responsible for calibration. Knowledge of the complete plant, including operations and systems, are learned by all crews and supervision. Each crew member specializes in two or three systems.

A newer gas fired electrical generating plant organization chart is shown in Figure 1-3 which differentiates between maintenance and production. Because modem automation systems are installed, three units can be maintained and operated with 30 employees. Old coal-fired plants needed up to 200 people to operate them.

With the concept of skeleton crews to operate the plant, contractor type maintenance programs are becoming the norm. Many of the instrumentation tasks are completed by contract personnel. Work in the plant is becoming multi-disciplined.

5

I ntrod uction

PLANT MANAGER

I

I

PRODUCTION MANAGER

ENVIRONMENTAL ANDHEALm (CHEMIST)

PLANT ENGINEER

MAINTENANCE MANAGER

SHIFT SUPERVISORS

WELDER ELECTRICIAN I&C MACHINIST (M-F 8 hrs)

WATERILAB TECH.

AUX. OPERATOR (Outside) CONTROL OPERATOR 12hrshift Rotating ·Z4n

Figure 1-3. Typical Gas Fired Electrical Generating Plant Organization Chart.

Need for Instrumentation and Control Maintenance and Engineering

"Maintenance of instrumentation and process control systems from simple gages to complex distributed control systems is essential for the continuation of our industry." Statements such as this have been repeated thousands of times by company presidents, manufacturing directors, and production superintendents.

Maintenance personnel should be involved with new installations and upgrading older installations. They should ensure that the system is ergonomically easy to repair and well documented. Training should be done before a new system arrives so the maintenance department can help in installing and checking it out.

Equipment manufacturers provide engineering and start-up assistance. So the majority of the new opportunities to work in the I&C field is through original equipment manufacturers or service contract employees.

Because of the equipment's complexity, assistance is needed from the original equipment manufacturer. Configuration of control systems and instruments should be done by those very familiar with the system requirements and system! instrument capabilities.

Instrumentation tells us the process parameters in which we are operating. A simple gage tells the temperature or pressure; the more complex instrumentation

6

Need for Instrumentation and Control Maintenance and Engineering

tells much more about the process. Proper operation of all equipment is required to make a quality product and to do it safely.

The technological advances of the past few years and the trends for more technical and specialized equipment require better trained and educated maintenance personnel. The types of equipment in control systems cover many disciplines: mechanical, electrical, electronic, computer science, chemical, and environmental, among others.

The instrumentation and control field is more than electronics - it is a systems experience. It is necessary to know the physics of heat, light, noise, and mechanical advantage, as well as to have mechanical dexterity and aptitude, logical

thought, computer literacy, process knowledge, and the ability to work with others in different disciplines.

Because of the many different knowledge factors, the individual crafts (electrician, mechanic, pipe fitter, etc.) have to work together, and finger pointing will sometimes occur. Electrical engineers, mechanical engineers, chemical engineers, and process engineers must understand each other and determine where their responsibilities start and stop.

The field has grown with the application of computers, artificial intelligence, self-tuning, computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM), and so on. Larger companies train pipe fitters to be instrument mechanics in pneumatic plants and electricians to be instrument technicians in electronic plants. Knowledge of the process is needed to design new systems; therefore, all engineering disciplines get involved with the instrumentation and control system. Those who were fortunate to get involved in early instrumentation and control systems have become the I&C

maintenance personnel and the control systems engineers of today. .

The complexity of control loops and systems requires specialists. The systems concept requires more varied knowledge and the overall concept of control rather than component troubleshooting and replacement.

When the control system doesn't work, the plant doesn't produce. The control system design can determine the profitability of a company. If it is maintainable and the mechanics, technicians, and engineers are trained, the production output of the plant will be high.

Corrective, preventive, and operational maintenance must be perf ormed by qualified and experienced I&C maintenance personnel.

Because of the complexity of existing control systems that utilize many fields of expertise, several maintenance backgrounds are also required. This group is now required to maintain, troubleshoot, and calibrate pneumatic, electrical, electronic, and computerized instruments and systems. The systems approach, which looks at the whole picture to gain an understanding of the process, is the special attribute of I&C maintenance personnel.

When assistance is needed, I&C personnel must have someone to go to for help. In the past, maintenance supervisors had a broad knowledge of most of the equipment and could make decisions on how to repair, when to repair, and so on. A few years ago, many supervisors were instrument mechanics, but contemporary maintenance supervisors are managers who know very little about the operation and maintenance of the wide variety of instruments and control systems used today, since most have never been instrument mechanics or technicians. In fact, many of them know very little about pneumatics, electronics, or computers. Today, knowledge of the process, knowledge of the overall system, and knowledge of the expertise of their employees is far more important than knowledge of how to repair an individual instrument.

Who should the maintenance supervisors and managers go to for expert advice on the control system? Instrumentation and control system engineers or maintenance engineers with an I&C background. Instnimentation and control system engineers assist the mechanics and technicians and keep the supervisors and

7

Introduction

Don't neglect the knowledge and experience gained in the past.

managers informed. They need to be a part of the design and start-up of the control systems.

Much money is being spent for training, fault tolerant systems, redundancy, and new techniques. One simple but essential area that may be neglected is the experience of the past and what that may teach about the present.

We learn from our past experiences. Being involved in the problems we encountered and the solutions that were found yesterday helps us make better decisions today. The learning technology that produces greater retention levels uses the most senses, such as hearing, seeing, and feeling. The applications of older systems should be used as the basis for designing newer and generally faster control systems. New problems are encountered in newer systems, but past application experience will help solve the new problems.

Good maintenance saves money. With the equipment working properly, the process quality and production will be high. When equipment fails, production normally stops, artd·hiartyptoductionperso:nn.elca:nn.ot do their jobs. With good maintenance management, spare parts are available quickly to reduce the mean time to repair (MTTR). When the equipment is repaired properly, the mean time between failures (MTBF) is extended. The proper frequencies of preventive maintenance should provide less down time, and the down time that occurs can be scheduled. We can become pro-active instead of reactive.

8

2

Fundamental Principles

Overview

Maintenance of an instrument or system should ensure that it is operating within its normal operating parameters. Some describe maintenance as "fix what is broken." The preferred definition describes maintenance as activities that are intended to keep equipment in satisfactory working condition, including tests, measurements, replacements, adjustments, and repairs. This can involve preventive, predictive, and curative measures and requires technical knowledge of the system and a know ledge of past, present, and future states of the system as well as the skills to apply the knowledge. Some of this knowledge is very specific, while other knowledge is more generic but can be used to logically deduce more specific knowledge. The key is the acquisition, distribution, and utilization of the necessary know ledge and skills. Due to the many different types of instruments and systems available, basic technical knowledge and skills as well as specific knowledge and skills are necessary to maintain them. This chapter addresses some of this knowledge and skills.

Electronic Field Instrumentation

Electric transmission systems for in-plant use were developed as early as the mid-1930s. The two-wire, 4-20 rnA current signal has since become the industry standard for in-plant transmission. The two-wire loop provides power for the transmitter circuitry, and current/feedback circuits within the transmitter force the current output on the loop to be proportional to the variable being measured. The operation, installation, calibration, and maintenance of a series of electronic field instruments-pressure, level, flow, temperature, and current-to-pressure converters will be covered.

Installation

Proper installation will ensure the instrument will meet the manufacturers specification. Always position the instrument in accordance with manufacturers specifications. Most liquid flowmeters must be placed where the pipe is full and not near any turbulent flow. Selecting a good ergonomic location of the instrument will make maintenance and troubleshooting easier.

Temperature specifications must be adhered to. Locating instruments in hazardous classified locations must be done in accordance with the National Electric Code.

9

Fundamental Principles

Information and its effective use are the keys to a good maintenance program. He who is not enlightened often blunders in the dark.

Maintenance

Maintenance is any activity intended to keep equipment in satisfactory working condition, including test, measure, replace, adjusting and repair. Routine operations require keeping equipment functional.

Corrective maintenance includes locating causes of faulty performance, replacing defective components, adjusting service controls, or the like. It is a repair activity that is not normal to operating the equipment.

Preventive maintenance is intended to prevent faults from occurring during subsequent operation. Equipment maintenance is scheduled prior to failure, based on an estimate of the life of the equipment.

Predictive maintenance is a preventive maintenance program that anticipates failures that can be corrected before total failure. A variation from normal can indicate a system or equipment is approaching nonconformance. Vibration from normal can indicate a system or equipment is approaching nonconformance. Vibration, eccentricity, and noise monitoring are measurements that can predict failure. Also, an increase in diagnostic errors and retries can indicate a failure about to happen. Maintenance is performed when the need is indicated, based on regular

. or continuous monitoring of the equipment.

Unscheduled maintenance or non-scheduled maintenance must be done immediately when an emergency affects the productivity of the plant This is maintenance to "fix what is broken" or provide a work-around so the operation that was started can be finished. Unscheduled maintenance is an urgent need for repair or upkeep that was unpredicted or not previously planned and must be added to or substituted for previously planned work.

Scheduled maintenance is planned. It includes preventive, predictive, corrective, modification, upgrading or retrofitting and calibration.

Why Maintain?

For most maintenance personnel the strongest motivation and the greatest satisfaction in their work arises from the job itself.

If one were in sales, keeping the customers satisfied would be an ever-present concern. However, most maintenance crews don't create a product or deal directly with customers, and they might feel that there is little reason to be taught good public relations. But maintenance does have customers to serve: the people within one's company.

In most manufacturing facilities, maintenance personnel rarely, if ever, come into direct contact with the company's customers. All employees, including management, are the maintenance department's customers, and they should be treated

. as such. It is important to maintain good customer relations no matter who the "customers" might be. The men and women in charge of different departments are, in effect, customers of maintenance. They must be pleased, and the work must be scheduled to be done largely at their convenience. Similarly, all the other employees in the building or plant are customers of maintenance; they are the "bosses." If one doesn't please these bosses, one may not have a job for long. Treat all "customers" with the respect and courtesy they deserve.

The function of maintenance is to keep equipment in a safe operating condition. It also must ensure that all instrumentation works when it is required to work. Emergency shutdown systems should be checked regularly as they must work every

time. Improper maintenance could cause harm to personnel and the environment.

Safety standards seek to minimize the frequency and consequences of accidents related to toxic, flammable, or explosive chemicals in the U.S. processing industries. Procedures established for safety management are designed to protect

Why Maintain?

employees of process plants by preventing or minimizing the consequences of chemical accidents that involve highly hazardous materials. Detailed written safety information must be compiled so that the employer and employees who operate the process can identify and understand the hazards associated with the process. This information must be communicated to all employees involved with the process. Safety information must include information on the hazards of the particular materials used in the process and detailed information on the process technologies and equipment used in the process.

Emergency shutdown systems must be understood, checked regularly, and work when required. The documentation must accurately represent the actual installation. Maintenance personnel must understand the control philosophy and must follow the specific maintenance procedures that are necessary to maintain equipment and system integrity.

An investigation of the various types of maintenance will emphasize its importance.

Corrective Maintenance

When a device, equipment, or a system fails to conform to the manufacturer's specification and the operation fails to meet its intended function, maintenance is required. All items must be repaired or restored to a serviceable condition following a failure or malfunction.

Corrective maintenance is an activity that is not normal in the operation of equipment and is expected to be performed by qualified personnel who are aware of the hazards involved. Such activities typically include locating causes of faulty performance, replacement of defective components, adjustment of service controls, or the like.

Maintenance personnel should have sufficient documentation to understand and repair the problem. After logical troubleshooting procedures have determined the faulty component, repair can be completed. Remember to check the operation and calibration after repair and document the repair activities and parts used.

Another name for corrective maintenance is remedial maintenance, which is defmed as the maintenance performed following equipment failure, as required, on an unscheduled basis. Nonscheduled, unscheduled, or emergency maintenance is an urgent need for repair or upkeep that was unpredicted or not previously planned and must be added to or substituted for previously planned work - maintenance specifically intended to eliminate an existing fault.

Corrective maintenance is generally considered nonscheduled, unscheduled, or emergency maintenance if it affects the productivity of the plant. Normally, an emergency maintenance work order (see Figure 2-1) is written to document the parts and labor hours used and to be added to the history file. Corrective maintenance can be scheduled maintenance when the device or system does not affect the productivity of the plant.

Work-around should not be considered corrective maintenance, but it can eliminate emergency maintenance requirements. A work-around is action required to complete the process run, even though all equipment is not working satisfactorily. Part of the process may have to be run on manual.

11

Fundamental Principles

Enclosure 2 MAINTENANCE WORK ORDER
Corrective Preventive Operational Priority MWO# -
Submitted by: I Department: ., Phone Number: I Date:
For more information contact Phone No.
Problem toe: Bt2g 1# Room # Unit S~tem Loo[!#
Problem Descrip;tion: .





Planner Assigned: Phone No. QateAssigned:
Tech/s Assigned: Shop/Phone Date Assigned:




Corrective Action:









Instrument Data/Parts Required:
Manufacturer Model serial Num ber Part Number




Calibration Roo; Yes No J calibrated By: Cal Rec#
Completed By: Date: QKd By:

Data Entry: Bv; Date:
Figure 2·1. Typical Maintenance Work Order.

12

Why Maintain?

Establishing a comprehensive maintenance plan is a way of formalizing and codifying the accumulation of all of the procedures and methods that are critical to maintaining the production systems. It represents a way of assessing the accumulated maintenance activities and capturing the best solutions. Every maintenance organization has some procedures and methods that qualify as a best practice. A maintenance plan that encompasses all production equipment and systems across all company plants and factories not only addresses the preservation of current assets, but provides a framework to organize best practice solutions and add others as they are recognized and validated.

Lowering the cost of business is a primary focus in manufacturing. Optimal production processes, lean factory operations, curtailed capital expenditures, and preservation of assets are manifestations of austere cost measures; Cost reductions have affected maintenance organizations with headcount reductions and scaled back training budgets. At the same time, maintenance staffs are under increasing pressure to keep equipment and automation systems up and running efficiently with a minimum amount of unscheduled downtime. Maintenance resources include people as well as specialized diagnostic equipment, software applications, communications, transportation, manuals, documentation, and access to supplier supported equipment.

Corrective emergency maintenance could generate a scheduled maintenance activity - for example, replacement of a whole unit or device to get the line or system working, followed by repair of the failed unit or device at a scheduled time. Care must be taken to ensure that the failed unit or device is either replaced or repaired for use at a later time. Some maintenance shops do not have a good program to ensure that boards and equipment taken out of service are either repaired and checked out immediately or discarded and replaced.

Corrective maintenance includes logical troubleshooting, which is a search for the cause of a malfunction or erroneous behavior, in order to remove the malfunction. Knowledge and experience are necessary to find the root problem. Qualified instrument technicians and instrument mechanics use logical troubleshooting concepts to ensure that the unit, device, or subassembly needs to be replaced and that thereplacement corrects the problem.

Board or equipment swapping until the unit responds correctly is not considered acceptable troubleshooting practice.

Maintenance is not complete until the system has been repaired, reworked, or replaced and calibrated, tested, and, of course, logged into the equipment history files, as explained by the following paragraphs.

REPAIR

The word "repair" in a maintenance sense means to restore an item to serviceable condition following a failure or malfunction.

REWORK

Restoring an item to a condition that exactly conforms to original design specifications is called rework. This word is usually applied to corrective action taken when an item has failed an inspection but requires a relatively simple operation, such as replacing a part or component, to enable the item to pass an identical inspection. ".

REPLACEMENT

When an item fails or malfunctions, a decision must be made to repair or to replace it. If it is to be repaired, the proper maintenance work order and schedule must be submitted. If it is to be replaced, the proper material requisition must be

13

Fundamental Principles

submitted, and the malfunctioning item must be discarded if it cannot be repaired. The component or spare part may be replaced by a design equivalent replacement that is at least equivalent in performance to the item being replaced. It must also meet the requirements of form, function, and fit.

CALIBRATION

To ascertain outputs of a device that correspond to a series of values of the quantity that the device is to measure, receive, or transmit is called calibration. The output must be adjusted to bring it to the desired value within a specified tolerance, and the error must be ascertained by comparing the device output reading to a standard.

TESTING

. Testing consists of checking out a system to determine the attributes or per-

, "fbrmance characteristics, The.operators should verify that the malfunction has

been removed and that no additionai malfunctionsexist, .... .

RECORDING

The corrective action, parts used, and hours spent in repair must be recorded on the maintenance work order (see Figure 2-1).

INPUT

This information must be input into the maintenance management system (MMS) files. The service life of the equipment can be determined by the history files of the equipment in the MMS.

Service life is the length of time a mechanism or piece of equipment can be used before it becomes either unreliable or economically impractical to maintain in good working order.

Preventive Maintenance

Preventive maintenance (PM) consists of scheduled inspection and upkeep that is specifically intended to prevent faults from occurring during subsequent operation. Inept PM, however, can also cause problems.

Whell l'l'er (IllY equipment is touched, it is exposed to potential damage. It is economically unwise to replace components prematurely. A good preventive main{CIJ((IlCe program is {he heart of effective maintenance, and inspection is the key to

detecting th« needfor it .'

A PM program requires an initial investment of time, parts, people, and money. Payoff comes months later. While there is little question that a good PM

. program will have a high return on investment, many people are reluctant to pay now if the return is not immediate, and some customers may perceive the PM ac'ti'VltyorilYas, "Thill machine is broken again;" PM supports a commitment of long-term life-cycle cost/total cost of ownership.

Most preventive maintenance is scheduled; that is, maintenance is carried out in accordance with an established plan. Scheduled maintenance or preventive maintenance may be scheduled by hours, uses, sequences, or the calendar. The usc of performance intervals is itself a step toward basing PM on actual need instead of on a generality.

Inspection is a key to detecting the need for PM. It should be nondestructive so that it will not harm the equipment. The two main elements of fixed-interval PM arc procedure and discipline. Procedure means that the correct tasks are done, the right lubricants are applied, and consumables are replaced at the best interval. Discipline requires that all the tasks be planned and controlled so that everything is done when it should be done.

14

Why Maintain? .

Most organizations can establishaPM program based on the fact that certain equipment or systems can be taken out of operation for the time required to give them a good checkup. Sometimes this is not practical. Seasonal equipment, such as air conditioners and heaters: requires special maintenance care at the end of each season in order to clean and refurbish them when they are not being used so

i . . they will be ready for the next season. Failure patterns that have. been developed

showthatequipment may fail within the first few weeks (infant mortality) and then will probably operate for quite some time before wearing out. Electronic components (once burned in) will last indefinitely until Some outside force causes failure. A major cause of failures lies in the education and human reliabilityproblems of the operators. and maintenance personnel. Failures are frequently caused by persons whopushbuttonsand turn oil equipment before they read instructions.

PM records help determine the service.life of equipment. Condition monitoring and prediction provide information on when problems ate building to the failure point. If the scheduled interval indicates that the interval should be decreased, or if a failure occurs before the scheduled maintenance or preventive maintenance is performed, the maintenance supervisors and maintenance engineers should investigate. The investigation should determine a plan to ensure that the equipment will continue to operate until theequipmentis replaced or retrofitted. Lead times of up to two years are frequently required to upgrade or retrofit a system. This information should be passed on to management personnel. If a malfunction is found during PM, plant policy will determine if corrective action should be accomplished as. corrective maintenance or as a repair utilizing the Preventive Main-

tenance Wotk Order (PMWO). .

Predictive Maintenance

Predictive maintenance is a preventive . type of maintenance program that anticipates failures that can be corrected before total failure, Predictive maintenance

can also determine that a failure is about to occur. .

For example, vibration analysis determines the normal vibration that is acceptable; when the vibration starts to exceed this point, maintenance canbe scheduled when the equipment is not being used in order to prevent a complete failure during operation. Noise, oil samples, additional heat, intermittent diagnostic errors, data highway retries, and unexplained glitches are other examples of warning signs for predictive maintenance. Most of the above can be measured, recorded, and annunciated.

Unscheduled Maintenance

Unscheduled or nonscheduled maintenance must be done immediately when an emergency affects the productivity of the plant. This. is inaintenance to "fix what is broken" or provide a work-around sothatthe operation that was started.' can be finished .

. Unscheduled maintenance generally has to be acted upon quickly. Production pressures to hurry and correct the problem should not cause themaintenance personnel to shortcut safety procedures. Remember, maintenance is not complete until the system has beenrepaired; reworked, or replacedand calibrated, tested, and; of . course, logged into the equipment history files.

Remedial Maintenance

Remedial maintenance (performed following an equipment failure) is gener.allyunscheduled. Sometimesthe item is repaired and restored to a serviceable condition, but not exactly to original design specifications, so that the operation can be completed.

15

Fundamental Principles

Scheduled Maintenance

Scheduled maintenance is planned. It includes the following:

(1) Preventive maintenance, which is specifically intended to prevent faults. from occurring during subsequent operation.

(2) Predictive maintenance, which uses special measurements to indicate equipment or a device is beginning to go out of specified limits and if not corrected may fail completely.

(3) Corrective maintenance, which can be scheduled when equipment is not being used.

(4) Modification, which incorporates design changes.

(5) Upgrading or retrofitting, which incorporates major changes to older systems.

(6) Calibration, which tests to certify measurements and makes adjustments accordingly.

Modifications, upgrading, and retrofitting may not be considered scheduled maintenance, but many of these functions are accomplished by maintenance personnel and are normally scheduled.

Operational Maintenance

Operational maintenance is activity, other than corrective, that is intended to be performed by the operator and is required in order for the equipment to serve its intended purpose. It includes the correcting of "zero" on a panel instrument, changing charts, adding ink, and the like. The level of operational maintenance should be well documented and agreed upon.

Troubleshooting

One of the goals in the establishment of a sound maintenance program was to have "no unscheduled down time." In order to meet this goal, a strong troubleshooting program must be established that gets to the root of a problem quickly and makes corrections that are lasting. Troubleshootingmust be recognized as a critical skill and it must be continually developed and nurtured within the maintenance department.

Troubleshooting is defined as a method for finding a problem and correcting the problem. This even involves revisiting the problem area or equipment well after the problem has been resolved in order to be certain that the problem is going to remain solved. The following are some specific guidelines for the troubleshooter:

(1) The troubleshooter must use a clear and logical approach to finding the problem.

, .. (2) The troubleshooter should work as quickly as possible to resolve the , problem .

. (3) The troubleshooter must work economically.

Logical analysis leads to some logical steps in the troubleshooting process: (1) Verification

(2) Identification

(3) Repair

16

Why Maintain?·

... n,.,.HUU, is the first step. It is necessary to be very sure that there really is somewhere. ThIs sounds SO obvious, but often a trouble.call comes in there is 1)0 problem at alL Or a trouble call report points to the malfunction 'IJvvU'L'-'. piece ofinstrumentation equipment when the equipment is fine but· s is at fault. A change in performance must be verified and the problem

'out before anything is done.·· . '

After assuring that something is wrong, it is necessary to identify and locate cause of the trouble. This step calls for in-depth knowledge of the plant and familiarity-with the process. Generally, a process of isolation is used to

, . down the' problem, ...'

The next step in the process of troubleshooting is to repair or fix the problem. problem should be corrected as quickly and as effectively as possible.

, Once the problem has been corrected, it is necessary to test that the trouble

, indeed been corrected. A thorough system check is made to be sure that ev~ryis operating as it should. All interested personnel should be asked whether problem has been corrected to their satisfaction.

The last step in the process is to follow up. This step might require some longterm study. Searching questions should be asked. What was the cause of the problem? Faulty engineering? Faulty installation? Operator error? Is some change in the process or equipment needed so that this trouble does not occur again? . Following up also means revisiting the problem at some future dates just to be cer-

tain the problem is really solved. . .

Some other approaches to the troubleshooting process are the following:

(1) Equipmenthistory

. (2) Input/output (serial) (3) Shotgun

, EQUIPMENT HISTORY

Many times a problem is of the type that has occurred before. History repeats' itself. The problem might be recognized from past experiences. Symptoms and similar problems, even with slightly different equipment, might well be recognized. The advantage of using this approach is that familiar problems can be. solved quickly and with minimum down time. The disadvantage may be that the

.. historical record could mislead the troubleshooter and, hence, valuable time could be wasted. Also, history generally does not apply to unfamiliar equipment: what, may work fora previous generation of equipment may not work on the new version.

INPUT/OUTPUT(SERIAL)

This approach traces a signal through a loop or a piece of equipment. To use this approach one starts atone end of a loop and progresses through-the loop from input to output.recording the signals and verifying as the progression goes on. Finally, thesignal problem is located. The advantages of this approach are that ,

.. (1) it works on all systems, and (2) it requires familiarity with the system. A dis, advantage is that the approach can be very slow.

17

'~ .~~' :<·:'c'~_'" , ~<~ ~, I' J '<'.'~~-·>~':~-:~'-~J~~{)~~~~~t~~f!l~~~L~ ~~."~~~ J; ,

I '" '. I :. I ~ ,'~~-/ :;~\,~_;: :::~\~?;tI~r#'i7:-t~tH~:~~~?_),\:t'.~'~~~{~'@i ~'~'".T'i-'" *

- , ? ~.' ,'V \'~1~::-};t'.'~~~??~i,'~~~f~?~~~~lf~~~i1W~~~t ~~

, ,

~'~~",","d I '''''''-''';..(~''''~-,'~'' _ _,. .... ~H,.,_._~ .,_.~ ~~"'" ,_~._ "' ,_ , ,,_~ ,_~~~,,_, ,,",~~"" __ ,.., ,,_, ,~~~~, ""~"." ?~~~'~'''''''-'''~ __ ,_'__~_ .... _"c ._~, ,.~ __ ·P"_'__'_L V'_'_"'_"'~"-H----+"V_~,", ~- ~ -- ,- -

. Fundamental Principles

SHOTGUN APPROACH

This approach may also be called "pot luck" or intuition. There is no real rhyme 01: reason for the actions taken by the troubleshooter. Some mechanics know a process so well they can pinpoint problems almost before they occur. Skill and science are not really a part of the thought process here. However, it can work.

Troubleshooting charts are available for a variety of specific equipment, or they may be created by those who have knowledge of and experience with the equipment or system.

Calibration

Calibration is a test during which known measurement values are applied to a device and corresponding instrument readings are recorded under specified conditions. To ensure that the specifications are met, regular calibration cycles with records and reports are necessary. Most calibrations of instrumentation are performed by instrument technicians, and the maintenance department is responsible. Some organizations, however, have a separate calibration department. Chapter 13 gives details on calibrating instruments.

Since the definition of maintenance is "any activity intended to keep equipment in satisfactory working condition, including tests, measurements, replacements, adjustments, and repairs" and the accuracy of the instrument outputs affects the quality of the fmished product, calibration is considered here as a part of maintenance.

The purpose of a calibration system is to provide for the prevention of tool or instrument inaccuracy through the prompt detection of deficiencies and the timely application of corrective action.

Every organization should prepare a written description of its calibration system. This description should cover the measuring of test equipment and standards, including the following:

(1) Establishment of realistic calibration intervals

16

Maintenance vs. Troubleshooting

(2) Listing of all measurement standards

(3) Establishment of environmental conditions for calibration

(4) Assurance of the use of calibration procedures for all equipment and standards

(5) Coordination of the calibration procedures for all equipment and standards

(6) Assurance that equipment is frequently checked by periodic system or cross-checks in order to detect damage, inoperative instruments, erratic readings, and other performance-degrading factors that cannot be anticipated or provided for by calibration intervals.

(7) Provision for timely and positive corrective action

(8) Establishment of decals, reject tags, and records for calibration labeling (9) Maintenance of formal records to assure proper controls

Mer repairs or replacement of any component in a system, the calibration must be checked. In some instances, calibration that is traceable back to the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) is required.

Good maintenance practices provide the long-term profitability of a company . .. . .Lowering overhead, ensuring equipment is within specifications to provide a ·tfiia1ity product, increasing productivity by lengthening the mean time between

. (MTBF), and shortening the mean time to repair (MTTR) will make any

" ...... 'n<lTi>~1 more competitive in the marketplace. Therefore, time must be scheduled nn'''PnI - maintenance, corrective maintenance (both scheduled and unschedrecord keeping, and training. Parts control is necessary so the equipment is down awaiting parts; thus, inventory must be controlled, as there is a cost of (in dollars and space). Control systems engineers, instrument engineers, atenance engineers, instrument supervisors, foremen, technicians, and memust efficiently perform their functions to assure production stays on

(see Figure 2-2).

"'''''T'''ft'"l<' or plants must be engineered for maintenance from the design specifications and instrument selection, in start-up and checkout, in in setting up preventive maintenance programs, and in selection of

. A few dollars saved on installation might cost many maintenance OUJ.lJ'U<U.l) in down time and upkeep after the project engineer's job is

ance vs. Troubleshooting

been previously stated, maintenance is any activity that is intended to in satisfactory working condition, including tests, measurements, adjustments, and repairs. It could be calibration or cleaning; operave, preventive, remedial, or scheduled maintenance; testing, or

is the process used to find the cause of a malfunction or an behavior in order to repair the malfunction. Troubleshooting 'of measuring voltages, current.", resistance, pressures, temperatures, or it can be running on-line and off-line diagnostics on digital control

Place the instrumentation in easy reach for repair and calibration and provide adequate space to work around the equipment.

19

Fundamental Principles

EMERGENCY WORK ORDERS

20

PRODUCTION

PM BACKLOG

Figure 2-2.Production with Proper Maintenance.

systems. It can be visual checks for burnt or broken components, or it can be checking for blown fuses. After troubleshooting locates the malfunctioning component(s), it can be replaced. Eliminating the source of the trouble may also be considered part of troubleshooting, but it is usually called remedial maintenance or rcparr.

Calibration and Reasons to Calibrate

When one buys gasoline for the car, one expects to get exactly one gallon of gas when paying for one gallon. When one takes a child's temperature, one needs to be assured that the reading is correct. When the remote level indicator on a tank indicates that it is 90% full, can one be sure that the tank is not running over? Can the manufacturer be sure the process control system is providing the proper mix for the product') When a combustible mixture is being heated to just under the flash point, can one be sure that it won't ignite?

~4' Continuing calibration assures that the equipment continually meets the specifica~A tion.l: required at il1s~allation, and it should be .checked :egularly thereafter. C~libration after an» matntenance ensures the equipment still conforms to the required calibration data. Customers require letters of conformance or certificates oj calibration.

Calibration is a test during which known measurement values are applied to a device and a corresponding instrument reading is compared to a standard series of values the device was to measure, receive, or transmit. These known measurement values are usually obtained by using test equipment that has traceability to the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), formerly the National Bureau of Standards (NBS). Data so obtained are used to determine the locations at which scale graduations are to be placed, to adjust the output to bring it to the desired value within a specified tolerance, and to ascertain the error by comparing the device output reading against a standard.

Troubleshooting

'-" ....... n,..,. 13 gives particulars on procedures, standards, records, traceability, , , calibration of specific types of equipment.

cabulary

Within every occupation, special meanings of words and phrases along with words and special symbols are used to communicate among those individuals ved in the particular area of expertise. The word "instrument" may mean a instrument to a musician; it may mean an oscilloscope or a multimeter to

.electronic :s technician; but to I&C personnel it is a device for measuring, transmodifying, recording, or controlling the value of an observable attribute. is a gage, controller, orrecorder,

A "primary element" in chemistry or physics may mean a basic entity or elebut in the I&C world it is the device that first uses or transforms energy from a given medium or performs the initial conversion of measurement energy.

Within the I&C environment many words have more than one meaning. "To maintain" might mean "to keep equipment in satisfactory working condition," but it could also mean that an alarm remains on after removal of the signal until acknowledged

New acronyms must be constantly learned, such as PID, P&ID, CRT, DCS, and so on, just as there are always new words and phrases, such as algorithm, pro-

cess variable, and artificial intelligence. '

The Automation, Systems, and Instrumentation Dictionary, definitions listed in ISA standards and recommended practices; and the definitions listed in Appendix A are helpful in understanding the vocabulary used by the instrumentation and control specialist.

Maintenance of an instrument or system should ensure that it is operating within its normal operating parameters. This can involve preventive, predictive, and other corrective measures. It also requires technical knowledge of the system and a knowledge of past, present, and future states of the system as well as the skills to apply the knowledge. Some of this knowledge is very specific, while other knowledge is more generic but can be used to logically deduce more specific knowledge. The key is the acquisition, distribution, and utilization of the necessary knowledge and skills. Due to the many different types of instruments and systems available, basic technical knowledge and skills as well as specific knowledge and skills are necessary to maintain them. This chapter addresses some of this knowledge and skills.

Troubleshooting

One of the most basic skills required to maintain an instrument or system is good troubleshooting. Good troubleshooting techniques can make the difference between timely, efficient repairs for one's department and a nightmare oflong repair times with operations constantly on one's back to get things fixed.

Troubleshooting can be defined as the methods used to determine the cause of a system's failure to perform its appointed duties. The key word is "methods." Many different methods are used to troubleshoot problems, ranging from guessing to formalized troubleshooting procedures. All these methods work on occasion, and in some cases they may work for most problems. In many cases, troubleshooting skills are learned by "on the job" training. While, as with many skills, there is certain amount of "art" to troubleshooting and there are people who possess a talent for troubleshooting, troubleshooting is a trainable skill. Maintenance departments can enhance their skills by providing training in this area.

Information and its effective use are the keys to a good maintenance program. He who is not enlightened often blunders in the dark.

21

Fundamental Principles

While there may be as many styles and methods of troubleshooting as people doing the troubleshooting, some basic techniques are the basis of all good troubleshooting methodologies. Some of these are discussed below.

Basic Troubleshooting Techniques

Logical Analysis

Troubleshooting is a systematic method of finding the cause of a problem in a system and correcting it. A good troubleshooting technique uses five general steps to safely, efficiently, and economically solve a problem.

VERIFY THE PROBLEM

The first step in troubleshooting is to verify that the problem exists. To determine whether to proceed with troubleshooting, efficiently gather information from every appropriate source. One valuable resource is the operator who monitors the system. The operator can provide insight into the system's performance. Another information source is historical data, such as maintenance records and trend charts. Consulting the system's control diagrams can offer an explanation of how the system should be operating. In addition, a loop diagram will indicate instrument power supplies, how instruments are connected, and other pertinent data about the intended operation of each loop.

An example of a system in which tank level is controlled appears in Figure 2-3. The level controller receives information from the level transmitter, then adjuststhe control valve to maintain the tank level set point.

One troubleshooting scenario involves a level that has been dropping gradually. and yet the transmitter and indicators are accurate. Maintenance records show no previous problem with the system.

I I I

I I I I I I I

....flR\1 I~I

~ ~

PRODUCT IN

Figure 2-3. Logical Analysis Troubleshooting.

LOCATE AND IDENTIFY CAUSE

The second step in troubleshooting is to locate and identify the cause of the problem. In order to minimize the time that the process is upset, it.is essential that this step be performed quickly. Begin by identifying a minimum number of possible causes based on the information gathered when verifying the problem. It saves

22

Basic Troubleshooting Techniques

to perform the quickest checks of components first. One way to do this is to the system. Separate the portions that are operating correctly and concenonly on the portion containing the problem.

In the system shown in Figure 2-3, all components except the control valve operating properly. To identify why the control valve is not operating propthe valve is placed in manual and stroked, and the I to P converter's output is In this instance, a plugged filter in the air supply line to the I to P conis the cause.

'RE:caIMN~EflID CORRECTIVE ACTION

After locating and verifying the problem, the next step is to take or recomaction to correct the problem. The choice of action will depend on the na-

of the problem. In the level control system, replacing the plugged filter will remedy the problem. Corrective actions, whether taken or recommended, always comply with facility procedures and guidelines.

PROBLEM CORRECTED

Checking that the problem has been corrected is the fourth step of the troubleshooting procedure. Not only is this necessary to verify that the problem was solved, it also verifies that no other causes contributed to the problem. In the system where the plugged filter was replaced, stroking the valve again and verifying proper operation ensures the problem has been corrected

Further troubleshooting is necessary if it is determined that the problem has not been corrected.

TAKE/RECOMMENDED FOLLOW~UP STEPS

The final step in troubleshooting is to take or recommend follow-up steps.

There are two important elements of this step. The first is to recommend followup steps to prevent the problem from recurring. Replacing filters regularly is one measure that mightbe recommended for the level control system example. The other follow-up step is recording the problem and its correction to facility specifications.

Experience

This is the most simple method. It is simply that one has seen this problem before and knows what is wrong. This is an "on the job training" skill for the most part; however, good and accessible maintenance records can spread this skill around. Training given by experienced personnel can also spread this skill. A possible shortcoming of the method is that one may be treating a symptom rather than

a root cause, i.e., one knows what is wrong but not why. .

The Guess

This method is also known as "gut feel" or intuition. Sometimes looked down upon as not being logical or scientific, it works many times when other methods do not. While a guess can be just that-a guess-many times it is really a form of . nonlinear thinking. The brain parallel processes the information known about the problem on a subconscious level. This can obviously be a very useful skill and, by exercising it, it can be developed.

Islls Not

This method approaches the problem by asking questions: "What is the problem?" and "What is not the problem?" It uses experience, training, and testing to isolate the problem into a more workable subset of the system to help isolate the cause of the problem. Many times this is done at an almost subconscious level,

23

Fundamental Principles

i.e., an instrument power light is on, therefore it IS NOT a power problem; the blown fuse indicator light is on, therefore it IS a problem related to a blown fuse.

Divide and Conquer

This method uses experience and training to divide the system into two pieces and check to see which section is performing correctly and which is not, then doing it again and again until the problem is solved. Sometimes the choice of location is one of convenience, i.e., where IS it easiest to break into the system? When· in doubt, break the system in half.

.'. A4~20~Atr~nSIllittel'lo(),pfeedsan in!Iicator <lttb~contFol'yalye, a CQntroller,andareeord~rJl1 the control room.Thereeorderant;lcori.., . troller arenotr~adin~correctl,Y. A check of thefieldindlciilor'Showsit is .readingbigherthanthecontrolro.olll instruments.Itis~~cided to .. break the loopatthetransmittetu'tilizing the(Hvideai1(i~oriquer ..... , ·.method.Itisdeterlllined,thatthe:output ofthe·transmjttetis16lllA·' . whenitisn?tqjnneCtelftotheotherinstruIllents.TlIis~~h~~aiile'.vfilUe···

.that.the fieldi .. <Ucatoris hldicittihgbut8mAmore .. (halltfierecorder ...•..

,an<lController.Itjsthen de<;idedto·breakthe Ioop<at the.field'¥dkator .. ' ..

It Is th«mdetermined that 16mA.are .colriing>iutothefiel(lin(}icatorhut .... onIy8~A'~ppeattobeJ~aVingthefieldjndica,tor . .ThisaPJl3J;'erit;*i()h(~ tionof theJawofcoQservati()D. Of energy leads the techni~ia.ntQoeIi~t~ there. is a grmmd loop. Replacing the fiel(Iilldicators()}v~lheJlrohJ¢ili.~, Furtherex~~in~tionofthebadfieIdindicator sh~~s that,watet l1.a.dgof . into the iIi4icator,and tIle resulting corrosion created a patll to grounCi, , thus creatiiIgagro~ndJoop. ..' . .... ..' ."

Remove and Conquer

In complex interconnected systems it is sometimes difficult to determine what box is causing the problem. A method to solve this kind of problem is to remove the boxes one at a time until the problem goes away. An alternate is to remove all the boxes and add them back one at a time to determine when the problem comes back.

The remove and conquermethodwas usedjna.systelll,thafh~<l16 digital DC motor drives that were talking tQaV .AX 3100TMconiputef ' via an RS-48S/232 multldrop-arrasgement, T~eYAx: ,. was: ha¥iugregu- ...•.... lar .but intermittent commrinic~tionptol:demsWitllJlJ.e 1110tqr~Q~tro.~ .. ' ... lets. The communication link,t~steaQ.ut,OKjaud'itwas<~ijsp~¢ted.~hat: ... one of the controllers was callsjngmepr9bl~UlbYbeII.g~'ll..,mt~fIn.~t.telit •. talker. To minimize the effectQriope.ra.ti()nS,:it,wasd~c!d~a,~#~f~'f~cb' .• ,>:'··· motor controller would be l;emoV€!~~i~,tUl'nfl'oJ11,ttl~·CQmrlly9j~a~i()ri\, .• · link andTyn locally. This wa:sdol1e,uQtiltbe>fo"'l'tholle;'Vcas'l'el\l9ved: and the pr~blem went away. RePlacei4eritotthe.¢Q®nUJii.c#t!~ilho~

on the controller solved the problelll~ .. . . . .... . .. . .. .

Walk- Through

This technique involves starting at one point in the signal path, testing that point, then going to another point downstream of the first point and testing, and so

24

Designed with Maintenance in Mind

on. This is used if one does not know where to start the testing. Typically, it would start at the transmitter and go inward or at the controller and go outward.

Substitution

In this technique a known good component is substituted for a component in the system under test. This is commonly done in complex card-based systems. Sometimes a simulator is used to substitute for a device.

Vendor Troubleshooting Tables

These are tables provided by the vendor to troubleshoot their equipment. Generally, they are of limited use. They can, however, be supplemented by user-generated tables or trouble vs, solution tables.

Built-in Diagnostics

Most modem microprocessor-based equipment has built-in diagnostics. They don't always cover all the real-world problems one might encounter, but properly used they can be of great benefit. Some of this equipment is user-programmable. This gives users the opportunity to build in their own diagnostic routines. A little foresight in this area can greatly improve the maintainability of complex machinery. An example of this might be a PLC with additional diagnostic programming to provide troubleshooting information about the machine the PLC is controlling. Close-coupled rack-mounted DOS machines or state language machines can provide considerable flexibility in the programming for machine diagnostics.

The Second Head

Many times, in working on a tough problem, perspective of the problem can be lost. It is a case of not seeing the forest for the trees. At this time it is a good idea to bring in a second party to help out. This can be someone who is more knowledgeable or just another good troubleshooter. Many times this person does not actually solve the problem but rather serves as a catalyst by asking a few questions or discussing the problem, which often brings out a solution. The key is to apply appropriate resources to the problem but knowing when the point of diminishing returns has been reached and when more resources should be applied. Some people actually have a talent for being a "second head," i.e., asking the appropriate questions and having a different perspective, combined with good interpersonal skills. Once such people have been identified, they should be nurtured, as they are many times the key to the solutions of the most difficult problems.

Designed with Maintenance in Mind

Good troubleshooters are worth their weight in gold, but even average troubleshooters can do a good job if the systems they are troubleshooting are designed with testability and maintainability in mind. Too many times installations are designed for ease of installation and to meet operational requirements, with maintenance a distant third consideration. This happens many times because the design engineers have vested interests that are different from those of the maintenance department. The design engineer is generally evaluated on meeting budget and schedule, ease of installation, and assuring the installation meets operational requirements. The maintenance department is interested in keeping the equipment operating. A good working relationship with engineering and some joint accountability can go a long way in improving the life cycle of an installation.

25

Fundamental Principles

Designed for Testability and Maintainabifity

In-house design projects should be designed with testability and maintainability in mind. The following <Ire some of the concerns:

(1) Maintenance should be in the review chain of all engineering drawings before they are issued for construction.

(2) Adequate physical access for testing, removal, and replacement of components must be provided. No installation should require a technician with four-foot long tentacles with eyes in the end to work on the equipment.

(3) Adequate lighting for all areas should be provided where maintenance will be performed.

(4) Built-in test points should be provided, such as test diodes in current loops, test terminal blocks, test switches, etc.

(5) Maintenance-related indications should be provided, such as blown fuse indicators, status lights, meters, current indicators, and maintenance interfaces such as smart CR Ts, LEDs, vacuum fluorescent displays, etc.

(6) The value of good tagging of instruments, wires, distribution panels, enclosures, fuses, terminals, etc., carmot be overestimated.

(7) Good maintenance documentation (loop drawings, motor schematics, one lines, ladder drawings, instrument spec sheets, all the vendor documentation, etc.) must be provided and kept up to date.

(8) Equipment and machinery maintenance records must be set upon installation and maintained throughout the equipment's life cycle.

(9) Good quality and appropriate test equipment must be provided. For example, looking for power transients with a multimeter is an impossible task, but it is easy with a power disturbance monitor.

(10) A good selection of spare parts must be available.

It is harder to enforce maintainability and testability requirenients for equipment or systems designed and constructed outside the plant. The design and construction should be strictly monitored to ensure the equipment meets all the maintenance requirements. Maintainability and testability requirements should be part of the equipment design specifications.

Risks

The troubleshooting process starts from reports of ill-defined symptoms, which are then progressively refined until a source of the problem can be located and resolved. This process can be extremely challenging and potentially risky. For example, in nuclear power plants, the cost of both problems and errors can be extremely large. Consequently, managing and minimizing risks is an important aspect of troubleshooting. Some areas a troubleshooter must be concerned with are the following:

( I) Operational upsets that could incur economic cost or lead to safety problems.

(2) Plant shutdowns, safety system activation.

(3) Injection of a safety hazard as part of the troubleshooting process.

Remember: Communication is always a two way-street!

26

Designed with Maintenance in Mind

(4) Bypassing safety systems as part of troubleshooting. (5) Component or system damage.

(6) Errors introduced as a result of troubleshooting.

Communication

Because the systems that are being troubleshooted are connected to plant operations, communication with the plant operations personnel is required and good communication is many times critical to solving the problem. Sometimes it is also important to communicate with other maintenance and engineering personnel who might be involved.

The troubleshooter should communicate with the operations personnel to ensure that the system is safe to work on and in a state that minimizes the impact of the troubleshooting on the process.

~ Remember communication is an ongoing process not a one-shot deal!

Initial Steps

The initial steps in the troubleshooting process involve gathering information concerning what happened or did not happen versus what should have happened or not happened. This can involve a verbal or written description which includes location, symptoms, timing, magnitude, past history, damage, etc. Avisual inspection is performed. Information concerning the system configuration and design (loop drawing, wiring drawings, motor schematics, system drawings, vendor prints, etc.) must also be reviewed. This information can then be used to determine the methodes) and the entry point that will be used to begin to troubleshoot the problem.

Safety

Troubleshooting must be done with safety in mind. Many times the systems that are being troubleshot were not designed with safety in mind for the maintenance personnel. A maintenance person should not, nor should they have to, perform an unsafe act to troubleshoot a piece of equipment. This should be a design requirement from day one. Maintenance procedures should stress safe practices

27

Fundamental Principles

and leaving the equipment after maintenance at least as safe as it was before the maintenance.

Iii:_"", Poor maintenance safety practices lead to unsafe systems. Long-term practice of ~ this as well as "poor baying" repairs leads to a maintenance environment where an accident is just waiting to happen. It could happen to you!

Some of the safety hazards typically encountered are electric shock, entanglement in equipment, bum hazards, sharp edges or points, head knockers, hazardous or toxic process materials, etc. Many of these hazards can be minimized by two techniques-guarding and identification. Guarding means placing a guard over the hazard. Where designs lack guarding, maintenance personnel should have them installed. Maintenance personnel should always re-install guards after they are done with them. Identification of hazards such a signs indicating high voltage or high temperatures can indicate to the maintenance person that a specific hazard is present.

It is good practice for operations to issue a "Ready to Work" permit and to tag appropriate equipment for any work that directly involves process materials or equipment. Necessary "Hot Work" permits should also be issued in regards to work in hazardous areas. Lockout"s'per OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health Administration) and NEC (National Electrical Code) requirements as needed should be performed on appropriate equipment prior to beginning work.

1f'_4 Before beginning to troubleshoot a problem, the troubleshooter should always get ~ with the operational personnel to get the system in a state that is safe to work on

.. and minimizes the impact of the troubleshooting on the process. The trouble-

shooter should never proceed unless he is absolutely sure that it is safe to proceed.

On-Line Troubleshooting

On-line troubleshooting (which involves interaction with the loop) always runs the risk of upsetting the process, which can lead to a safety hazard. Many times the troubleshooting of an instrument loop is done on-line. Steps must be taken to ensure that this can be done safely. Before starting the troubleshooting, the actions planned should be reviewed with the operator in charge of the loop. The operator should stand by to ensure that these actions are done safely. Any changes should be done in small steps. If possible they should be done while the loop is in manual. Care should always be taken to ensure that one is troubleshooting the right loop components.

Always double-check that you are working on the correct instrument, loop, circuit, and so on.

Anyon-line modifications for maintenance purposes must be documented.

This is particularly important for software changes or when instruments such as pressure, alarm switches, etc., are bypassed. On-line programming should be done

28

Designed with Maintenance in Mind

with great care. All software "forces" should be removed when the work is or clearly identified that they are in effect. Physical bypasses should always removed or clearly identified if left in place.

Failure to clear bypass jumpers sometimes occurs even with the best of intentions. The jumper is put in, the tech goes off shift, and another tech takes over and fails to remove the bypass jumper. A PLC contact is forced and the tech fails to un-force it when the work is done because it is not obvious that the contact is forced and so on. Maintenance procedures should be in place to identify and tag maintenance bypasses and to ensure that they are cleared. Tags on the equipment, special color wire for physical bypasses, and entries in operator and maintenance logs are some of the ways to minimize the problem.

If instruments are hot swapped, care should be taken to ensure that the replacement instrument has all the settings and calibration of the original instrument. Also, if the part that is hot swapped is part of a larger assembly, it should be remembered that configuration settings are typically scanned only on start-up and when reset and some systems may know if the card has been removed. Cycling of the power or resetting may be necessary to get the system to recognize the new card.

Temporary bypass jumpers should be a color not normally used in your wiring so that bypass jumpers can be easily identified and removed after you have completed your troubleshooting. Tags attached to the jumpers can also be used.

29

3

Diagrams, Symbols, and Specifications

:Overview

Documentation comes in many forms.from general layout drawings to detailed schematics. It also includes parts lists, the theory of operation, specific a.tions, purchase order data, preventive maintenance procedures, software configurations, training manuals, and any other helpful documentation. Process .(piping) and instrumentation diagrams (P&ID), loop diagrams, and the equipment ,manufacturers' documentation will be the documents most used by the mainte::o.ance department. Some companies call the P&IDs "piping and instrumentation diagrams"; others call them "process and instrumentation" or other names, but the format is the same.

Good documentation means up-to-date information and as-built drawings. 'Improper revisions of the documentation can cause a bigger problem than a limamount of good documentation. It is in maintenance's own interest to see that

any changes are made to the process or its controls, the respective P&ID and diagrams are revised immediately. Poor documentation can also be a safety ,,,,,.,<,,, ... \.1 ora product loss. Maintenance is generally done during operation on most fcontinw)us processes and sometimes in the middle of a batch process. If improper [O()CUme~nHltlCm causes the wrong loop to be upset and the process goes into a criti'stage, the product run could be lost or a hazardous malfunction could occur. New to the maintenance department is the requirement to understand some documentation. Some of this documentation is listed in a database and is

listed in manuals or on hard copy.

Diagnostics help maintenance personnel in Iocuting the problem. In some diagnostics tells what card to change or what component on a card to

The manufacturer's documentation is very helpful to one's understanding diagnostic codes and indicators used in larger distributed control systems.

Good documentation is the most beneficial asset in maintaining a facility.

ffl"Olces.s (Piping) & Instrumentation Diagram

The process and instrumentation or piping and instrumentation diagram

. is probably the document most used by instrumentation and control sys-

l> UJL 1HU.1 personnel. It gives an overall view of the entire process loop of

facility. The P&ID USes the symbols listed in ISA~5.1 ~ 1984-(R1992), Instruananon Symbols and Identification and ISA~5.3~ 1983, Graphic Symbols for Control/Shared Display Instrumentation, Logic, and Computer Sys-

31

Diagrams, Symbols, and Specifications

terns and shows the interconnection of process equipment and the instrumentation used to control the process. In some cases the analog controls are too complex to show on P&IDs; in this case, separate analog functional drawings are created, using ISA or SAMA symbols. (The Scientific Apparatus Makers Association has withdrawn and no longer supports its standards. They are available for historical purposes and general information only.) The process equipment is shown by symbols such as bubbles (circles or balloons) and others to denote valves, actuators, flowmeters, and so on.

Each instrument is represented on diagrams by a symbol, along with tag numbers and instruments or functions identified by alphanumeric codes. See Table 3-1.

The instrument loop number may include coded information such as plant area designation. It is also possible to set aside specific series-of numbers to designate special functions; for instance, the series 900 tag numbers to 999 could be used for loops whose primary function is safety-related. Therefore, the type of symbol associated with its tag number gives maintenance personnel an idea of the function of the instrument, its loop identification, and its location (see Figure 3 -1).

r>. ~

~ ~

~ ~

Figure 3-1. Instrument Tag Number.

Instrument Loop Diagrams

The process (piping) and instrument diagram applies to the whole process loop, while the loop diagram gives further information on the control loop of an individual parameter. An instrument loop diagram must contain the information needed to understand the operation of the loop. It also must show all connections to facilitate start-up and maintenance of the instruments. The loop diagram must show the components and accessories of the instrument loop, highlighting special safety and other requirements (see Figure 3-2).

USES

Some uses of an instrument loop diagram are listed in the chronology of project development:

(1) Engineering-Illustrate control philosophy and confirm the completeness of submitted data; an extension or P&TD, which shows the components and accessories of the instrument loop, connections between devices, and identification of component action; the specification of instrument hardware items and a means of communicating requirements to vendors.

Instrument loop diagrams are used for installation and troubleshooting.

(2) Construction-Initial construction of panels. field installation of instrumentation, instrument connections, instrument loop checkout, inspection, and documentation.

(3) Commissioning and Start-up--Prestart-up checking and calibration; as an extension of the P&ID for commissioning and start-up personnel, they highlight safety and other requirements; as an extension of the P&ID, they can also be used as training tools.

32

.............................................. _ .. - .. _._._--------_ ... -. __ ._-

Instrument Loop Diagrams

3-1. Identification Letters (Source: ISA-5.1-1984 (R1992»

FIRST·LETTER SUCCEEDING·LETTERS
MEASURED OR READOUT OR
INITIATING PASSIVE OUTPUT FUNCTION
VARIABLE MODIAER FUNCTION MODIFIER
Analysis Alarm
Burner, Combustion User's Choice User's Choice User's Choice
User's Choice COntrol
User's Choice Differential
Voltage Sensor (Primary
Element)
Flow Rate Ratio (Fraction)
User's Choice Glass, Viewing
Device
Hand High
Current (Electrical) Indicate.
Power Scan
Time, Time Schedule Time Rate of Control Station
Change
Level Ught Low
User's Choice Momentary Middle,
I nterm edlate
User's Choice User's Choice User's Choice User's Choice
User's Choice Orifice, Restriction
Pressure. Vacuum Point (Test)
COnnection
Quantity Integrate, Totalize
R Radiation Record
S Speed, Frequency Safety Switch
T Temperature Transmit
U Multivariable Multifunction Multifunction Multifunction
V Vibration, Mechanical Valve, Damper.
Analysis Louver
W Weight, Force Well
X Unclassified X Axis Undassified Unclassified Unclassified
y Event, State or Y Axis Relay, Compute,
Presence Convert
Z Position, Dimension ZAxis Driver, Actuator.
Unclassified Final
Control Element 33

Diagrams, Symbols, and Specifications

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Instrument Loop Diagrams

Operation-Communications medium between operations, maintenance, and engineering personnel; operations training device.

Maintenance-Troubleshooting, routine calibration, preventive and corrective maintenance tool.

Modification-Rearrangement, reconstruction, enhancement.

instrument loop diagram is a composite representation of all associated loop information. It contains all associated electrical and piping conand should contain all the information needed to accommodate the inuses. Instrument loop diagrams use the same symbols and identification

, process (piping) and instrument diagrams. All tagging or numbering must with the P&ID.

To accomplish minimum needs, a loop diagram shall contain at least the folinformation:

(1) Identification of the loop and loop components shown on the P&IDs.

Other principal components of the loop to be shown and identified under ISA-S.I, Instrumentation Symbols and Identification.

(2) Word description of loop functions within the title. If not adequate, use a supplemental note. Identify any special features or functions of shutdown and safety circuits.

(3) Indication of the interrelation to other instrumentation loops, including overrides, interlocks, cascaded set points, shutdowns, and safety circuits.

(4) All point-to-point interconnections with identifying numbers or colors of electrical cable, conductors, pneumatic multitubes, and individual pneumatic and hydraulic tubing. This identification of interconnections includes junction boxes, terminals, bulkheads, ports, and grounding connections.

(5) General location of devices such as field, panel, auxiliary equipment racks, termination cabinet, cable spreading room, 110 cabinet, etc.

(6) Energy sources of devices, such as electrical power, air supply, and hydraulic fluid supply. Identify voltage, pressure, and other applicable .requirements. For electrical ' sources, it is desirable to identify circuit or disconnect numbers.

(7) Process lines and equipment sufficient to describe the process side of the loop and provide clarity of control action. Include what is being measured and what is being controlled.

(8) Actions or fail-safe positions (electronic, pneumatic, or both) of control devices such as controllers, switches, control valves, solenoid valves, and transmitters. These are to be identified in accordance with TSA-S.l, Instrumentation Symbols and Identification.

It is desirable that loop diagrams contain the following additional information (see Figure 3-3);'

(1) Process equipment, lines, and their identification numbers, source, designation, or flow direction.

35

Diagrams, Symbols, and Specifications

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36

Instrument Loop Diagrams

(2) Reference to supplementary records and drawings, such as installation details, P&IDs, location drawings, wiring diagrams or drawings, and instrument specifications.

Specific locations of each device, such as elevation, area, panel subdivision, rack or cabinet number and location, 110 location, etc .

. (4) Cross reference between loops that share a common discrete component, such as multiple recorder, dual indicator, etc.

(5) References to equipment descriptions, manufacturers, model numbers, hardware types, specifications, or data sheets, purchase order numbers, etc.

(6) Signal ranges and calibration information, including set point values for switches and alarm and shutdown devices.

(7) Software reference numbers, such as I/O addresses, control block types and names, network interfaces, point names, etc.

(8) Engraving or legend information that helps identify the instrument or accessory.

(9) Accessories, tagged or otherwise identified, such as regulators, filters, purge meters, manifold valves, root valves, etc.

(10) References to manufacturer's documentation such as schematics, connection details, operating instructions, etc.

(11) Color code identification for conductors or tubes that use numbers for differentiation.

The location of the instrument on the instrument loop drawing represents its location in the facility. Generally, the left side of the drawing is near the process and the right side is the operator's window in the control room. The center sections of the loop diagram are other connection points between the sensor and the control room.

FORMAT

A loop diagram should be a small drawing that is easy to handle, preferably 11 in. x 17 in. A loop diagram should normally contain only one loop. Avoid showing a loop on multiple pages or sheets, where practical. Judgment should be used to accommodate the individual situations in which loops that share common components can be adequately and completely communicated on a single diagram. Overcrowding should be avoided and space provided for future additions and loop data.

SYMBOLS

The symbols used for P&IDs are suitable for loop diagrams but are expanded to include connection points, power sources (electrical, air, hydraulic), and instrument actions and ranges to clarify certain connection and operation details required on loop diagrams,

The general terminal or bulkhead symbol identifies a junction box or termination assembly and each connection used. Location of the terminal or bulkhead is indicated by the section of the loop diagram in which it is drawn. The junction box number is designated by the number located above the symbol. Instrument terminals and/or ports show the connection to the instrument. It is suggested that identifying numbers or letters be the manufacturer's designation.

The balloon symbol and identification are the same as shown on the P&ID.

37

Diagrams, Symbols, and Specifications

ENERGY SUPPLIES

Instrument system energy supply identifications are shown on loop diagrams.

The identification also indicates the appropriate voltage or pressure.

INSTRUMENT ACTION

Identification of instrument action shows the direction of the instrument signal by appropriate letters placed close to the instrument bubble.

Direct-acting controllers, controllers in which the value of the output signal increases as the value of the input (measured variable) increases, are represented by the letters DIR. An alternate way to represent a direct-acting instrument is an arrow pointing up ( t ).

Reverse-acting controllers, controllers in which the value of the output signal decreases as the value of the input (measured variable) increases, are represented by the letters REV. An alternate way to represent a reverse-acting instrument is an arrow pointing down (J_).

SET POINT VALUES

Set point and calibration values are optional and may be indicated on loop diagrams. Set point values are generally indicated only on devices that are adjusted only by maintenance personnel, such as temperature or pressure switches and field-mounted discrete alarm units. The symbol to indicate the set point is a diamond adjacent to the instrument symbol, with the set point written in the diamond. If several devices require set point information, a table should be included to the left of the title block to include set point data. Set point values should be put on one document only.

CALIBRATION INFORMATION

Calibration information may be indicated by a rectangle adjacent to the instrument symbol with the data written inside the rectangle. It is suggested that, if this optional information is shown on the loop diagram, a table to the left of the title block should include this data (see Figure 3-3).

ALARMS

General alarms and instrument system alarms are shown on loop diagrams. A hardwired device or a separate alarm unit will be shown as a distinct device. If the alarm is included as part of another device, such as a controller, recorder, or shared display and/or shared control, the alarm letter designator may be placed on the input side or the output side of the device symbol as indicated in Figure 3-3. Multiple alarm capability is provided in most systems. Alarms on measured variables shall included the variable identifier; alarms on controller output shall use the undefined variable identifier.

Block Diagrams

A block diagram shows the graphical represent.ation of the hardware in a system. The primary purpose of a block diagram is to indicate the paths along which information or control flows between various parts of a system.

A block diagram may show a block only for each major piece or card in a sysrem or device, or it may show the functions or hardware in more detail. The interconnections between the blocks are shown, but the circuits within the blocks are generally not shown.

Function Blocks

Function blocks, with the function identification in the blocks, are used in configurable devices such as controllers and signal conditioners. The function designations associated with controllers, computing devices, converters, and re-

38

Logic Diagrams

be used individually or in combination. The use of a box avoids confuby setting off the symbol from other markings on a diagram and permits the to be used as a stand-alone block on conceptual designs.

Table 3-1 lists common function block symbols. It is expected that functions with the use of succeeding-letter Y (relay, compute, or convert) will be outside a bubble on a diagram when further definition is considered nee-

INDEX

An instrument index is a listing of all instruments in a system, usually in tag order. Tag number order could be by function or loop identification. The of an instrument index avoids duplicated tags.

Logic diagrams represent a logic design and sometimes the hardware imple-

entation or a logic operation or set of operations. Boolean logic is illustrated by Figure 3-4. Logic diagrams aid in troubleshooting interlocks and start-up/shutdown systems (see Figure 3-5 for ISA symbols). Interlock and start-up and shutdown programs use logic instructions and details that should be shown on logic diagrams to aid in troubleshooting newer control systems. Logic diagrams can be discrete, binary, or Boolean. Frequently, problems in control systems are caused by an external switch or a permissive. On older PLCs the digital part has been documented using relay ladder (relay contacts and coils) or Boolean logic diagrams (ANDs and ORs). To document the analog part, fill-in-the-blank forms are used.

Engineers, configuration integrators, and maintenance technicians need a prescribed way to design, illustrate, and document control logic used in the performance of their profession. In order that everyone concerned can work with the same format, several types of logical illustrations have evolved over the years. Some forms are more descriptive for batch logic, while other forms are possibly better for continuous process logic, and still others possibly better for motor logic.

The intent of this discussion is not to prove one method superior to the others but simply to describe the various methods used and to provide a working knowledge of how to use each of these methods.

Some basic forms oflogic are described below. An example of a very simple timed and temperature controlled batch cooker will be used to illustrate the topic, using the forms of logic displays discussed in this section on logic. If you have used and understand one of the forms of logic illustrated, you should be able to interpret and understand the other forms of illustrated logic.

In all cases, the operator begins the cooking operation by pushing the "start" button or entering a "start" command. The heating media is controlled by a solenoid valve. Once started, the cook proceeds until the temperature has exceeded 150 degrees F for ten minutes. The operator muy stop the cook at any time by pushing the "stop" bottom or entering a "stop" command. The operation is oversimplified in order to emphasize the method of illustrating the logic methods and

displays and not the logic itself. See Figures 3-6 through 3-1.1, '

Logic diagrams are used for interlocking and sequencing. The logic diagrams can be documented using a matrix, Boolean expressions, or true/false flow charts.

39

Diagrams, Symbols, and Specifications

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~ 0--, <!lO ~r ~--' 0 ffi~ 0 W
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o, Wo ~ odoo It; ~ ~b ~ Ww ~ WI- ~ lL! f- ! ~
::;;: IZ z9 I", zo :r a IO Iw
a:;;: 0 OOw glo enZ r en Z -' ~g a: W enz :r: enZ 00 0- n
~~ <> i'5g; <l:w 00 ~W '" '" :::>--' <elL! K' ~M! K' ",,0 ~
men <!la: q. a: c, <!l(.J ~ UJW <!la: <!l>
W ~ >-00
-« <!l !2:~ ~~ 0:::::> :g l§ i1l ~ a:> a:=> ~ a::::> ~ 0:: en ~
zen g~ wOO ZOO wOO wOO wOO
0: f-en ZOO «~ ZOO ZOO :z
~ :::> :5w :::I~ ZW _w a: o::W o::W a:
D.. .,_g: « S28: Za: :::> :::>a: :::><I: ::>
Qa. rn CD a. <Dc.. '"
Figure 3-4. Boolean Logic.
Courtesy of Orion GEM, Inc.)
40 Logic Diagrams

lj_

- ...

:=

orsva

Figure 3-5.ISA Symbols for Diagramming Binary Logic (Source: ISA-5.2-1976 (R1992».

.!!l

oisva

41

Diagrams, Symbols, and Specifications

IIi\.VAVAVI AI .,j.riJ-d.; .... ,.;, ..d

I:: o

.... o 1':::

f!

~

C'l

ci

1':::

'"0

~

....

ci

s;:

~

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E

= s;:

~ 0

<

JISV8

Figure 3·5.ISA Symbols for Diagramming Binary Logic (Source: ISA-5.2-1976 (R1992» cont'd.

c o

C'l

o z

.. II.>

E

~

c o

.....

ci Z

~

0:: ... ::I tQ

42

Logic Diagrams

0 !. E
'5l
GI
,c
<5 ...
g
IlQ =ii1
~ -51;:1
~ ....
-< -= i~
5:!:t
1;- *~
a:
z
I ~l
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6'
x
:a
,::
8-
-e 1:1:1 ~
GI
....... II>
,c ~ Figure 3-5.ISA Symbols for Diagramming Binary Logic (Source: ISA-5.2-1976 (R1992» cont'd.

43

Diagrams~ Symbols, and Specifications

~ al -
'" ~
'"
:i c.
'" ....
::s
:§ Q> 0
'"
'" 0 .....
"0 '" 0
-"; I::
"'~ 0
§ till·· :;;;
:w ,r:: a; .!3
,<:.I ~"..; ....
c: 0 ' :5,
::s - c
': ~.9 ;.,
< '"
e w b Q;
~:sJJ ::Q e
:JISVII c.

E

l:

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-
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01
w
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~
~
rn
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-
"0
Z
0
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0 "0
Z -:...
,;::l c
t:- o
"'" '. <:.I
"d'~ orsvs

Figure 3-5. ISASymbols for Diagramming Binary Logic (Source: ISA-5.2-1976 (R1992» cont'd.

44

Logic Diagrams

LADDER LOGIC

Probably the oldest and most used is "ladder logic." Ladder logic received its name from the appearance of the document, which takes the shape of a ladder with the logic displayed as contacts in each rung of the ladder. The left side of the ladder rail is the power source side of the logic, while the right side of the ladder rail is the neutral or return side of the power source. Power is transferred from the power rail on the left side of the drawing to each successive contact or function on its right.

Comparing a printout of the "real-time" logic with what is on file may be helpful in determining whether the logic has been changed recently and might be causing the problem.

L1 L2
STOP START TMR 1
LR
TRM1
TSH1

TOOE
3AMP R SOLN1 10MIN Figure 3-6. Ladder LogiC.

L1

INPUTS

OUTPUTS L2

STOP

]001 1002 0002

L:OOOl100

Figure 3-7. PLC Logic.

PLCLOGIC

This type of drawing originated in the days of relays and electromechanical timers, etc., but the same format is used today to document PLC<; that use software logic. The power flow is the same in a PLC; however, the logic is scanned from top to bottom at a Iast rate, and any contacts shown above a given ladder rung will not function until the PLC has completed one scan. This slight but important difference needs to be remembered when dealing with a PLC versus a relay network.

PLC ladder logic can be displayed in "real time," on a programmer or CRT screen, so that the technician can follow the power flow through the logic to determine what is preventing the logic from working. Therefore, it is important to use the programmer when troubleshooting, because it will be the logic that is actually being used and not the logic on an old document that has since been changed.

45

Diagrams, Symbols, and Specifications

Sometimes software jumpers are installed to temporarily resolve a problem and are then forgotten. By reviewing the original logic and comparing it to the "realtime" logic, these forgotten jumpers are easily found.

Until recently, most automated process plants used two separate subsystems: a strictly digital programmable logic controller (PLC) to handle the digital on/off devices and a shared display distributed control system (DCS) to handle the analog displays and control loops.

SAMALOGIC

SAMA logic is used mostly for continuous process control definition but can also describe batch processes, although the Scientific Apparatus Makers Association no longer supports the standards upon which this logic is based. This logic ineludes both the symbols and the diagramming format used to represent the measurement, control, and computational aspects of a control loop or loops. The discussion below will pertain only to the logic for analog systems.

Several major instrument companies began using SAMA Logic Diagrams (see Figure 3-8) when they went to split-architecture hardware, separating the control unit from the display unit. SAMA diagrams provided a structured and reproducible way to work with and display the various functions of split-architecture control.

SAMA STOP

START

TSH1

1 WHILE TIMING; OWHILE

NOT TIMING, RESET

Figure 3-8. SAMA logiC.

When distributed control systems emerged, some manufacturers again went to the SAMA form of functional diagrams. Since all of the logic resided in the computing portion of the DeS, they had to find a structured way to design and display this logic. SAMA diagrams have a specific format for all the basic functions that can be grouped together to produce either simple or complex diagrams that describe the process control and logic.

46

I,

Logic Diagrams

SAMA drawings are usually generated during the design stage of a project and, in rough form, are used to review and alter the control and logic, as necessary, until agreement is reached. In many cases, the SAMA diagram is generated . only after agreement is reached. In other cases, the SAMA diagram is generated after the P&IDs are in their final stages. Due to the complexity of today's instrumentation, it is impossible to show all the logic on the P&IDs or loop drawings. SAMA drawings are an essential part of the engineering stage of a project and many times are even more important during equipment and software checkout and start-up. SAMA symbols are used on drawings by several boiler control vendors.

GATE lOGIC

Ladder logic can be duplicated using GATE logic or vice/versa. Two c<;>ntacts, in parallel, are shown as a rounded arrow symbol that represents an "or" command. Two contacts, in parallel, are shown as a bullet nosed symbol that represents an "and" command. The outputs of some commands are the inputs of other commands or is the solution of the logic just performed. The drawing looks somewhat similar to a ladder diagram, in that the logic flows from left to right and from top to bottom, at least in most cases. The drawings are somewhat easier to develop and understand because one symbol can perform several ladder functions. If the physical device chosen to produce this logic is programmed in GATE, the programming is simplified. If the final device chosen to produce the logic is a PLC, the GATE logic must still be converted to relay ladder logic.

START

SOLN1

STOP

TSH 1

Figure 3-9. Gate Logic.

TIME SEQUENCE LOGIC

Time sequence logic is used to define an automatic system that relies heavily on events happening at specific times andlor specific lengths of time. Events may have to overlap and the time sequence logic format can represent and display the overlapping events much better than other logic formats, Time sequence logic formatting was and is used when mechanical timing devices are used, such as rotating drum, pin-set timers and sequencers.

FLOW CHART LOGIC

Flow charting is used mostly as a design tool to show detailed functions as they apply to a computer program or logic program. It is used to describe sequential events that interact and rely on certain checks to start, stop or interrupt a continuous program.

Flow charting describes and illustrates the flow of information, inputs, outputs, checks and interrupts, etc. that might be controlled by a computer. They were used in the early days of computers to illustrate what the computer does or how it handles the tasks of batch and continuous processing.

47

Diagrams, Symbols, and Specifications

IDLE

IDLE

COOK

SOLN 1

CLOSE ~~ O_P_E_N ~ CLOSE

I

TSHl

Figure 3"10. Time Sequence Diagram.

YES

COOK

Figure 3"11. Flow Charting.

Highway Drawings

BASIC PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE LOGIC

With the onset of personal computers (PCs) being used for control or as an additional window to the process, the BASIC software program began to be used extensively.

The present generation of DCSs and PLCs have integrated both the regulatory and sequence control functions, and with further enhancements in the batch capabilities of these systems to handle multi-recipe, multi-product plants, a combination of ladder logic, SAMA logic, GATE logic, flow charts, time sequence diagrams. block diagrams, and basic computer languages and written process operating procedures must be used to document the functional requirement of the software.

Most process plants consist of a combination of batch and continuous control functions:

(I) Analog (continuous) regulatory control loops (e.g., level control loop of a distillation column).

(2) Digital (discrete) control devices (e.g., control of motors, on/off valves, etc.)

(3) Interlock logic (this function usually defines the relative status of two or more discrete devices to ensure the safe operation of the plant).

(4) Sequence control logic (the basis for batch process control. Actions are initiated in response to trigger events such as time, special operating conditions, modification of product recipes, etc. Sequence may be fixed or variable, and they may depend on the status of the process or on external factors such as market demand for different product grades).

Highway Drawings

The highway drawings of a DeS system show the highway, any local area networks,.screens, and consoles. They show what is on the highway, what consales are tied to common console electronics, and what the printers, computers, redundant controllers, etc., are tied to. It is a must on a large system. See Figure 3-12.

Schematics

Instrument schematics are generally supplied by the manufacturer of the instrument. A schematic is defined as a generalized diagram or scheme. In electronics, the schematic shows all the interconnections, both power and signal, and is used to troubleshoot the circuit.

Schematics are used to aid in board-level troubleshooting. The maintenance manuals supplied with the device or control system have schematics of all circuit wiring. Each component generally has an identification, such as .l{3 for a resistor or CI4 for a capacitor. These identifications will cross reference to the material list by the part num her of the component. The values of some components are al so listed on the schematic.

Older devices used hard-wiring and individual components. It was common practice to troubleshoot and replace an individual component. Then came printed circuit boards with soldered-in components, and again it was common practice to troubleshoot and replace an individual component Schematics were needed to troubleshoot and repair these circuits. With the newer microprocessor-type equipment and devices using high-speed circuits, more sophisticated types of test equipment are required.

49

Diagrams, Symbols, and Specifications

=
"'CI ~ >
21'-- 0% :: ~
% ~l= J: J: I-
~ e w
:t %
J: a:
~ t! w
J:
< < I-
0 0 W 0:1'0 s Itlo ~
><0 t'i ><,.. Z
w
~~ > ~~ ::i
Z U
W "<t
I
I I'--
(!) J ..- 0
z ~
U; l- I- f,/}
(')0 wwf,/} W NO I-
Ul ZI-I- "'0 Z Z
w ><0 -~Z )(0 c::: )(0
~ w W
0 ~M fh8::i <0( .,'1) ii:: ~~ ::i
0 :r: U >(') I U
II: U-IM U U')
fl. co
j5 f--- 0
< ~
0
Itl
- 0
~ ,..

C

~

Figure 3-12. DeS Data Highway. (Courtesy of Fisher-Rosemount)

50

~.~_ "~\,~.~,\~'" e'" _. __ "" -,,~-' r",.,_~.....- ~,._.>~ ,,,., \~, -,,~ ,- ..... ,..,-".,.-'"",'''''Y'-:' ~ '" - \ - ,. ~ ,

. ~ ,",:l~(~~~~~~~1ilil' ~"~ 'f :i~~~~k">:\"'<:~'j,~~:,., ,t, ",: ~ ': .: _, : '" >. :,' ,,';; ,: ,,:t', ':',,', '" '::':':"

Specifications

The use of schematics on mulitlayered printed circuit boards is not normally necessary for maintenance and troubleshooting (unless there are plug-in replaceable components); instead, the circuit board is replaced.

Specifications

Instrument Specification

Each instrument is built to meet certain specifications such as those for operating, performance, and construction. A specification is a detailed and exact statement of particulars, especially a statement prescribing dimensions, construction, tolerances, bills of materials, features, and operating conditions. Maintenance personnel use these documents to ensure that after repair or rework the instrument meets the performance and operating specifications that the instrument was designed to meet.

~ After repai~ or rew~rk. e~sure that the instrument still meets required performance ~ and operating specifications.

Calibration is generally required after an instrument is repaired or reworked.

The calibration record and reports should be maintained in the equipment history files. In some instances, certification and calibration traceability are required.

The "as-installed" instruments should be described in detail on the relevant ISA-20-1981, Specification Forms for Process Measurement and Control Instruments, Primary Elements and Control Valves specification sheets. Or, if the user prefers, ISA- TR20.00.01-2001, Specification Forms for Process Measurement and Control Instruments, Part 1: General Considerations, should be a primary part of plant documentation.

Specifications for instruments can be found in manufacturers' product data bulletins, instruction manuals, installation and service instructions, and other manufacturers' literature. These should be available to maintenance personnel.

PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATIONS

(1) Accuracy-The degree of conformity of an indicated value to a recognized accepted standard value, or ideal value; the maximum positive and negative deviation observed in testing a device under specified conditions and by a specified procedure; generally indicated as a percent of input! output span or a unit of measurement. Examples are:

• Factory calibrated to ± 0.25% of input span for all ranges;

• ±l°F for base-metal thermocouple ranges;

• Output deviation ± 0.008 V;

• Error % of span ± 0.2; and

• Input accuracy ± 0.25% of span ± 1°C.

(2) Stability-Resistance to changes in accuracy due to environmental changes; accuracy due to changes in temperature, relative humidity, and! or altitude.

(3) Immunity-Common or normal mode rejection and radio frequency interference.

(4) Repeatability-Closeness of agreement among a number of successive measurements of the output for the same value of the input under the

Replacement of individual components on multilayered printed circuit boards is not suggested.

51

, ...

t

Diagrams, Symbols, and Specifications

same operating conditions, approaching from the same direction, for full range traverses.

(5) Resolution-s- The least interval between two adjacent discrete details that can be distinguished one from another. Generally determined in decimals, such as 1 degree or 0.1 degree, percent resolution such as 0.01 % or 12 bits.

(6) Linearity=-Maximum deviation of the calibration curve from a straight line so positioned as to coincide with the calibration curve at the lower range value and to minimize the maximum deviation, deviation specified as ± percentage, ± unit of measure, or ± LSB.

OPERATING SPECIFICATIONS

(1) Power requirements=-Line (supply) voltage limits, both voltage and frequency; generally listed as J 20 V ± 10%, 50/60 Hz, less than 5 V A or 120 V AC (95-135 V), 60 Hz, 40 VA average.

(2) Line voltage effect-s-Effect of line voltage changes.

(3) Load effect-s-Effect of load from 0 to maximum load resistance; generally listed as percentage of span (± 0.01 % of span).

(4) Inputs/outputs specificaticns=-Includes types of inputs and outputs (analog/digital), load voltage and current, contact ratings, isolation, and so on.

(5) Ambient temperature effect=-Effects of ambient temperature changes in accuracy of instrument.

(6) Scan rate~A single sweep of PC applications program operation. The scan operates the program logic based on 110 status, and then updates output and input status, sampling in a predetermined manner each of a number of variables intermittently. The time required for this is called the scan time.

(7) Shock and vibration-s-Amount of shock and vibration the instrument can withstand and continue to conform to other specifications.

(8) Adjustments--Changing proportional band, reset, cycle time, zero offset, span (includes ranges of adjustments), and so on.

CONSTRUCTION SPECIFICATIONS

(1) Electrical classification-For hazardous location installations in Class, Division, and Group areas, such as Class I, Div 2, Groups A, B, C, and D areas.

(2) Housing=-Nlslvl.A classification such as NEMA 1 - General purpose indoor, or NEMA 4 - Watertight and dust-tight, indoor and outdoor. See Figure 3- J 3.

(3) Dimensions-For example, for panel cutout: faceplate dimensions,

length, width, height, etc.

(4) Weight~Average weight.

(5) Terminal connections-Type, size, and location.

(6) Mounting=-Mounting specifications such as panel, DIN rail, etc.

52

, ".,.. --. > ~ _ ~ ,~ , > _'" ,~""'~J""''\;-'''-;:",l'\'''''tI ,-=-,"'-"';.,''-U<\\ ' ... ~~ ~~ ~, "'~" ,,- ~" ~ ~.' ~,,~, , < ~ , •

~~i;j~<;'ijf,/;::<.:; .. :;;: ~;;,;.;< ~;~.;;lf:.'J/!,r~' ~"~"' .. , '~',' ~':n';;i:~;i;~~~~;.

Specifications

Maintenance engineers and technicians must be familiar with the instrument specifications when replacing, repairing, or calibrating instruments. Accuracy and safety standards should not be compromised when replacing older instruments with newer instruments. However, most newer instruments have tighter specifications than the older instruments they replace.

TYPE NO. DEGREE OF PROTECTION

1 INDOOR USE

2 INDOOR USE, LIMITED AMOUNTS OF FALLING WATER

SR OUTDOOR USE, UNDAMAGED BY THE FORMATION OF tCE ON THE ENCLOSURES.

3 SAME AS 3R PLUS WINDBLOWN DUST

3S SAME AS 3R PLUS WINDBLOWN OUST, EXTERNAL MECHANISMS REMAIN OPERABlE WHILE ICE LADEN.

4 OUTDOOR USE, SPLASHING WATER. WINDBLOWN DUST. HOSE·DIRECTED WATER, UNOAMANGED BY TI-lE FORMATION OF ICE ON THE ENCLOSURE.

4X SAME AS 4 PLUS RESISTS CORROSION

6 SAME AS SR PLUS ENTRY OF WATER DURING TEMPORARY SUBMERSION AT A LIMITED DEPTH.

6P SAME AS SR PLUS ENTRY OF WATER DURING PROLONGED SUBMERSION AT A LIMITED DEPTH.

11 INDOOR USE. CORROSIVE UQUIDS AND GASES - BY OIL IMMERSION OF

ENCLOSURE. .

12, 12K INDOOR USE. DUST. DRIPPING NONCORROSIVE LIQUIDS.

13 INDOOR USE. DUST, SPRAYING WATER, OIL. AND NONCORROSIVE COOLANTS.

Figure 3-13. NEMA Enclosure Classifications.

System Specifications FUNCTIONAL SPECIFICATIONS

A key document generated in the planning phase of any project is the functional specification. It is used not only for planning, bidding, and checkout of new systems but also should be available to maintenance personnel. This reference indicates what the system is designed to do and to what accuracy. An operator or process engineer might ask that tighter limits than called for be set in the overall system specifications. The functional specification is a document that tells exactly what the system should do, what will be supplied to the system, and what is expected to come out of it. The functional specifications should be used for start-up and checkout to ensure that the system purchased conforms to the functional specifications. If the system does not conform to the system goals, responsibilities should be determined during checkout; otherwise, the maintenance department will be asked to make the changes.

After a system or project specification book is completed and approved, it is used for review and even checkout. After start-up is complete, an engineering manual should be provided; this is a more detailed, as-built document that has more information than the system specification. This usually isn't furnished until six months after the start-up and includes detailed programming information, etc.

. Maintenance engineering should be a part of any project team, .from preparing the functional specifications and selecting vendors and equipment through start-up and checkout and throughout the life of the equipment.

Maintenance personnel such as instrument and control system mechanics and technicians should also be involved in start-up and checkout They will gain experience in the system and should also be providing the training necessary to maintain the system.

53

Diagrams, Symbols, and Specifications

OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES

Operational procedure .u c f'l'III'I;d I y provided by the process or manufacturing engineering dcp.utuuut-, I hn <hould also be available to maintenance personnel during SYSkll1 ,III'lkplil 11 1\ suggested that operating personnel be available duriuc ,,!It'l'k,,"l. 111n<"lltivc maintenance, and corrective maintenance, They, the oper;ll ill)' 1"'1 '''flflC!. arc more familiar with the process and instrumentation and l'Pflll "I \\ ',[,'111 Idiosyncrasies,

Instrument Symbols

s\ lililll!, arc used on drawings to indicate devices, types of communication

II Ill", ,', JIIIll'd ion points, vessels, functions, and so on, The ISA-5 series of stand.rrd-, includes some of these symbols and figures. These standards illustrate the ,ymhols thal are intended to depict instrumentation on diagrams and drawings. Tile term "instrument," which is a device used directly or indirectly to measure and/or control a variable, includes primary elements, final control elements, computing devices, and electrical devices such as annunciators, switches, and push buttons. The term does not apply to parts (e.g., a receiver bellows or a resistor) that are internal components of an instrument.

The circular symbol, used to denote and identify the purpose of an instrument or function, is called the bubble or balloon. Squares, diamonds, and other shapes indicate instruments or functions such as shared display/control, computer functions, or programmable logic control (see Figure 3-14).

Discrete Instrument

A circle by itself is used to indicate a discrete or distinct instrument, that is, an individual instrument that performs one function such as a primary element or a single-loop temperature controller.

Shared Display

The bubble or balloon may include a box around the circle, which indicates shared display and/or shared control. A shared display is an operator interface device (usually a video screen) used to display process control information from a number of sources (time-shared) at the command of the operator. The signals and! or data (i.e., alphanumeric and/or graphic) reside in a database from which selective accessibility for display is at the command of the user. The video screen may be called a visual display unit (VDU), operator's station (OpSta), monitor, or color graphics terminal. In almost all cases there will be a solid horizontal line or a pair of solid horizontal lines that designate this device (display) as accessible to the operator.

Several device faceplates can be represented on the video screen. They might indicate controllers, digital or analog indicators, control stations, or switches. Graphic representations of the process are also used on the shared display, along with displays for individual loops, a group of loops, or an overview of a process or plant. Alarm annunciation is also indicated on shared display screens as well as real-time and historical trending.

The computer function symbol, a hexagon, is also a shared display that utilizes a computer, The Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry

(T APPI) and the pulp and paper industry uses the hexagon with a horizontal line as an accessible computer function,

54

__ ~ __ ~._" ,~ .•• k._ ,~i'~~_~'Q;y_~1,~ !'$-'?:~~"~'-F"~'r~-"'-;:","O.7>-~"'~~·':;:';""""~,,-,~----,,,,,-,- '-:'- ~. -

... .' '" . .' . ". " ;,;;~~.'~'~~, . .

Instrument Symbols

PRIMARY AUX ILI ARY
LOCATION FIELD LOCATION
*** NORMALLY MOUNTED *** NORMALLY
ACCESSIBLE TO ACCESSIBLE TO
OPERATOR OPERATOR
2 3
DISCRETE 'Er" 0
INSTRUMENTS
4 5 6
SHARED DISPLAY, 0
SHARED CONTROL
7 8 9
COMPUTER e 0
FUNCTION
10 I I 12
PROGRAMMABLE
LOGIC CONTROL * Symbol size may vary according to the user's needs and the type of document. A suggested square and circle size for large diagrams

is shown above. Consistency is recommended.

Abbreviations of the user's choice such as JPl (Instrument

Panel #1), IC2 (Instrument Console #2), CC3 (Computer Console #3), e r c , , may b. used when it 15 necessary to specify instrumeht or functIon location.

*** Normally inaccessible or behind-the-panel devices or functions

may be depicted by using the some symbols but with dashed horizontal

bars, i.~. 8 ~ e

Figure 3-14. General Instrument or Function Symbols (Source: ISA-5.1-1984 (R1992».

55

Diagrams, Symbols, and Specifications

--
13 14 15
r6rE\ CO
2584-23
<c::«
INSTRUMENT WlTH INSTRUMENTS SHARING
LONG TAG NUMBER COMMON HOU SING *
16 17 18
D ~ i> **
PI LOT PANEL MOUNTED PURGE OR
LIGHT PATCHBOARD POINT 12 FLUSHING DEVICE
_- 20 21
19
** **
<5> E;2] <}) ***
RESET FOR DIAPHRAGM UNDEFINED
LATCH-TYPE ACTUATOR SEAL INTERLOCK LOGIC * It is not mandatory to show a common housing.

** These diamonds are approximately half the size of the larger ones. *** For specific logic symbols, see ANSI lISA Standard S5.2.

Figure 3-14. General Instrument or Function Symbols (Source: ISA-S.1-1984 (R1992}) (cont'd).

Shared Control

Trending information is vatuable for tuning the loops and for going back in time to find the cause of a problem.

Shared control, which permits a number of process variables to be controlled by a single device, utilizes a shared controller that contains a plurality of preprogrammed algorithms that are usually accessible, retrievable, configurable, assignable, and cormectable and allows user-defined control strategies or functions to be implemented. The symbol for shared control is the same as for the shared display (a circle surrounded by a square). The shared control instrument might be a part of the shared display instrument, but, in some cases, field-mounted processors will not have an operator's display and are not accessible to the operator. Some manufacturers provide a means for attaching a portable calibrator or display unit with keyboard to assist maintenance in troubleshooting the shared controller without communication with the main control room, This portable display is not considered accessible to the operator.

Distributed control systems (DCS) utilize shared controllers placed throughout the plant on a data highway to transfer set point and other information from the shared display in the main control room and to transfer process data to lilt: shared display from the shared controller.

A distributed control system (DeS) is one that, while being functionally integrated, consists of subsystems that may be physically separated and remotely located form one another. Control, logic, calculations, and measurement functions are normally performed in the remote processor units close to the process. The control and logic continue whether or not the data highway is connected, The data highway provides a path to monitor the process and to request to the remote processors that changes be made.

56

Instrument Symbols

Multiloop controllers may be considered shared control and/or shared display.

Multiloop controllers may be panel mounted near the process.

Computer Functions

Computer functions are indicated by a six -sided polygon (see Figure 3-14).

Computer symbols should be used where systems include components identified as "computers," as distinct from integral processors, which drive the various functions of a distributed control system. The computer component may be integrated with the system via data line, or it may be a stand-alone computer.

A computer function symbol also could indicate a higher-level computer, generally considered a mainframe type, that provides remote setpoints to distributed control systems and setpoint tracking for manual analog backup. Mainframe computers are the link between gathering information about the process from the process control systems and the management information system (MIS). They provide information so that (1) management can make decisions or (2) the computer-aided manufacturing system can determine whether changes should be made in the process. A mainframe is also used for gathering data for the MIS; it can also be part of a computer-integrated manufacturing (ClM) system.

When the mainframe computer is not used for control, a tag number does not have to be used in the symbol; the symbol for "not accessible to the operator" is used (a bare polygon). An lor and 0 (or both) indicates input or output (or both). It is advisable to identify the computer function with a tag number.

Direct digital control (~OC) usually uses a mainframe computer and is indicated by the computer function symbol. All acquisition, linearization, logic, and control functions are accomplished in the central processing unit of the computer. Tag numbers are generally used when the mainframe computer is used for controL

There are several disadvantages of this type of controL One is that if the computer malfunctions, all loops are inoperative. But the biggest reason that ODC is not used very often in process control is the time and cost of programming or making changes to the computer program.

The computer function symbol is also used with a personal computer-based control system. Tag numbers are used when the PC is used for control. This symbol could be used when a standard PC is used as an aid or a window to a distributed control system and is not performing acquisition or control functions. If the PC is used only for data acquisition, the letter 0 is placed in the polygon on the P&ID or loop diagram. If the PC is an additional operator's console or a distributed control system, the shared display symbol could be used.

Programmable Logic Controller

A programmable logic controller (PLC) may be indicated by a diamond within a square box (see Figure 3-14), or it may be indicated as a shared display/ shared control symbol. The programmable logic controller symbol is normally used with a packaged PLC or stand-alone digital logic controls that may be part of the distributed control system (DeS). If both systems are supplied by the same manufacturer, the DeS symbols (shared display/control) are normally used.

General Logic or Sequential Control

A diamond that is not within a square is the general logic or sequential control symbol for undefined complex interconnections. An example is a diamond with the letter I inside to designate an undefined logic function.

57

Diagramsf Symbols, and Specifications

Location Symbols

Symbols indicate the location of the instrument and whether it is accessible to the operator.

A symbol with no horizontal line indicates that the instrument is fieldmounted near the process and not on an auxiliary panel. Some example of fieldmounted instruments are thermocouples, pressure transmitters, flowmeters, pH electrodes, and flow or pressure switches.

A single horizontal line indicates the instrument is panel-mounted on a primary panel and is accessible to the operator. Some examples are single-loop controllers, recorders, indicators, manual stations, and switches. "Accessible" is a term applied to a device that can be used or be seen by an operator for the purpose of performing control actions, e.g., setpoint changes, auto-manual transfer, or onoff action.

A single broken or dashed horizontal line indicates than the instrument is located behind the panel and is normally inaccessible to the operator. Some examples are square-root extractors, current-to-pneumatic converters, alann units, and so on.

Two horizontal solid lines indicate that the instrument is located on the front of a panel in an auxiliary location (not on the main control panel). Some examples are backup manual stations, analytical transmitters and controllers, local alarms, and bypass switches.

Two broken or dashed lines may indicate instruments located behind the auxiliary paneL These instruments are not normally accessible to the operator.

Valve, Damper, Actuator, Regulator, and Primary Element Symbols

Symbols are standard for control valves, dampers, actuators, regulators, and primary elements, as are graphic symbols for tanks, vessels, columns, and so on. Figure 3-15 shows some of the valve body symbols; Figure 3-16 shows some actuator symbols. The rSA-5 series of standards show additional symbols.

~ The general symbols/or valves and primary elements are often used on P&IDs,

"" but a more descriptive symbol might be used on loop diagrams. Instrument mainte-

nance personnel must recognize these symbols in order to locate instruments and know their functions. Engineers and maintenance personnel need to know the operations of the instruments and the correlations of the instruments to the plant process in order to properly maintain the systems.

Instrument Symbols

Instrument line symbols are used to determine the type of energy that is transmitted from one device to another. Process piping lines are bold, and all instrument line symbols are fine in relation to process piping lines. Direction-of-flow arrows may be. used nil process piping lines.

Instrument Supply

The instrument supply line symbol is used to indicate the instrument supply or connections to the process; it is a fine, solid line. Abbreviations are suggested to denote the type of power supply, and the value (level) of the supply should be indicated, such as ES 120 V AC (see Figure 3-17). Supply lines are not normally shown on the p&rD but are usually shown on instrument loop diagrams.

58

~ ,... ~ < <' • ~"' • " ~,,~, ~ " , • L .~ , ~ .' , ". ..:1".:, '{,.:. ~~ •• .._,,~ ''''-''''o/.\y;,. ~ '" ~,\' ...... ,,~, • ~ - ~

"~~ /,~~i~~;%~~~1~f ~\'\~~~~:L: I': ,-?l ' , \ ~ ~ ~ - ;:~1,.c"-~; ~}~>t,~:~~<~~kJ~(Jl;k~i~~~'-;!~~~J C{s¥.,~j"i~~~~~~~~lf~~~~~~~I~:+\~~¥~~.~~.· ,~~

- /' ~,;r'd'0.;}t~ .'fc.~w. ; ;t~;~,\\ e« ,~r<,\>..":t~~;\(,"~c~,:~.:-;.!.. .. {t.~l~~rW~~~~·~; ~ ~, , :0.&' ,~~r.~.fu,:;:~~~~ ~i ~

\. , ,~>::,. ~'\.' ·~:~~~:i~~),:t~k1,~0:~~:·~ ~ ~"~l:i.A~~At\~?~~f~~~~~~>t,s~~~t.~t;'f~$~T~{i~'!~i, ;'~~~. . .. ~~.~~~._{~:\"'

Instrument Symbols

I 2 3 4
~ ~ H"H c---{J---2
GENERAL SYMBOL ANGLE BUTTERFLY ROTARY VALVE
5 6 + 7 8
~ ~
THREE-WAY FOUR-WAY GLOBE
9 10 ' I I 12
~ qJ 0;1 4=1
DIAPHRAGM DAMPER OR LOUVER Further information may be added adjacent to the body symbol either by note or code number.

There are three types of air lines, Generally, AS (air supply) is used, but, in order to differentiate between plant air lines and instrument air lines, the letters IA and PA are used. Instrument air lines should meet ANSI/ISA-7. 0.0 1-1996-Quality Standard for Instrument Air. Instrument air must be clean and dry.

Connection to a Process

A fine, solid line is also used to indicate connection between the process piping lines and the device (see Figure 3-18).

Signal Lines

Signal1ines lie between the primary element and other components in the instrument control loop. Figure 3-19 shows line symbols for the medium used to transmit data.

PNEUMATIC SIGNAL LINE

The pneumatic signal line symbol represents pneumatic tubing and is shown by two short diagonal lines on the fme, solid line about every one half inch. This indicates that an air (pneumatic) signal, usually 3-15 psig, is used as the energy medium. The level of the pneumatic signal may be written near the signal lines on

loop diagrams. .

The pneumatic signal symbol applies to a signal than uses any gas as the energy medium. If a gas other than air is used, the gas may be identified by a note on

59

Diagrams, Symbols~ and Specifications

2

3

4

lA:l ,.

r: * t .-:**1,

PREFERRED ~ .. "

ALTERNATIVE ALTERNATIVE

PREFERRED FOR DIAPHRAGM ASSEMBLED WITH PILOT *. ASSEMBLY IS ACTUATED BY WITH OR WITHOUT ONE INPUT (SHOWN

POSITIONER I TYPICALLY WITH

?~_~~~:~_~~~~~ __ l __ ~=~=~~~=_~~~~~)

DIAPHRAGM, SPRING-OPPOSED, WITH POS!TIONER **

AND OVERRIDING PILOT VALVE THAT PRESSURIZES DIAPHRAGM WHEN ACTUATED

7

DIAPHRAGM, SPRING-OPPOS~D OR UNSPECIFIED ACTUATOR

6

5

r

Ef--l

I

ROTARY MOTOR (SHOWN TYPICALLY WITH ELECTRiC SIGNAL. MAY BE HYDRAULIC OR PNEUMATIC)

D1APHRAGM, PRESSURE-BALANCED

DIGITAL

9

10

8

~

I

PREFERRED FOR ANY CYLINDER THAT IS ~SSEMBLED WITH A PILOT * SO THAT ASSEMBLY

IS ACTUATED BY ONE CONTROLLED INPUT

SPRING-OPPOSED

SINGLE-ACTING DOUBLE-ACTING

CYLINDER, WITHOUT POSITIONER OR OTHER PILOT

* Pi lot may be POSitioner, solenOid valve, signal converter, etc.

** The positioner need not be shown unless an intermediate device is on its output. The POSitioner tagging, ZC, need not be used even if t~e

pos it i oner I s shown. The pos it i oner symbo I, a box drown on the oc t uo t o r shaft, is the same for all types of actuators. When the symbol is used, the type of Instrument Signal, I.e., pneumatic, electric, e t c ; , IS drown as appropriate. Jf the positioner symbol IS used and there IS no Intermediate device On Its output, then the positioner output Signal need not be shown.

*** The arrow represents the path from a common to a foi I open port. It does not c o r r c cpond neoess(1rily to ih~ d i r-e-c i r or, of fluid flow.

Figure 3-16. Actuator Symbols (Source: ISA-5.1-1984 (R1992».

the signal symbol or otherwise. This pneumatic signal line is used for pneumatic connections between instruments but not for energy supply lines. Energy supply lines are always fine, solid lines.

60

Instrument Symbols

1 J

SOLENOID

14

DUAL SOLENOIDS SWITCHING 4-WAY HYDRAULI C VALVE

17

( MANUAL RESETl

(REMOTE RESET)

12

PREFERRED ALTERNATIVE. A BUBBLE WITH INSTRUMENT TAGGING, E.G., TY-1, MAY BE USED INSTEAD OF THE I NTERLOCK SYMBOL 0

13

SINGLE-ACTING CYLINDER ( I MPLI ED I /P )

15

CYLINDER WITH POSITIONER AND OVERRIDING PILOT VALVE

ELECTROHYDRAULIC

16

VALVE ACTUATOR WITH ATTACHED ELECTROPNEUMATIC CONVERTER

19

T

HAND ACTUATOR OR HANDWHEEL

LATCH-TYPE ACTUATOR WITH RESET (SHOWN TYPICALLY FOR SOLENOID ACTUATOR AND TYPICALLY WITH ELECTRIC SIGNAL FOR REMOTE RESET, WITH MANUAL RESET

ALTERNATIVE)

18

FOR PRESSURE RELIEF OR SAFETY VALVES ONLY:

DENOTES A SPRING, WEIGHT, OR INTEGRAL PILOT

Figure 3-16. Actuator Symbols (cont'd).

AS AIR SUPPLY

IA INSTRUMENT AIR

PA PLANT AIR

ES ELECTRIC SUPPLY

GS GAS SUPPLY

HS HYDROGEN SUPPLY

NS NITROGEN SUPPl.Y

SS STEAM SUPPLY

WS WATER SUPPLY

Figure 3·17. Instrument Supply Line Symbols (Source: ISA-S.1-1984 (R1992».

61

Dlttgramu. Symbols, and Specltlcatlons

~ ClD

illw--

PRESSURE INDICATOR DIRECT-CONNECTED

DIAPHRAM SEAL FILLED SYSTEM

TEMP ELEMENT WITH WElL

LEVEL TRANSMITIER ONE-CONNECTION

Figure 3-18. Process Connectlon.

ELECTRICAL SIGNAL LINE

The electrical signal is represented by dashed lines or by three short diagonal lines everyone half inch on a fine, solid line. "Or" means this can be the user's choice, but consistency is recommended. These symbols represent signals that connect instruments or devices and not power supplies. If the power supply is 120 V AC, it is indicated by a fine, solid line as stated above.

The electrical signals may be current or voltage CAC or DC, analog or digital).

Binary signals may be indicated with a back slash. The level of the signal may be written near the signal lines on instrument loop diagrams.

HYDRAULIC SIGNAL LINE

Hydraulic signal lines are represented by a capital letter L on the fine, solid line. Hydraulic lines use hydraulic fluids as the medium. Hydraulic lines are generally used when high pressures are required.

ELECTROMAGNETIC OR SONIC SIGNAL LINE

Electromagnetic phenomena include heat, radio waves, nuclear radiation, and light. "Sonic" pertains to audible sounds and ultrasonic sounds or acoustics. The symbol is a sine wave, and when guided it will also have a fine, solid line. "Guided" is a term that means the medium is confined within an enclosed area such as a wave guide, fiber optic cable, or other. "Not guided" means the medium travels through the atmosphere.

INTERNAL SYSTEM LINK

With the introduction of computers and microprocessors, it became necessary to indicate software or data link communications. A small circle breaks the solid line about everyone half inch_ This symbol is used to show communications within a microprocessor-based controller.

MECHANICAL LINK

The mechanical link symbol is a series of solid circles, each surrounded by another circle, that break the solid line, It is used when the transmission medium is mechanical, such as gears or a shaft.

CAPILLARY TUBE SYMBOL

The capillary tube symbol is a fine, solid line with an X everyone half inch.

This symbol is generally used only from the primary element to the first device it is connected to. Some examples are filled temperature bulbs and pressure transmitters in which the diaphragm is separated from the electronics.

62

~-.!'~~,,~, ",>!-"", ... ~ '('"~_",,~I""~_' ~ ~.,~..-.. """'i •• (r,-.,....,~_ r ,.....?~~c..,o. ~~~."., ,~','" ~:'1-';" \'r-'.~ .... 'H'"' I' ,~,'W< - ~? .;;; "'r·,r.~ >."r. '" ~, r"

, , ~ "'~~~~~'it~~i4'~t~~i®:,l;j;edi;~~~~1.~1i~t~'~~f,;(~~t~)'&~~~t~:i~$~~i'~~:~ ~

< ~~, \_'-f~JI~£ ~ , ~~f~:~~~fl~~~*~W:i{{\~;i~'~YIi"~~:~.~~~~~~ . ~~~l~~lit$~:r::)~\\:~

- :~;,/£ ~\\;:~~~{Jitl ~~til¥1~~~%@~~i:~~~1f~~ *~- ~~=_ ~;~g~~~1. rfJ1.l!!;~~~ _ ~~~!J¥tt}1~~:::

• • .\ r' "".\Ti,\<r~ """r ,..; '< ,._.~ ~";;-~ ~'*'- .... ~~'@ ~~ .~

63

lnstrurnent Symbols

ALL LINES TO BE FINE IN RELATION TO PROCESS PIPING LINES.

( 1) INS TRUMENT SUPPL Y *-

OR CONNECT10N TO PROCESS

(2) UNDEFINED SIGNAL

( 3) PNEUMA TI C SIGNAL *-*-

# 70-
..... -------- ...... -- OR 775/ /f'Y
L L

)( )(

C\ C\
V v
rv rv ( 4 ) ELECTR I C SIGNAL

(5) HYDRAULI C S r GNAL

( 6 ) CAP I LLARY TUBE

(7) ELECTROMAGNETIC OR SONIC SIGNAL *-*-'" (GUIDED)

( 8 ) ELECTROMAGNETIC OR SON ic S! GNAL * * * (NOT GU !OED)

(9) INTERNAL SYSTEM LINK (SOFTWARE OR DATA LINK)

--0-0--

( 10) MECHANICAL LI NK

e

e

OPTIONAL 6INARY (ON-OFF) SYMBOLS

( I 1) PNEUMATIC B I NARY SIGNAL

(12) ELECTRIC BINARY SIGNAL

___ '-.; \..___ OR

NOTE: 'Or' means user's choice. Consistency is recommended.

* The fol lowing abbreviations ore suggested to denote the types of power supply. These designations may also be appi ied to purge fluid supplies.

Air } Op t ions

HS - Hydraulic Supply NS - Nitrogen Supply 5S - Steam Supply

WS - Water Supply

AS - Air Supply

IA - Instrument PA - Plant Air ES - Electric Supply GS - Gas Supply

The supply level may be added to the instrument supply I inet e.g., AS-IOO, a IOO-psig air supply; [S-240C, a 24-volt direct current power supply.

** The pneumatic signal symbol applies to a signal using any gas as the ::. i gna I med i urn. I f a gas othf.'rthan air is used, the gas may be identified by a note on the Signal symbol or otherwise.

*** Electromagnetic phenomena include heat~ radio waves, nuclear radiation, and light.

Figure 3-19. Instrument Line Symbols (Source: ISA-5.1-1984 (R1992».

Diagrams, Symbols, and Specifications

UNDEFINED SIGNAL LINE

A solid line with one short diagonal line everyone half inch is the symbol for an undefined signal line. When this symbol is used, a statement or note should be put on the drawing to indicate the actual medium.

BINARY SIGNAL LINES

Optional binary (on-off) symbols may indicate with a back slash on the normal signal line. An electrical binary signal may be back slashed on a dashed line. This symbol is used when it is advisable to differentiate between the normal 4-20 rnA signal lines and binary lines.

Internal System Function Block Symbols

The internal system function block function designations may be used to designate the computer function for computation and signal conditioning. The use of a box around the appropriate symbol avoids confusion by setting off the symbol from other markings on a diagram and permits the function to be used as a standalone block on conceptual designs (see Figure 3-20). The function designations associated with controllers, computing devices, converters, and relays may be used individually or in combination.

Additional Symbols Used on Drawings and Diagrams

All of the symbols mentioned above are used on process and instrumentation diagrams (P&ID) and instrument loop diagrams. Some of the symbols are used on other process drawings, and, of course, some additional symbols are used on other drawings, diagrams, and schematics. the general terminal or bulkhead symbol is used on instrument loop diagrams to identify a junction box or termination assembly and to identify each connection used (see Figure 3-21).

Instrument terminals and/or ports show the connection to the instrument (see Figure 3-22). It is suggested that identifying numbers or letters be the manufacturer's designation. The balloon symbol and identification are the same as shown on the P&ID.

Instrument system energy supply identification is shown on instrument loop diagrams rather than on P&IDs. The identification includes all energy supply connections and also indicates the appropriate voltage or pressure, as shown in Figure 3-23.

Additional information that may be found on instrument loop diagrams is included later in this chapter.

Tag Numbers

Instrument symbols usually contain a tag number, which is the unique identification number of the instrument (see Figure 3-1). The tag number indicates the function of the instrument and its loop number (see Figure 3-24).

Function

The definition of "function" is the "purpose of' or "an action performed by" a device. The functional Identification uf an instrument or its functional equivalent consists of letters from Table 3-1 and includes a first letter, which designates the measured or initiating variable (i.e., T indicates temperature, P indicates pressure, F indicates flow, DP indicates differential pressure, etc.) and one or more succeeding letters, which identify the functions performed.

The sequence of identification letters begins with a first letter selected according to Table 3-1. Readout or passive functional letters follow in any order, and output functional letters follow these in any sequence, except that output letter C

64

Instrument Symbols

z o

~

z

u::

en )g

z o W

w o

1:

X

+

+

+ <: '"

X

+ N X

N X

xl-

-0"0

+

x

+

x-

" ::;:

o I-

" :::;:

w >

~

> ir

w o

CI z

(5

~ a: w

~

.J ~ rr CI w fZ

Figure 3·20. Function Block Symbols (Source: ISA-5.1-1984 (R1992».

65

Otflgrarnp, Symbol~, and Spociflcutlons

Ii I
on I- Z cO
t- o::
::l ::l ::l - O. I-
a. 0.. 00 oc i=~ ::l
~ ~ ~~ tu a.
s: °0 ~
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~ 0- j?..; w
o~ a. ?-'
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tu tu n:{/) 2 ~~ Il.
~ I UJ- 0::
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Il. ::l11.. a ~'"' (1)11.. 0::
n, {/)o
0 0 U- W UJ
I- 'I-' <fl. w:J Wz ~
Z I- Z Il.!::l ;;:.-,. za. ::Eo
U UJ ""a. o::g -z Fj:: iii
0 ::l -'- 0::
a i= I-Z I-w ZUJ 1-0 o
1= 0 0 §~2 :::l. O:e :JZ w
Z 0:: ::l a.:e ZI- a.:J
0 ZI- ZI1.. I
u: a. -0:: wl1.. ;Uw I-
tLI w w WI1...:2 W::l ~O $2
I I ~O~ IO ~~
0 l- f- 1-11.. 005
~J~ <Il<ll ...J
{/) 00 tfJ - ~~ 00:
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-c -c «1-00 «0:: oo:U «....I 0
::l :;J ::lW- ::1- ::IZ ::J« W
0 0 0....-1- o~ o::l O::l
W UJ wog UJ wl1.. wO ~
l- I- ~@o:: 1--0 1-0 I-W I-
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I- 1-_0:: I-U I-
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0 0 O....-:::l 0'" O~ 02 0
W W wgo w' wOO wl= iii
I I ~Il::~ Ill.! IZ :ell. :e
l- I- I-~ 1-::' 1-0 I-
~: - _j- .. - SJ - - ~:
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tLI
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o x x x x - - - x
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x X x x x x X
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cr:cr:
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Z Z 0 1= 0:: w G
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1= G U W IU oQ 0 i=
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z ~ is 0 ...J a.u IUU :CW
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u, a x -w
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z ~ ~ - - Figure 3-20. Function Block Symbols {Source: ISA-S.1-1984 (R1992» cont'd.

66

Instrument Symbols

f-" u_ >- o
Z
J OW<Of-" III a
<Ii 0.. 1!:!3oji ~ s
~ en~
I- ~~~~ Qb
:J l- t: III en cr:
n, ~ is lU~~W Ui u, I-tu
;; ::::; ::;_ iS~ii'l~ I- tu..J
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tu I ~ en..Ji!en Z ur Cl~
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l- _, «<l:(f}..J w
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III W 2 zItlW5 u,
a a ~~i!..J
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z 0 enw - ...I ..J
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0 W 0.. -c :l:1llcr:O
F _, l- t- a 5~1-e( I- 2 •• t t
tu J. J. cr: J !2 IOO::O
Z 0..1l: 0..0:: 0.. ~(f}!;;:5 0.. .
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u, -~ -:I: ::; _WWI!: I-
w ~ !!!o 1llC) III ~8~b W· J
0 :1:- [I} J:~ I!:
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w
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67

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"~"- - - ,-<~,-~-- "_., ~, ·,_LA '~--'-'-~'- __ "' __ L-"" _

Dlaqrarns, Symbols, and Specifications

z o i=

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!.L W o

o

:5

u,

<:( (f)

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~

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ui 0:: -c Ci3
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1i5 -' iY. « ill -c ...J ill (2 :;t N ,
~ I- « :::0 ::;;: X co
-c UJ z z z z; => w ~ -<
ir: <:( 0 <:( <t -c z i= a ~ I-'
:3 .c -o~ I ~I.= ...J :2 c 1-0 X '"
ill
J:
t- :r:

:r:

-'

I v t X

I

-' v X

--' A' X

A X

z o

~

z :;) LL

H------~---------"

a z

Figure 3-20. Function Block Symbols (Source: ISA-5.1-1984 (R1992» cont'd.

68

Instrument Symbols

x X X X-----,- IDENTIFY JUNCTION BOX OR . TERMINATION ASSEMBLY

1
2
3
4
5
6 IDENTIFY EACH CONNECTION USED

Figure 3-21. General Terminal or Bulkhead Symbol (Source: ISA-5.4-1991).


7 INSTRUMENT TERMINALS OR
/ PORTS WITH IDENTlFYINGlEITERS,
~ NUMBERS OR BOTH. (IT IS
8 1 SUGGESTED THAT IDENTIFYING
NUMBERS OR LETTERS BE THE
'~ MANUFACTURER'S DESIGNATIONS.)
15 2
16 FIgure 3-22. Instrument Terminals and Ports (Source: ISA.-5.4-1991)

(control) precedes output letter V (valve) (e.g., pev, a self-actuated control valve). However, modifying letters, if used, are interposed so that they are placed immediately following the letters they modify.

~4 The functional identification of an instrument is made according to the function ~ and not according to the construction.

The functional identification of a differential pressure recorder used for flow measurement is FR; a pressure indicator and a pressure-actuated switch connected to the output of a pneumatic level transmitter are identified by LI and LS, respectively. The first letter of the functional identification is selected according to the measured or initiating variable, not according to the manipulated variable. Thus, a control valve that varies flow according to the dictates of a level controller is an LV (level valve), not an FV (flow valve).

Any first letter, if used in combination with the modifying letters D(differential), F (ratio), M (momentary), K (time rate of change), Q (integrate or totalize), or any combination of these, is intended to represent a new and separate measured variable, and the combination is treated as first letter entity.

Diagrams, Symbols, and Specifications

L1

ES 11S v, 60 Hz PANEL A. CIRCUIT 12

L2

G

(a) El.ECTRICAL POWER' SUPPLY

AS 20 PSIG (IAORPAARE

OPTIONAL ALTERNATIVES FOR AIR SUPPLY)

(b) AIR SUPPl.Y

HSSO PSIG

(e) HYDRAULIC FLUID SUPPl.Y

Figure 3-23. Instrument System Energy Supplies (source: ISA-5.4-1991).

TIC 103 T 103 103

TYPICAl. TAG NUMBER

- INSTRUMENT IDENTIFICATION OR TAG NUMBER

- lOOP IDENTIFICATION

- LOOP NUMBER

- FUNCTIONAL IDENTIFICATION

- FIRST-LETTER

- SUCCEEDING-LETTERS

TIC T IC

10·PAH·SA 10

EXPANDED TAG NUMBER - TAG NUMBER

- OPTIONAL PREFIX

- OPTIONAL SUFFIX

A

NOTE: HYPHENS ARE OPTIONAL AS SEPARATORS.

Figure 3-24. Tag Numbers.

The succeeding letters of the functional identification designate one or more readout or passive functions and/or output functions. A modifying letter may be used, if required, in addition to one or more other succeeding letters.

Remember, the first letter is being modified. Use the modifier after the first letter, not the modifier after succeeding letters.

Expanded Tag Number

If a given loop has more than one instrument with the same functional identification, a suffix may be appended to the loop number, e.g, FV-2A, FV-2B, FV- 2C, etc., or TE-25-1, TE-25-2. The suffixes may be applied according to the following guidelines:

(1) An uppercase suffix letter should be used, i.e., A, B, C, etc.

70

Instrument Symbols

(2) For an instrument such as a multipoint temperature recorder that prints number for point identification, the primary elements may be numbered TE-25-1, TE-25-2, TE-25-3, etc., corresponding to the point identifications number.

(3) Further subdivisions of a loop may be designated by serially alternating suffix letters and numbers.

71

5

Maintenance Management and Engineering

Overview

Maintenance management has progressed over the years from a rather "hit-ormiss" attempt at keeping the plant going through a "trial-and-error" approach to complicated computer-assisted management of many complex maintenance operations. Record keeping and inventory control are just a couple of the necessities that have gone "high tech" in the maintenance organization today. Maintenance training has also taken on a new look. Periodic job/task analyses allow matching individual skills to the required tasks of maintenance personnel.

Training for upward progression in one's job has become vital to a dynamic organization. Many opportunities for effective use of maintenance workers can be analyzed from a review of a typical maintenance worker's day,

A recent "Factory Automation Maintenance Survey," conducted by Dick Slansky, Senior Analyst at ARC Advisory Group, showed industrial plants typically spend 75% of their maintenance budget in-house. The remaining 25% is done under contract.

Yes, maintenance management is big business and-very important to the: nation as it views its competitive position in world markets.

Maintainability and maintenance go with product reliability, quality assurance, and availability. Keeping the plant or process going at top performance will help assure products are of top quality and are competitive in world markets.

An objective of a sound maintenance management program must be customer satisfaction, making sure customers have the equipment and systems needed to perform the production function in the most efficient manner possible within the limits of the equipment and systems under their control (see Figure 5-1).

CUSTOMER SATISFACTION

EQUIPMENT/SYSTEM CAPABLE AVAILABLE DEPENDABLE

MENTAL ATTITUDE POSITIVE

Figure 5·1. The Objective of Maintenance

97

Maintenance Management and Engineering

The Need for Maintenance Management

The bottom line is profit. Sound maintenance practices, driven by a well organized maintenance management program, will contribute to profitability. Petrochemical producers spend around $13 billion dollars annually on equipment maintenance. Being able to control these expenditures is a necessity. Good maintenance and good service to the customer are not accidental. Planning is the key, and it is required. A machine is designed and built once but must be serviced many times. Engineering creates the design, the-design is constructed, the plant organization accepts the design and construction, and then the maintenance organization comes into the loop because it is expected to keep the system going at peak performance. Some maintenance organizations come into the loop early in the design phase, which is a good practice and pays dividends in the long run. Other maintenance organizations do not come into the loop until the plant is built and operating, which results in very slow acclimatization to the plant's operations.

Excellent reliability built into instrumentation today has shortened maintenance time, compared to even a decade ago. Meanwhile, the skill set needed to work with todays computerized automation equipment has changed significantly. Maintenance personnel have-needed to undergo considerable training to keep abreast of the new and emerging instrumentation and control technologies.

Maintenance Philosophy

In order to arrive at an optimum organization for instrumentation and control system maintenance, an understanding of maintenance philosophy is required by both the operating and maintenance personnel.

Iif:_~ A key to a successful maintenance program is assuring its philosophy is written

~ _,J!I and communicated through the maintenance and operating organizations. Writing

- the philosophy requires going beyond platitudes and generalities. Rather, confront

"head-on" and resolve some very basic issues.

Some typical issues are:

(1) How much is appearance worth?

(2) How many outages, and of what duration, are acceptable? (3) What are the priorities?

(4) Is centralized or decentralized maintenance functionality needed? (5) What are the shift coverage requirements?

(6) What work should be done by contractors and what should be done inhouse?

As a part of preparing the maintenance philosophy, the responsibilities as they are distributed within the organization must be determined and analyzed.

The Operating Group

The operating group has the ultimate responsibility for any maintenance program. The operating group (the proprietor) owns all the equipment and has the ultimate responsibility for the proper operation of the equipment and operating maintenance (operational maintenance). This group approves PM (preventive or predictive maintenance) and plans, schedules, and establishes the maximum acceptable allowable down time (frequency and time duration). The bottom line for the proprietor is to determine if and when all maintenance will take place to maintain equipment and to meet customer standards and satisfaction.

98

Maintenance Management Organization

Maintenance (Shops and Support) Department

Maintenance department personnel have responsibility for planning and controlling maintenance programs. They inspect, lubricate, and repair equipment. Their mission is to provide quality maintenance service and activities through efficient and effective systems and technologies that enable production facilities to manufacture at the lowest cost. They keep equipment histories, especially with regard to standards and traceability. They keep track of spare parts inventories, spare parts needs, and extra machinery lists. They prepare maintenance procedures and training courses. They suggest and manage training of operating personnel on equipment so a high proficiency of operation is possible .

. The maintenance organization responds to the needs of the operating organization within the guidelines established by that organization (down time and frequency) with the type of maintenance required to deliver the forecast. Maintenance group personnel determine the "how" and the "who" for the maintenance function.

Operations and Maintenance Cooperative Efforts

Some maintenance functions require the operating group to cooperate with the maintenance department to determine the equipment to be included in any maintenance program. The group must justify new equipment to be purchased based upon equipment history, costs, and level of quality to match customers' needs. This cooperative group must determine what needs to be done and where maintenance will be performed.

Some organizations must keep statistics and cost data on the maintenance of equipment. This data may be a part of the history file kept by the maintenance department, or it may be a separate function kept by a support group (such as the accounting department). Information and statistics are kept for both the operating group and the maintenance department. Purchase costs, frequency of repair, repair costs, and other statistical data become a part of the crunch cost data. This type of information allows for continuous improvement of equipment and procedures.

Maintenance Management Organization

There are maintenance organizations and thenthere are other maintenance organizations. Is there a specific formula for the right organization? Perhaps not.

Department members should have the skills and stature to earn the respect of those with whom they work. Trades people need to be able to demonstrate that they have the skills to meet the demands of the plant.

Many companies have adopted a team approach to maintenance management in which various department members are assigned to specific teams (shown in the star organization chart of Figure 5-2 as function points). Each function point becomes a team with a specific mission. Team members represent specific duties or areas such as operations, personnel, planning, workplace, and coordination.

Regular meeting times are established, and team members share concerns at these meetings. This is thought to be a more effective way to solve problems and provide a more efficient department with much more involvement in the decisionmaking process. Each department member has input in managing the department.

Department Supervisor

The position of department supervisor requires a very dynamic and versatile individual. First, this individual must be extremely knowledgeable of the plant and plant processes. Ten to twenty years experience is a requirement for first- or second-line maintenance supervision. Plant knowledge generally comes from

A good rule of thumb for determining the size of the maintenance department is an operating dollar value equal to 2% of the replacement value of the facility. A high tech rule of thumb is one person full time for each one to two million dollars of automatic control systems investment.

99

Maintenance Management and Engineering

years of experience in a variety of different assignments. Background should be engineering or technology with good people skills, organizational abilities, etc. In the past it was generally thought that a skilled trades person with good people skills could advance to this position. Modem thinking favors the engineering base because of the rapidly advancing technologies and complexity of the modern plant and processes. An instrumentation and control background seems to prepare a person well for this position.

The department supervisor has traditionally held a position of leadership within the department, but traditional roles are changing. In addition to the leadership function, the role of resource person has been added-to-the position. A resource person within an organization may be called upon from the bottom up as well as from the top down and.isthe spokesperson for the department. He or she is also easily identified with the department.

WHAT

WHEN

WHERE

Figure 5-2. Team Functions.

~4 It is very important that all equipment be properly identified and critical instru~ mentation be backed up by up-to-date history files.

Basic Requirements for a Maintenance Department

Planned Maintenance Program

A planned maintenance program should include the following important component programs: predictive maintenance, preventive maintenance, repair, corrective maintenance, and protective programs. A total program requires using each, based on data from the history file, cost reports, and critical applications. The following are definitions of important components of a planned maintenance program:

Planned maintenance - Each equipment piece is identified and its maintenance defined.

Repairs maintenance - Equipment fails and the required maintenance is performed.

Preventive maintenance - Equipment maintenance is scheduled prior to failure on an estimate of the life of the equipment.

100

Basic Requirements for a Maintenance Department

Predictive maintenance - Maintenance is performed when the need is indi. cated based on regular or continuous monitoring of the equipment.

Corrective maintenance - Maintenance is reduced or eliminated by analyzing prior maintenance work and making changes in design, installation materials or procedures.

Critical equipment - Equipment failure that adversely affects safety, environment, system availability, yield, quality or costs.

Noncritical equipment - Equipment failure that can be identified and repaired within a reasonable period oftime so adverse effects, if any, are within acceptable limits.

Equipment component information is kept in the history file of the component.

This information is generally computerized and is readily available to all maintenance employees. A sample life cycle chart should be included as a reference (see Figure 5-3).

r I

I I

I r

I I

I ,

, ,

, ,

, ... "'--- PRACTICAL LlMITS---... .. ,

, ,

I 1

,""".-- OPTIMUM OPERATION ~

1 MONITOR 1

I CONDITION /1

I CLOSELY r: I 1

REPLACE WHEN SIGNIFICANT FAILURES

BURN IN TO AVOID INFANT FAILURE

·w

!;c

II:

~

::J ..J

~

~ ~ ~L-~ ___

A

a C D

TIME

Figure 5-3. Sample Life Cycle Chart.

PREDICTIVE MAINTENANCE

Maintenance scheduled prior to failure and based on an estimate of the life of the equipment is called predictive maintenance. Predictive maintenance is used on equipment that has been classified as critical, for which unscheduled down time would be detrimental to plant operations. Depending on the critical nature of the equipment and process, the frequency of predictive maintenance may vary. In some. plants this type of maintenance is performed at regularly scheduled shutdown times. Some examples of predictive maintenance programs are: vibration analysis on mixers, air compressors, generators, pumps, and motors; oil analysis on vacuum pumps, air conditioning compressors, and diesel engines; thermography on outside electric lines, main interior switch gear, and roofs. Any change in performance is indicated hy monitoring equipment.

PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE

Maintenance scheduled prior to failure, based on an estimate of the life of the equipment or from the maintenance department history and repair files, is called preventive maintenance. Usually the manufacturer can and will provide failure

101

Maintenance Management and Engineering

rate data to help plan this type of maintenance program. Initially, the equipment history records will indicate the true frequency for shutdown to maintain a "no unscheduled down time" concept.

CORRECTIVE OR REMEDIAL MAINTENANCE

When the equipment fails, required maintenance is performed to get the equipment back in operation. The nature of repair, time, and cost are recorded. This type of maintenance is acceptable but is not-complete until the entire problem has been solved.

Planning and Scheduling

Planning and scheduling farm the":genesis~"0faneffective maintenance management organization. With planning, each job is analyzed, resources carefully chosen, and the process designed to accomplish the task. Scheduling allows for customer interaction to achieve desired goals. Parts, labor, and time tables are established and agreed to by the organization so work can be done safely, at the right time, and in the most efficient manner (see Figure 5-4).

Formal planning and scheduling provide a work order system structured for better cost control and job progress and which provides report data on equipment and the system itself.

The advantages of planning and scheduling include the following:

(I) For production-Reduces cost of maintenance while improving service; provides data on maintenance performance; provides an orderly process by which work is accomplished.

(2) For maintenance-Establishes goals for the work force; eliminates delays due to waiting for materials and equipment, other skills, tools, etc.; applies specialized knowledge to planning/scheduling of shutdowns.

(3) For management-Permits accurate forecasting of labor and materials; enables management to level out peak work loads; provides a full planned day's work for each person and increases productivity.

(4) For all technical staff-Provides clear instruction; fewer obstacles to accomplish tasks; and fewer interruptions and delays.

Work Order System

Although a solid preventive maintenance program can dramatically increase equipment operational availability, it cannot prevent all equipment breakdowns. Therefore, a work order system is a necessary part of the maintenance program.

This section examines a work order system and presents sample work orders.

The work order system or cycle begins with the work request The work request contains an identification number; a description; a labor estimate; important dates; and originator information. The work order is generated from the information that appears in the work request The work order is the most important document in the work order system.

A sample of a work order is shown in Figure 5-5. In addition to data taken from the work request, the work order must show the approval signature of the person approving the order.

A typical daily schedule sheet is shown in Figure 5-6. A typical weekly schedule is shown in Figure 5-7. Scheduling of work is done on a priority basis. Occasionally, it is necessary to generate an emergency work order (see Figure 5-8).

The function of the work order system is to maximize effectiveness.

102

Work Order System

JOB: CHANGE FEEDWATER PUMP SEAL

STEPS: 1. LOCK SWITCH OFF
2. LOCK VALVES OFF
3. OBTAIN LIFT
4. OBTAIN PALLET
5. DISCONNECT PIPING
6. DISCONNECT MOTOR
7. MOVE ASSEMBLY TO PALLET
8. MOVE UNITTO SHOP
9: OBTAIN SEAL 10. CHANGE SEAL
11. MOVE UNIT TO SITE
12. REINSTALL ASSEMBLY
13. RECONNECT PIPING
14. RECONNECT MOTOR
15. UNLOCK VALVES
16. UNLOCK MOTOR
17. RETURN LIFT
18. RETURN PALLET (a) MAINTENANCE JOB PLAN

9

1-0-2

3

2-M-1

4

2-M-1

6

1-E-1/2

2 5

L-~~--~3r-----~

1-0-1/4 1-P-1/2

18

14

2-M-1

1-E-1/2

(b) ARROW DIAGRAM, PUMP REPAIR

JOB NO. TIME JOB NO .. TIME
'12 114. HR. 6-7 2HRS.
2-3 114 7-8 1/2
2-4 1/2 8-9 1
:k 1/2 9-10 1/2
4-5 1 ro-n 1/4
5-6 112 11-12 112
1-6 2 12-13 1 CRITICAL PATH 1-4-5-6-7-8-9-10-11-12-13

(c) PUMP REPAIR

Figure 5-4. Planning and Scheduling.

103

Maintenance Management and Engineering

PLANT ENGINEERING WORK ORDER

RETURNED TO AREA 1YPE WORK CODES
COORDINATOR LOCATION o 1. Repairs
REASONS: CHARGE No. 0 0 0 o 2. Alterations - Improvements
INSUFFICIENT DETAILS 0 Area Letter Equipment Number o 3. Aid to Operations
PROJECT REQUIRED 0 PROJECT No. o 4. Preventive Maintenance

CRAFT ESTIIMTED VOOR
TITLE NO. S.D. REG. TOTAL
Mel< tillS HAS. HRS.
DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF WORK (To by typed) Carpenters
Painters -." .~
Pipe Fitters
Control
Electricians
Machinists
Yard

Total
Shutdown Required Yes No
Safety Priority Yes No
Equipment Modified Yes No
If yes. Safety Acceptance required
[]TORES I I I ~DERED I I
Material Req. No. DeL /Vfsa Coordinator Issued by __ - Area Coordinator Approval Date Dale Received _

Completed _-:-:-...,..--;-=-_.",- __ Date Actual Hours _

MechMiclF0<9man Signature

Figure 5-5. Sample Plant Engineering Work Order.

Approximately 90% to 95% of available manpower is scheduled, leaving 5% to 10% for emergencies.

Computerized maintenance management programs will assist in generating sample work order formats. Totally integrated maintenance management (TIMM) is such a program.

MTTF, MTTR, and Availability

Equipment availability is an essential part of the maintenance management system. The following are some important terms and definitions:

(1) MTTF - Mean time to failure, the average time/distance/events a product delivers between breakdowns. The average or mean-time between initial operation and the first occurrence of a failure or malfunction. The number ofmeasurements between failures on many pieces of identical equipment, approaching infinity.

(2) MTBF ~ Mean time between failures, the limit of the ratio of operating of equipment to the number of observed failures as the number of failures approaches infinity. The total operating time divided by the quantity (n+ 1), where n is the number of failures during the time considered.

104

MTTF, MTTR, and Availability

DAILY SCHEDULE SHEET
ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Technician Craft

Shift No. Men Distr.

Date w.o. No. Title of Job Est. Act Figure 5-6. Typical Schedule Sheet.

(3) MTTR - Mean time to repair, the average time it takes to repair a failed item.

(4) Availability - The probability a system or equipment will, when used under specified conditions, operate satisfactorily and effectively. Also, the percentage of time or number of occurrences for which a product will operate properly when called upon. An example of availability is shown in

Figure 5-9. .

105

Maintenance Management and Engineering

W ....I ;:) o W I o (J')

:::.:: a:

~

<C w a: <C ....I <C ~

z <C :r o w ::iE

e

.. u

Figure 5-7. Sample Mechanical Area Work Schedule.

I I I
0 ~ c;
Q) "iii
iii "ii :E
Q.. ~
C
a> .,
" i 1 ~
u
.,;
%
Ii':'~.r:::. 1
.. Co) ::;) en
8 ~ 0: d 106

Trairiing Maintenance Workers

EMERGENCY REPAIR ORDER

_____________ Shift _

Date _

Area
«I
<D Equipment Name
4:
>- Description of Problem
ell
.£
"'0
~
u:
Work Requested By (Name)
Repair Action Taken
.2
c:
as
s:
()
III
::iE
>- Parts Used
rn
.5
"
~ Shop
u:
Original to Mechanic
Copy to Area Coordinator _________________ Cost Code

________ Hourn

Signature(s) _;_ _

Figure 5-8. Typical Emergency Repair Order.

Training Maintenance Workers

Training programs for maintenance workers should prepare them to carry out the tasks assigned by their company and to satisfy the needs of their customers. The management function of such programs involves choosing the correct training methods and materials, the correct subjects for training, instructors, and a

. place for this training. It also involves detailed scheduling so there is ample time for sometimes complex instruction as well as for performance of the job at hand.

Without an ongoing training program, any company eventually may face technical obsolescence, decreased productivity, and increased costs. '

Many avenues are open, such as individual training programs, classroom training on site or at a training institute, or on-the-job training, to name but a few. Apprentice programs are again becoming a popular method. It should always be remembered that most people learn more quickly and retain more of what they learn when they are involved in a hands-on manner.

SU1ll~ method fur evaluating the progress of trainees must be chosen. No amount of training is beneficial if its results cannot be measured and applied.

Training is covered in some detail in another section of this book. Without thoughtful management, this important concern can be a useless and costly exercise. With concerned management, it can be one of the most productive areas in the life of a company.

107

Maintenance Management and Engineering

AVAILABILITY =

TOTAL TIME - LOST TIME TOTAL TIME

24 HR X 365 DAY OPERATION = 8760 HOURS

8760- TL

A'" TT

AVAILABILITY::: __ M_TT_F~~ MTTF+ MTTR

(a) DEFINITION

I.. AS1 ----_+~

SERIES

5 0.9010

4 0.9430

SERIES

3 0.6400

+1111 .. 1------ AS2----___,.1Ir>l1 PARALLEL

(b) SERIES/PARALLEL AVAILABILITY

SERIES:

s'l :; (0.9999) (0.9899) '" 0.9898

PARALLEL:

1\2 = 1 - (1 - 0.9898) (1 - 0.6400) = 1 - (0.01 02) (0.36) ::: 0.9963

TOTAL SYSTEM:

'93 = (0.9963) (0.9430) (0.9010) '" 0.8465

WHERE:

A1 = 0.9999 :; 0.9899 ::: 0.6400 = 0.9430 :; 0.9010

(e)

Figure 5-9. Availability.

108

Preparing Functional Specifications

ring Functional Specifications

The key document generated in the planning phase is the "Functional Specifi" This document tells exactly what the system should do, what will be supto the system, and what is expected to come out of it. The functional '''U.~''.'U'-''U should be written as generically as possible to allow for selection of optimum supplier.

a Project Team

efore preparing a functional specification, a project team should be selected to the project. This team should have representation from the following

; Facilities Engineering, Project Engineering, Manufacturing Engineering, s Engineering, Maintenance Engineering, Operations Department and

and Loss Prevention Departments.

ject Team Meetings

The first meetings should review the project definitions, requirements and comphilosophies. Then determine the responsibilities of each member. In the meetings you should prepare a logic network, defining user needs, functional '~I.fUlrelnel:US, and expansion requirements during all phases of design, insure ",,,,,,.,VH conforms to codes and standards.

Next, start preparing process and engineering flow sheets, instrument drawings, inputJoutput tabulations. Define the man-machine interface.

Do not design a minimum system and feel you can add to it later.

ueterrmne musts, should, and likes

Clear distinctions should be made between functional necessities and desirable

First list all the musts; next the shouIds, then the wishes or likes. Your original iJlI.l1CtlQln:'ll requirements should include all of the above. The priorities might

if very little or no cost is involved in the less important priorities.

The control system costs are generally a very small part 'of the overall project '1.I.nd can be a benefit in production/manufacturing quality and costs. It is easier to

. . cut back on control system cost, rather than adding later.

There will be changes to the process before the new system goes on line. The system must be flexible so additions and changes can be made without hardware obsolescence or project startup being delayed.

Supplier Qualifications

The vendor shall state how its company is committed to the control and information systems business. The system/product shall be flexible and modular in design utilizing state-of-the-art microprocessor technology. The system/product shall have a program for upgrading the system to keep up with technology and extending the longevity of the system.

Determine the suppliers willingness to take system responsibility and also the vendor's track record. Try to determine vendors long-term survival and growth and their service ability.

109

Maintenance Management and Engineering

Codes and Standards

Insure the equipment specified is to be designed in accordance with national

standards, as listed below:

American National Standards Institute (ANSI) American Society for TEsting and Materials (ASTM)

The Instrumentation, Systems, and Automation Society (IS A) Insulated Cable Engineers Association (ICEA)

National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) National Fire ProtectionAssociation (NFPA) Underwriters' Laboratories (UL)

Factory Mutual (FM)

,'-'.'

Responding to Functional Specifications

Each and every line item must be responded to by the words: comply, exception, non-compliance, or noted. Include documentation to support compliance.

Exceptions must detail the.difference between the context of the line item and the vendor's system. How will the exception effect the system goal, functional requirements, owner's strategies, utilities, or any other aspect which could effect the process, maintenance, operation, etc.

Non-compliance is cause for rejection if it is a must or does not meet codes and standards. Vendors may state an alternative.

When appropriate, note that you understand the context of the line item but it cannot be answered with comply, non-compliance or exception, (an example would be a statement that owner will supply equipment, service, etc.)

Owner-Vendor Meeting

This document, the functional specification, will be used for the owner-vendor meeting.

Computerized Maintenance Management Systems

WhyCMMS?

In the 1980s and 1990s the single most important piece of hardware that was accepted by industry and revolutionized some areas of industry was the computer. Maintenance management has been strongly affected by the computer, and its arrival on the scene brought computerized maintenance management systems (CMMS) (see Figure 5-10).

To be competitive, industry must find ways to reduce maintenance costs. Manual systems can no longer meet today's need for the up-to-date and accurate information necessary for effective maintenance and materials management. Computerized information systems can provide data on costs, labor use, equipment activity or inactivity, down lime, inventory control, awl actual vs, planned performance and scheduling.

Objectives for a CMMS Installation

Some objectives for installation of CMMS in a plant might be:

(1) to provide management with timely and accurate information that will assist management to plan, schedule, budget, staff, direct, and control plant operation maintenance;

110

Computerized Maintenance Management Systems

»->

CARD READER OR OCR

DISK

CRT L~'1II111I11~~

TAPE

(a) BASIC HARDWARE CONFIGURATION

REPORTS GENERATOR

DATA INPUT PROGRAMS

PLANT EQUIPMENT PROGRAM

COSTS PROGRAM

MAINTENANCE SCHEDULING PROGRAM

RELIABILITY & PREDICTION PROGRAM

HEALTH & SAFETY PROGRAM

PERFORMANCE EVALUATION PROGRAM

PERSONNEL PROGRAM

PARTS INVENTORY . PROGRAM TOOLS & TEST

EQUIPMENT

PROGRAM

(b) COMPUTERIZED MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM, . BASIC SOFTWARE STRUCTURE

-----lll>r----,....---l .... EQUIPMENT MTBF & TRENDS WORK DONE REPORTS PARTS ORDERS

TEST EQUIP CALIR PLANS MANPOWER ANALYSIS REPORT HEALTH & SAFETY RECORDS COSTS

MAINTENANCE PERFORMANCE SPECIAL ANAL 'i';,~ES

EQUIP MODEL, IDENT, LOCATION EQUIPMENT USE MAINTENANCE REQUESTS SERVICE TIME & MATERIALS REPORTS SPARE PARTS RECEIVED TOOLSITEST EQUIP, IDENT, LOCATION TOOLS/TEST EQUIP CALIBRATED PERSONNEL SKILLS PROFILE COST FACTORS

------_,..,_~__j

(c) INPUTS/OUTPUTS

111

Maintenance Management and Engineering

(2) to reduce 1ll:1111h' 1l;IIIL'c' costs by havi ng 11101\,' and better quality information; (3) to provide' ru.uurcuance workers with [O(tis thaI will allow them to perform better ;llld !llniL' productively on till' Inh: ;1I1d

(4) [(I IIt'll) r II,' plant to produce ,I fw[ h'j ljlla~l( y product because of a better runlilli_:' [11;1111.

CMMS Functions

EQUIPMENT AND MAINTENANCE

Some equipment alld m.unu-nancc functions available with CMM systems are as follows:

(I) Provide'S dcc-nipl ions of maintainable axscls (2) l 'ruvidcs records of where parts are usccl

(3) Provides a track on repairable spares. spell as motors and gear boxes (4) Provides an estimate of tasks

(5) Automatically triggers preventive and predictive tasks (6) Reschedules preventive maintenance

(7) Schedules work orders

(8) Provides benefits from "opportunity scheduling" (9) Schedules shutdowns

( 10) Documents repair history

(11) Collects manpower and material costs MATERIALS MANAGEMENT

Some materials management functions available with CMM systems are as

follows:

(1) Identifies parts

(2) Reserves inventory (3) Records inventory

(4) Allows for lower inventory levels _ (5) Conducts inventory analysis

(6) Coordinates maintenance tasks with availability of materials (7) Automatically records complete parts inventory

(8) Consolidates purchase orders

(9) Facilitates automatic costing

(10) Institutes automatic purchasing (11) Identifies multiple suppliers

(12) Processes different types of purchase orders (13) Expedites procurement

(14) Evaluates supplier performance

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Computerized Maintenance Management Systems

FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT

Some financial management functions available with Cl'vIM systems are as follows:

Accounting Functions Related to Purchase of Goods and Services (1) Invoice/purchase order matching

(2) Invoice adjustments

(3) Taxes, freight, duties, and accrual distribution (4) Check requisitioning

(5) Check reconciliation

(6) Cash requirements forecasting (7) Currency adjustments

General Accounting Functions

(1) On-line transaction processing (2) Journal voucher entries

(3) Access to general ledger

(4) Auditing through a comprehensive, detailed audit trail (5) Financial reporting

(6) Interfacing to other systems SPECIAL FUNCTIONS

In addition to the functions mentioned above, some special functions are also available when a Cl'vIM system is purchased for maintenance management. First is a possible approach to more closely monitor project management with the system. Project managers have access through the system to stores, purchasing, inventory control, and accounting functions. Database development is also possible with the system. Items such as computer-assisted instruction (CAl) can be available with the computer, among others. Also, CMMS is an interactive process with various steps being repeated as new know ledge is gained.

Benefits of CMMS

Table 5-1 shows some benefits from a computerized maintenance management system.

C:rvn'v1S provides an important tool in linking the training function to the scheduling function. This can be done by providing a "match" of employee skills and certifications with the job tasks required to keep the plant running smoothly. Prior to CMMS, maintenance departments scheduled from a "man hours available" bank. The problem has been that the job-required skills were not available for the specific task scheduled. Typically, this left hours unused in a given work week. It can be seen that a goal would be to keep percentages as high as possible. In plants that adopt a computerized maintenance scheduling system, these percentages can be improved. By keeping accurate training records in the computer; it is easy to match skills available with skills required to accomplish specific tasks. The match is done by the computer.

C:rvn'v1S will also provide a communication link back to the department that requested the work so that they might be able to better plan their production based upon the job being completed. The bottom line is better, more efficient scheduling with higher percentages shown on the scheduled vs. work completed charts.

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Maintenance Management and Engineering

Table 5-1. Benefits ofCMMS.

Reports

Benefits

1. Scheduled preventive maintenance

1. Anticipate hardware problems, identify worn out or faulty equipment

2. Equipment reliability (predictive maintenance)

2. Improved maintenance

• Materials and people

• Productivity

3. Maintenance performance

4. Parts inventory control and automatic re-ordering

3. Improved planning and control of plant maintenance, finances; $ variances and productivity

----~~-----------

4. Reduced plant down time due to parts availability; efficient use of $

5. Better manpower planning, career development, and skills utilization

5. Personnel skills inventory, planning, and utilization

6. Tools and test equipment

6. Improved use of capital for new/replacement equipment; calibration

7. Costs

7. Performance to budget cost of ownership measurement

8. Health and safety

8. Meet OSHA and EPA requirements; safety

9. Identification of critical items; special analyses

9. Exceptions and specials

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Another variation of the above could occur when a specific job requires that a certified employee be matched to a specific job. OSHA is requiring more careful matching of skills with specific job requirements. The data on specific employees who have certifications in specific skills can be readily documented. Again, this information can be matched against job requirements.

A variation on the same theme could be the establishment of a match of priority assignments with specific employees. If a top priority job or individual carmot

be matched, the next best can be identified and scheduled for the job based on availability.

Expert Systems

The increasing sophistication of manufacturing and processing has increased pressure upon maintenance delivery systems. Maintenance systems must match the high levels of integration and performance criteria of the equipment itself. To meet this demand, more companies are considering the use of expert systems

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