HYDERABAD INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

INTRODUCTION TO SQL

SQL (Structured Query Language) is a database computer

language designed for the retrieval and management of data in
relational database management systems (RDBMS), database
schema creation and modification, and database object access
control management.

SQL is a programming language for querying and modifying data

and managing databases. SQL was standardized first by the ANSI
and (later) by the ISO. Most database management systems
implement a majority of one of these standards and add their
proprietary extensions. SQL allows the retrieval, insertion,
updating, and deletion of data.

A database management system also includes management

and administrative functions. Most -- if not all -- implementations
also include a Command-line Interface (SQL/CLI) that allows for
the entry and execution of the language commands, as opposed to
only providing an API intended for access from a GUI.

The first version of SQL was developed at IBM by Donald D.

Chamberlin and Raymond F. Boyce in the early 1970s. This
version, initially called SEQUEL, was designed to manipulate and
retrieve data stored in IBM's original relational database product,
System R. IBM patented their version of SQL in 1985, while the
SQL language was not formally standardized until 1986, by the
American National Standards Institute (ANSI) as SQL-86.
Subsequent versions of the SQL standard have been released by
ANSI and as International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
standards.

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Originally designed as a declarative query and data

manipulation language, variations of SQL have been created by
SQL database management system (DBMS) vendors that add
procedural constructs, control-of-flow statements, user-defined
data types, and various other language extensions. With the
release of the SQL:1999 standard, many such extensions were
formally adopted as part of the SQL language via the SQL
Persistent Stored Modules (SQL/PSM) portion of the standard.
Common criticisms of SQL include a perceived lack of cross-
platform portability between vendors, inappropriate handling of
missing data (see Null (SQL)), and unnecessarily complex and
occasionally ambiguous language grammar and semantics.

FEATURES OF SQL:

SQL is both an easy-to-understand language and a

comprehensive tool for managing data. Some of the major features
of SQL are
· Vendor independence
· Portability across computer systems
· SQL standards
· IBM endorsement and commitment (DB2)
· Microsoft commitment (SQL Server , ODBC, and ADO)
· Relational foundation
· High-level, English-like structure
· Interactive, ad hoc queries
· Programmatic database access
· Multiple views of data
· Complete database language
· Dynamic data definition
· Client/server architecture
· Enterprise application support
· Extensibility and object technology
· Internet database access
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· Java integration (JDBC)

· Industry infrastructure

SQL COMMANDS

SQL Consisting of DDL,DML,DCL,TCL COMMANDS.

DDL

Data Definition Language (DDL) statements are used to define the

database structure or schema.
DDL Commands: Create , Alter ,Drop , Rename, Truncate

CREATE - to create objects in the database

ALTER - alters the structure of the database
DROP - delete objects from the database
TRUNCATE - remove all records from a table, including all
spaces allocated for the records are removed
RENAME - rename an object

DML

Data Manipulation Language (DML) statements are used for

managing data within schema objects

DML Commands: Insert ,Update, Delete, Select

INSERT - insert data into a table

UPDATE - updates existing data within a table

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DELETE - deletes all records from a table, the space for the
records remain
SELECT - retrieve data from the a database

DCL

Data Control Language (DCL) statements is used to create roles,

permissions, and referential integrity as well it is used to control
access to database by securing it.

DCL Commands: Grant, Revoke

GRANT - gives user's access privileges to database

REVOKE - withdraw access privileges given with the GRANT
command

TCL

Transaction Control (TCL) statements are used to manage the

changes made by DML statements. It allows statements to be
grouped together into logical transactions.

TCL Commands: Commit, Rollback, Save point

COMMIT - save work done

SAVEPOINT - identify a point in a transaction to which you
can later roll back
ROLLBACK - restore database to original since the last
COMMIT

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SYNTAX’S OF COMMANDS

CREATE TABLE

CREATE TABLE table_name

(
column_name1 data_type,
column_name2 data_type,
column_name3 data_type,
....
);

ALTER A TABLE

To add a column in a table

ALTER TABLE table_name

ADD column_name datatype;

To delete a column in a table

ALTER TABLE table_name

DROP COLUMN column_name;

DROP TABLE

DROP TABLE table_name;

TRUNCATE TABLE

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TRUNCATE TABLE table_name;

INSERT

INSERT INTO table_name

VALUES (value1, value2, value3,...);

( OR )

INSERT INTO table_name (column1, column2, column3,...)

VALUES (value1, value2, value3,...);

UPDATE

UPDATE table_name
SET column1=value, column2=value2,...
WHERE some_column=some_value;

DELETE

DELETE FROM table_name

WHERE some_column=some_value;

SELECT

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name;

CREATE,INSERT , UPDATE, DELETE, RENAME, TRUNCATE,

ON TABLES

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SQL>CREATE TABLE STUDENT(SNO NUMBER(5),SNAME

VARCHAR2(15),DOJ DATE);

OUTPUT:-TABLE CREATED

SQL> INSERT INTO

STUDENT100VALUES(&SNO,'&SNAME','&DOJ');

OUTPUT:-

Enter value for sno: 501

Enter value for sname: ABI
Enter value for doj: 12-OCT-07
old 1: INSERT INTO STUDENT100
VALUES(&SNO,'&SNAME','&DOJ')
new 1: INSERT INTO STUDENT100 VALUES(501,'ABI','12-OCT-07')

1 row created.

SQL> /

Enter value for sno: 502

Enter value for sname: ASHOK
Enter value for doj: 03-OCT-07
old 1: INSERT INTO STUDENT100
VALUES(&SNO,'&SNAME','&DOJ')
new 1: INSERT INTO STUDENT100 VALUES(502,'ASHOK','03-OCT-
07')

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1 row created.

SQL> /

Enter value for sno: 503

Enter value for sname: BHAVYA
Enter value for doj: 10-OCT-07
old 1: INSERT INTO STUDENT100
VALUES(&SNO,'&SNAME','&DOJ')
new 1: INSERT INTO STUDENT100 VALUES(503,'BHAVYA','10-
OCT-07')

1 row created.
SQL> /

Enter value for sno: 504

Enter value for sname: AKASH
Enter value for doj: 05-OCT-07
old 1: INSERT INTO STUDENT100
VALUES(&SNO,'&SNAME','&DOJ')
new 1: INSERT INTO STUDENT100 VALUES(504,'AKASH','05-OCT-
07')

1 row created.
SQL> /

Enter value for sno: 505

Enter value for sname: NIKHIL
Enter value for doj: 08-OCT-07
old 1: INSERT INTO STUDENT100
VALUES(&SNO,'&SNAME','&DOJ')
new 1: INSERT INTO STUDENT100 VALUES(505,'NIKHIL','08-OCT-
07')
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1 row created.

SQL> RENAME STUDENT TO CSESTUDENT;

OUTPUT:-Table renamed.

SQL>SELECT * FROM CSESTUDENT;

OUTPUT:-

SNO SNAME DOJ

---------- --------------- ---------
501 ABI 12-OCT-07
502 ASHOK 03-OCT-07
503 BHAVYA 10-OCT-07
504 AKASH 05-OCT-07
505 NIKHIL 08-OCT-07

SQL> UPDATE CSESTUDENT SET SNAME='ABILASH' WHERE

SNAME='ABI';

OUTPUT:-1 row updated.

SQL> ALTER TABLE CSESTUDENT ADD BRANCH VARCHAR2(6);

OUTPUT:-Table altered.

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SQL> UPDATE CSESTUDENT SET BRANCH='CSE' WHERE

SNO=501;

OUTPUT:-1 row updated.

SQL> UPDATE CSESTUDENT SET BRANCH='CSE' WHERE

SNO=502;

OUTPUT:-1 row updated.

SQL> UPDATE CSESTUDENT SET BRANCH='CSE' WHERE

SNO=503;

OUTPUT:-1 row updated.

SQL> UPDATE CSESTUDENT SET BRANCH='CSE' WHERE

SNO=504;

OUTPUT:-1 row updated.

SQL> UPDATE CSESTUDENT SET BRANCH='CSE' WHERE

SNO=505;

OUTPUT:-1 row updated.

SQL> SELECT * FROM CSESTUDENT;

SNO SNAME DOJ BRANCH

---------- --------------- --------- ------
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501 ABILASH 12-OCT-07 CSE

502 ASHOK 03-OCT-07 CSE
503 BHAVYA 10-OCT-07 CSE
504 AKASH 05-OCT-07 CSE
505 NIKHIL 08-OCT-07 CSE

SQL> DELETE FROM CSESTUDENT WHERE SNO=501;

OUTPUT:-1 row deleted.

SQL> SELECT * FROM CSESTUDENT;

OUTPUT:-

SNO SNAME DOJ BRANCH

---------- --------------- --------- ------
502 ASHOK 03-OCT-07 CSE
503 BHAVYA 10-OCT-07 CSE
504 AKASH 05-OCT-07 CSE
505 NIKHIL 08-OCT-07 CSE
502 ASHOK 03-OCT-07 CSE

SQL> DROP TABLE CSESTUDENT;

OUTPUT:-Table dropped.

CREATING TABLES WITH CONSTRAINTS

(NOT NULL)

SQL> CREATE TABLE STUD(ROLLNO NUMBER(6) NOT NULL,NAME

VARCHAR2(10),BRANCH VARCHAR2(6));

Table created.
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SQL> DESC STUD;

Name Null? Type
----------------------------------------- -------- ----------------------------
ROLLNO NOT NULL NUMBER(6)
NAME VARCHAR2(10)
BRANCH VARCHAR2(6)

SQL> INSERT INTO STUD

VALUES(&ROLLNO,'&NAME','&BRANCH');
Enter value for rollno: 501
Enter value for name: ABHILASH
Enter value for branch: CSE
old 1: INSERT INTO STUD
VALUES(&ROLLNO,'&NAME','&BRANCH')
new 1: INSERT INTO STUD VALUES(501,'ABHILASH','CSE')

1 row created.

SQL> /
Enter value for rollno: 502
Enter value for name: ABI
Enter value for branch: CSE
old 1: INSERT INTO STUD
VALUES(&ROLLNO,'&NAME','&BRANCH')
new 1: INSERT INTO STUD VALUES(502,'ABI','CSE')

1 row created.

SQL> SELECT * FROM STUD;

ROLLNO NAME BRANCH

---------- ---------- ------
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501 ABHILASH CSE

502 ABI CSE

SQL> INSERT INTO STUD

VALUES(&ROLLNO,'&NAME','&BRANCH');
Enter value for rollno:
Enter value for name: BHAVYA
Enter value for branch: CSE
old 1: INSERT INTO STUD
VALUES(&ROLLNO,'&NAME','&BRANCH')
new 1: INSERT INTO STUD VALUES(,'BHAVYA','CSE')
INSERT INTO STUD VALUES(,'BHAVYA','CSE')
*
ERROR:CANNOT INSERT NULL INTO("SCOTT",'STUD',ROLLNO)

(UNIQUE)

SQL> CREATE TABLE STUD(ROLLNO NUMBER(6) UNIQUE ,NAME

VARCHAR2(10),BRANCH VARCHAR2(6));

Table created.

SQL> INSERT INTO STUD

VALUES(&ROLLNO,'&NAME','&BRANCH');
Enter value for rollno: 501
Enter value for name: abhilash
Enter value for branch: cse
old 1: INSERT INTO STUD
VALUES(&ROLLNO,'&NAME','&BRANCH')
new 1: INSERT INTO STUD VALUES(501,'abhilash','cse')

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1 row created.

SQL> /
Enter value for rollno: 502
Enter value for name: ABI
Enter value for branch: CSE
old 1: INSERT INTO STUD
VALUES(&ROLLNO,'&NAME','&BRANCH')
new 1: INSERT INTO STUD VALUES(502,'ABI','CSE')

1 row created.

SQL> /
Enter value for rollno: 502
Enter value for name: BHAVYA
Enter value for branch: CSE
old 1: INSERT INTO STUD
VALUES(&ROLLNO,'&NAME','&BRANCH')
new 1: INSERT INTO STUD VALUES(502,'BHAVYA','CSE')
INSERT INTO STUD VALUES(502,'BHAVYA','CSE')
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-00001: unique constraint (SCOTT.SYS_C001290) violated

(PRIMARY KEY)

SQL> CREATE TABLE STUD(ROLLNO NUMBER(6) PRIMARY KEY

,NAME VARCHAR2(10),BRANCH VARCHAR2(6));

Table created.

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SQL> INSERT INTO STUD

VALUES(&ROLLNO,'&NAME','&BRANCH');
Enter value for rollno: 501
Enter value for name: abhilash
Enter value for branch: cse
old 1: INSERT INTO STUD
VALUES(&ROLLNO,'&NAME','&BRANCH')
new 1: INSERT INTO STUD VALUES(501,'abhilash','cse')

1 row created.

SQL> /
Enter value for rollno: 502
Enter value for name: ABI
Enter value for branch: CSE
old 1: INSERT INTO STUD
VALUES(&ROLLNO,'&NAME','&BRANCH')
new 1: INSERT INTO STUD VALUES(502,'ABI','CSE')

1 row created.

SQL> /
Enter value for rollno: 502
Enter value for name: BHAVYA
Enter value for branch: CSE
old 1: INSERT INTO STUD
VALUES(&ROLLNO,'&NAME','&BRANCH')
new 1: INSERT INTO STUD VALUES(502,'BHAVYA','CSE')
INSERT INTO STUD VALUES(502,'BHAVYA','CSE')
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-00001: unique constraint (SCOTT.SYS_C001290) violated
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SQL> INSERT INTO STUD

VALUES(&ROLLNO,'&NAME','&BRANCH');
Enter value for rollno:
Enter value for name: BHAVYA
Enter value for branch: CSE
old 1: INSERT INTO STUD
VALUES(&ROLLNO,'&NAME','&BRANCH')
new 1: INSERT INTO STUD VALUES(,'BHAVYA','CSE')
INSERT INTO STUD VALUES(,'BHAVYA','CSE')
*
ERROR:CANNOT INSERT NULL INTO("SCOTT",'STUD',ROLLNO)

SQL> SELECT * FROM STUD;

ROLLNO NAME BRANCH

---------- ---------- ------
501 ABHILASH CSE
502 ABI CSE

(CHECK)

SQL> create table stud(rno number(5),name varchar2(10),sal

number(10) constraint no_ck check(sal between 10000 and
30000));

Table created.

SQL> insert into stud values(&rno,'&name',&sal);

Enter value for rno: 567
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Enter value for name: sachin

Enter value for sal: 29000
old 1: insert into stud values(&rno,'&name',&sal)
new 1: insert into stud values(567,'sachin',29000)

1 row created.

SQL> /
Enter value for rno: 565
Enter value for name: rohit
Enter value for sal: 35000
old 1: insert into stud values(&rno,'&name',&sal)
new 1: insert into stud values(565,'rohit',35000)
insert into stud values(565,'rohit',35000)
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-02290: check constraint (SCOTT.NO_CK) violated

( FOREIGN KEY )
SOL>create table adm(stuid number(6) constraint stuid_pk primary
key,sname varchar2(15),per number(5));

Table created.

SQL> insert into adm values(&stuid,'&sname',&per);

Enter value for stuid: 1
Enter value for sname: abi
Enter value for per: 80
old 1: insert into adm values(&stuid,'&sname',&per)
new 1: insert into adm values(1,'abi',80)

1 row created.
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SQL> /
Enter value for stuid: 2
Enter value for sname: rohit
Enter value for per: 89
old 1: insert into adm values(&stuid,'&sname',&per)
new 1: insert into adm values(2,'rohit',89)

1 row created.

SQL> /
Enter value for stuid: 3
Enter value for sname: sachin
Enter value for per: 99
old 1: insert into adm values(&stuid,'&sname',&per)
new 1: insert into adm values(3,'sachin',99)

1 row created.

SQL> /
Enter value for stuid: 4
Enter value for sname: naveen
Enter value for per: 70
old 1: insert into adm values(&stuid,'&sname',&per)
new 1: insert into adm values(4,'naveen',70)

1 row created.

SQL> select * from adm;

STUID SNAME PER

---------- --------------- ----------
1 abi 80
2 rohit 89
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3 sachin 99
4 naveen 70

SQL> create table course(stuid number(6) constraint sid_fk

references adm(stuid),branch varchar2(5),sec varchar2(10));

Table created.

SQL> insert into course values(&stuid,'&branch','&sec');

Enter value for stuid: 1
Enter value for branch: cse
Enter value for sec: a
old 1: insert into course values(&stuid,'&branch','&sec')
new 1: insert into course values(1,'cse','a')

1 row created.

SQL> /
Enter value for stuid: 5
Enter value for branch: cse
Enter value for sec: b
old 1: insert into course values(&stuid,'&branch','&sec')
new 1: insert into course values(5,'cse','b')
insert into course values(5,'cse','b')
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-02291: integrity constraint (SCOTT.SID_FK) violated - parent
key not found

SQL> delete from adm where stuid=1;

*
ERROR at line 1:

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ORA-02292: integrity constraint (SCOTT.SID_FK) violated - child

record found

SQL> delete from course where stuid=1;

1 row deleted.

SQL> delete from adm where stuid=1;

1 row deleted.

SQL>select * from adm;

STUID SNAME PER

----- --------------- - ----------
2 rohit 89
3 sachin 99
4 naveen 70

CREATING AND DROPING OF VIEWS

SQL> select * from emp2;

OUTPUT:-

ENAME STREET CITY

-------------------- -------------------- --------------------
coyote toon hollywood
rabbit tunnel carrot ville
smith revolver death valley
williams sea view sea attle

SQL> create view emp22 as select * from emp2;

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OUTPUT:-

View created.

SQL> select * from emp22;

OUTPUT:-

ENAME STREET CITY

-------------------- -------------------- --------------------
coyote toon hollywood
rabbit tunnel carrot ville
smith revolver death valley
williams sea view sea attle

SQL> update emp22 set city='hyd' where ename='coyote';

OUTPUT:-

1 row updated.

SQL> select * from emp2;

OUTPUT:-

ENAME STREET CITY

-------------------- -------------------- --------------------
coyote toon hyd
rabbit tunnel carrot ville
smith revolver death valley
williams sea view sea attle

SQL> select * from emp22;

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OUTPUT:-

ENAME STREET CITY

-------------------- -------------------- --------------------
coyote toon hyd
rabbit tunnel carrot ville
smith revolver death valley
williams sea view sea attle

SQL> drop table emp2;

OUTPUT:-
Table dropped.

SQL> select * from emp22;

OUTPUT:-

select * from emp22

*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-04063: view "SCOTT.EMP22" has errors

DCL AND TCL COMMANDS

CREATING A USER

SQL>CONNECT SYSTEM/MANAGER;

SQL>CREATE USER "USERNAME" IDENTIFIED BY "PASSWORD"

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SQL>GRANT DBA TO "USERNAME"

SQL>CONNECT "USERNAME"/"PASSWORD";

EXAMPLE

CREATING A USER

SQL>CONNECT SYSTEM/MANAGER;

SQL>CREATE USER CSE2 IDENTIFIED BY CSECSE;

SQL>GRANT DBA TO CSE2;

SQL>CONNECT CSE2/CSECSE;

SQL>REVOKE DBA FROM CSE2;

IMPLEMENTING COMMINT, SAVEPOINT, ROLLBACK

SQL> select * from emp1;

OUTPUT:-

EID ENAME ESAL EBRANCH

---------- ---------- ---------- -----------
1 scotty 6000 a
2 wayne 10000 b
3 david 7000 c
4 max 8000 b
5 mark 7000 a
6 jeff 12000 a
7 matt 10000 b
8 steve 7000 c

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8 rows selected.

SQL> savepoint s1;

OUTPUT:-
Savepoint created.

SQL> update emp1 set esal=6500 where ename='scotty';

OUTPUT:-
1 row updated.

SQL> savepoint s2;

OUTPUT:-
Savepoint created.

SQL> delete from emp1 where ename='wayne';

OUTPUT:-
1 row deleted.

SQL> savepoint s3;

OUTPUT:-
Savepoint created.

SQL> insert into emp1 values(9,'bruce',11000,'c');

OUTPUT:-
1 row created.

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SQL> select * from emp1;

OUTPUT:-

EID ENAME ESAL EBRANCH

---------- ---------- ---------- ----------------
1 scotty 6500 a
3 david 7000 c
4 max 8000 b
5 mark 7000 a
6 jeff 12000 a
7 matt 10000 b
8 steve 7000 c
9 bruce 11000 c

8 rows selected.

SQL> rollback to s3;

OUTPUT:-
Rollback complete.

SQL> select * from emp1;

OUTPUT:-
EID ENAME ESAL EBRANCH
---------- ---------- ---------- ----------------
1 scotty 6500 a
3 david 7000 c
4 max 8000 b
5 mark 7000 a
6 jeff 12000 a
7 matt 10000 b
8 steve 7000 c
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SQL> rollback to s2;

OUTPUT:-
Rollback complete.

SQL> select * from emp1;

OUTPUT:-
EID ENAME ESAL EBRANCH
---------- ---------- ---------- -----------
1 scotty 6500 a
2 wayne 10000 b
3 david 7000 c
4 max 8000 b
5 mark 7000 a
6 jeff 12000 a
7 matt 10000 b
8 steve 7000 c

SQL> rollback to s1;

OUTPUT:-
Rollback complete.

SQL> select * from emp1;

OUTPUT:-

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EID ENAME ESAL EBRANCH

---------- ---------- ---------- -----------
1 scotty 6000 a
2 wayne 10000 b
3 david 7000 c
4 max 8000 b
5 mark 7000 a
6 jeff 12000 a
7 matt 10000 b
8 steve 7000 c

SQL> savepoint s4;

OUTPUT:-
Savepoint created.

SQL> delete from emp1 where eid=1;

OUTPUT:-
1 row deleted.

SQL> select * from emp1;

OUTPUT:-
EID ENAME ESAL EBRANCH
---------- ---------- ---------- -----------
2 wayne 10000 b
3 david 7000 c
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4 max 8000 b
5 mark 7000 a
6 jeff 12000 a
7 matt 10000 b
8 steve 7000 c
7 rows selected.

SQL> commit;

OUTPUT:-
Commit complete.

SQL> rollback to s4;

OUTPUT:-
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-01086 :savepoint 's4' never established

SQL> select * from emp1;

OUTPUT:-

EID ENAME ESAL EBRANCH

---------- ---------- ---------- -----------
2 wayne 10000 b
3 david 7000 c
4 max 8000 b
5 mark 7000 a
6 jeff 12000 a
7 matt 10000 b
8 steve 7000 c
7 rows selected.
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DRL-DATA RETRIEVAL LANGUAGE

IMPLEMENTING SELECT COMMANDS

SQL> select * from emp;

EMPNO ENAME JOB MGR HIREDATE SAL

COMM DEPTNO
---------- ---------- --------- ---------- --------- ---------- ---------- ----------
7369 SMITH CLERK 7902 17-DEC-80 800
20

7499 ALLEN SALESMAN 7698 20-FEB-81 1600

300 30

7521 WARD SALESMAN 7698 22-FEB-81 1250

500 30

7566 JONES MANAGER 7839 02-APR-81 2975

20
20
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7654 MARTIN SALESMAN 7698 28-SEP-81 1250

1400

7698 BLAKE MANAGER 7839 01-MAY-81 2850

30

7782 CLARK MANAGER 7839 09-JUN-81 2450

10

7788 SCOTT ANALYST 7566 19-APR-87 3000

20

7839 KING PRESIDENT 17-NOV-81 5000

10

7844 TURNER SALESMAN 7698 08-SEP-81 1500

0 30

7876 ADAMS CLERK 7788 23-MAY-87 1100

20

7900 JAMES CLERK 7698 03-DEC-81 950

30

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7902 FORD ANALYST 7566 03-DEC-81 3000

20

7934 MILLER CLERK 7782 23-JAN-82 1300

10

14 rows selected.

SQL> select empno,ename,sal from emp;

EMPNO ENAME SAL

---------- ---------- ----------
7369 SMITH 800
7499 ALLEN 1600
7521 WARD 1250
7566 JONES 2975
7654 MARTIN 1250
7698 BLAKE 2850
7782 CLARK 2450
7788 SCOTT 3000
7839 KING 5000
7844 TURNER 1500
7876 ADAMS 1100

EMPNO ENAME SAL

---------- ---------- ----------
7900 JAMES 950
7902 FORD 3000
7934 MILLER 1300

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14 rows selected.

SQL> select empno,ename,sal from emp where sal between 2500

and 5000;

EMPNO ENAME SAL

---------- ---------- ----------
7566 JONES 2975
7698 BLAKE 2850
7788 SCOTT 3000
7839 KING 5000
7902 FORD 3000

SQL>select ename,job,sal,deptno from emp where sal not

between 1500 and 5000;

ENAME JOB SAL DEPTNO

---------- --------- ---------- ----------
SMITH CLERK 800 20
WARD SALESMAN 1250 30
MARTIN SALESMAN 1250 30
ADAMS CLERK 1100 20
JAMES CLERK 950 30
MILLER CLERK 1300 10

6 rows selected.

SQL> select empno,ename,sal from emp where sal in (800,5000);

EMPNO ENAME SAL

---------- ---------- ----------
7369 SMITH 800
7839 KING 5000
pg. 32
Dept of Computer Science & Engineering
 HYDERABAD INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

SQL> select empno,ename,sal from emp where sal not

in(800,1250,3000,5000);

EMPNO ENAME SAL

---------- ---------- ----------
7499 ALLEN 1600
7566 JONES 2975
7698 BLAKE 2850
7782 CLARK 2450
7844 TURNER 1500
7876 ADAMS 1100
7900 JAMES 950
7934 MILLER 1300

8 rows selected.

SQL> select empno,ename,sal from emp where comm is null;

EMPNO ENAME SAL

---------- ---------- ----------
7369 SMITH 800
7566 JONES 2975
7698 BLAKE 2850
7782 CLARK 2450
7788 SCOTT 3000
7839 KING 5000
7876 ADAMS 1100
7900 JAMES 950
7902 FORD 3000
7934 MILLER 1300

pg. 33
Dept of Computer Science & Engineering
 HYDERABAD INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

10 rows selected.

SQL> select empno,ename,sal from emp where comm is not null;

EMPNO ENAME SAL

---------- ---------- ----------
7499 ALLEN 1600
7521 WARD 1250
7654 MARTIN 1250
7844 TURNER 1500

SQL> select empno,ename,job,sal from emp where ename like'S

%';

EMPNO ENAME JOB SAL

---------- ---------- --------- ----------
7369 SMITH CLERK 800
7788 SCOTT ANALYST 3000

SQL> select empno,ename,job,sal from emp where job not like'S

%';

EMPNO ENAME JOB SAL

---------- ---------- --------- ----------
7369 SMITH CLERK 800
7566 JONES MANAGER 2975
7698 BLAKE MANAGER 2850
7782 CLARK MANAGER 2450
7788 SCOTT ANALYST 3000
7839 KING PRESIDENT 5000
7876 ADAMS CLERK 1100
pg. 34
Dept of Computer Science & Engineering
 HYDERABAD INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

7900 JAMES CLERK 950

7902 FORD ANALYST 3000
7934 MILLER CLERK 1300

10 rows selected.

SQL> select ename,job,sal from emp where sal>2500;

ENAME JOB SAL

---------- --------- ----------
JONES MANAGER 2975
BLAKE MANAGER 2850
SCOTT ANALYST 3000
KING PRESIDENT 5000
FORD ANALYST 3000

SQL> select ename,job,sal from emp where sal<2500;

ENAME JOB SAL

---------- --------- ----------
SMITH CLERK 800
ALLEN SALESMAN 1600
WARD SALESMAN 1250
MARTIN SALESMAN 1250
CLARK MANAGER 2450
TURNER SALESMAN 1500
ADAMS CLERK 1100
JAMES CLERK 950
MILLER CLERK 1300

9 rows selected.

pg. 35
Dept of Computer Science & Engineering
 HYDERABAD INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

SQL> select empno,ename,job,sal from emp order by sal;

EMPNO ENAME JOB SAL

---------- ---------- --------- ----------
7369 SMITH CLERK 800
7900 JAMES CLERK 950
7876 ADAMS CLERK 1100
7521 WARD SALESMAN 1250
7654 MARTIN SALESMAN 1250
7934 MILLER CLERK 1300
7844 TURNER SALESMAN 1500
7499 ALLEN SALESMAN 1600
7782 CLARK MANAGER 2450
7698 BLAKE MANAGER 2850
7566 JONES MANAGER 2975

EMPNO ENAME JOB SAL

---------- ---------- --------- ----------
7788 SCOTT ANALYST 3000
7902 FORD ANALYST 3000
7839 KING PRESIDENT 5000

14 rows selected.

SQL> select empno,ename,job,sal from emp order by sal desc;

EMPNO ENAME JOB SAL

---------- ---------- --------- ----------
7839 KING PRESIDENT 5000
7788 SCOTT ANALYST 3000
7902 FORD ANALYST 3000
7566 JONES MANAGER 2975
7698 BLAKE MANAGER 2850
7782 CLARK MANAGER 2450
pg. 36
Dept of Computer Science & Engineering
 HYDERABAD INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

7499 ALLEN SALESMAN 1600

7844 TURNER SALESMAN 1500
7934 MILLER CLERK 1300
7521 WARD SALESMAN 1250
7654 MARTIN SALESMAN 1250

EMPNO ENAME JOB SAL

---------- ---------- --------- ----------
7876 ADAMS CLERK 1100
7900 JAMES CLERK 950
7369 SMITH CLERK 800

14 rows selected.

SUBQUERIES (APPLYING IN, ALL, ANY, EXISTS, NOT

EXISTS,UNION,INTERSECT,MINUS)

SQL>select * from emp;

OUTPUT:-
EMPNO ENAME JOB MGR HIREDATE
SAL COMM DEPTNO
---------- ---------- --------- --------- ----------
--------- -------- ----------
7369 SMITH CLERK 7902 17-DEC-80
800 20

7499 ALLEN SALESMAN 7698 20-FEB-81

1600 300 30

7521 WARD SALESMAN 7698 22-FEB-81

1250 500 30

pg. 37
Dept of Computer Science & Engineering
 HYDERABAD INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

7566 JONES MANAGER 7839 02-APR-81

2975 20

7654 MARTIN SALESMAN 7698 28-SEP-81

1250 1400 30

7698 BLAKE MANAGER 7839 01-MAY-81

2850 30

7782 CLARK MANAGER 7839 09-JUN-81

2450 10

7788 SCOTT ANALYST 7566 19-APR-87

3000 20

7839 KING PRESIDENT 17-NOV-81

5000 10

7844 TURNER SALESMAN 7698 08-SEP-81

1500 0 30

7876 ADAMS CLERK 7788 23-MAY-87

1100 20

7900 JAMES CLERK 7698 03-DEC-81

950 30

7902 FORD ANALYST 7566 03-DEC-81

3000 20

7934 MILLER CLERK 7782 23-JAN-82

1300 10

pg. 38
Dept of Computer Science & Engineering
 HYDERABAD INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

SQL>select * from dept;

OUTPUT:-

DEPTNO DNAME LOC

---------- -------------- ------------
10 ACCOUNTING NEW YORK
20 RESEARCH DALLAS
30 SALES CHICAGO
40 OPERATIONS BOSTON

SQL> select * from emp where sal in(3000,5000);

OUTPUT:-

EMPNO ENAME JOB MGR HIREDATE

SAL COMM DEPTNO
---------- ---------- --------- ---------- ---------
---------- ---------- -------------

7788 SCOTT ANALYST 7566 19-APR-87

3000 20
7839 KING PRESIDENT 17-NOV-81
5000 10
7902 FORD ANALYST 7566 03-DEC-81
3000 20
pg. 39
Dept of Computer Science & Engineering
 HYDERABAD INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

SQL> select empno,ename from emp where sal in(select max(sal)

from emp);

OUTPUT:-

EMPNO ENAME
---------- ----------
7839 KING

SQL> select empno,ename from emp where sal in(select max(sal)

from emp group by deptno);

OUTPUT:-

EMPNO ENAME
---------- ----------
7698 BLAKE
7788 SCOTT
7902 FORD
7839 KING

SQL> select empno,ename,job,sal from emp where sal>all(select

avg(sal) from emp group by deptno);

OUTPUT:-

EMPNO ENAME JOB SAL

---------- ---------- --------- ----------
7566 JONES MANAGER 2975
7788 SCOTT ANALYST 3000
7839 KING PRESIDENT 5000
7902 FORD ANALYST 3000
pg. 40
Dept of Computer Science & Engineering
 HYDERABAD INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

SQL> select empno,ename,job,sal from emp where sal<all(select

avg(sal) from emp group by deptno);

OUTPUT:-

EMPNO ENAME JOB SAL

---------- ---------- --------- ----------
7369 SMITH CLERK 800
7521 WARD SALESMAN 1250
7654 MARTIN SALESMAN 1250
7844 TURNER SALESMAN 1500
7876 ADAMS CLERK 1100
7900 JAMES CLERK 950
7934 MILLER CLERK 1300

7 rows selected.

SQL> select ename,job,sal from emp where sal>any(select sal

from emp where job='CLERK');

OUTPUT:-
ENAME JOB SAL
---------- --------- ----------
ALLEN SALESMAN 1600
WARD SALESMAN 1250
JONES MANAGER 2975
MARTIN SALESMAN 1250
BLAKE MANAGER 2850
CLARK MANAGER 2450
SCOTT ANALYST 3000
KING PRESIDENT 5000
TURNER SALESMAN 1500
ADAMS CLERK 1100
pg. 41
Dept of Computer Science & Engineering
 HYDERABAD INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

JAMES CLERK 950

ENAME JOB SAL

---------- --------- ----------
FORD ANALYST 3000
MILLER CLERK 1300

13 rows selected.

SQL> select ename,job,sal from emp where sal<any(select sal

from emp where job='CLERK');

OUTPUT:-
ENAME JOB SAL
---------- --------- ----------
SMITH CLERK 800
WARD SALESMAN 1250
MARTIN SALESMAN 1250
ADAMS CLERK 1100
JAMES CLERK 950

SQL> select ename,job,sal from emp where sal=any(select sal

from emp where job='CLERK');

OUTPUT:-
ENAME JOB SAL
---------- --------- ----------
SMITH CLERK 800
JAMES CLERK 950
ADAMS CLERK 1100
MILLER CLERK 1300

pg. 42
Dept of Computer Science & Engineering
 HYDERABAD INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

SQL> select deptno,dname from dept d where exists(select * from

emp e where d.deptno=e.deptno);

OUTPUT:-

DEPTNO DNAME
---------- --------------
10 ACCOUNTING
20 RESEARCH
30 SALES

SQL> select deptno,dname from dept d where not exists(select *

from emp e where d.deptno=e.deptno);

OUTPUT:-

DEPTNO DNAME
---------- --------------
40 OPERATIONS

SQL> create table s1(sid number(5),sname varchar2(10),rating

number(5),age number(10));

Table created.

SQL> insert into s1 values(&sid,'&sname',&rating,&age);

Enter value for sid: 22
Enter value for sname: dustin
Enter value for rating: 7
Enter value for age: 45
old 1: insert into s1 values(&sid,'&sname',&rating,&age)
new 1: insert into s1 values(22,'dustin',7,45)
pg. 43
Dept of Computer Science & Engineering
 HYDERABAD INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

1 row created.

SQL> /
Enter value for sid: 31
Enter value for sname: lubber
Enter value for rating: 8
Enter value for age: 56
old 1: insert into s1 values(&sid,'&sname',&rating,&age)
new 1: insert into s1 values(31,'lubber',8,56)

1 row created.

SQL> /
Enter value for sid: 58
Enter value for sname: rusty
Enter value for rating: 10
Enter value for age: 35
old 1: insert into s1 values(&sid,'&sname',&rating,&age)
new 1: insert into s1 values(58,'rusty',10,35)

1 row created.
SQL> create table s2(sid number(5),sname varchar2(10),rating
number(5),age number(10));

Table created.

SQL> insert into s2 values(&sid,'&sname',&rating,&age);

Enter value for sid: 28
Enter value for sname: yuppy
Enter value for rating: 9
Enter value for age: 25
old 1: insert into s2 values(&sid,'&sname',&rating,&age)
new 1: insert into s2 values(28,'yuppy',9,25)
pg. 44
Dept of Computer Science & Engineering
 HYDERABAD INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

1 row created.

SQL> /
Enter value for sid: 31
Enter value for sname: lubber
Enter value for rating: 8
Enter value for age: 55
old 1: insert into s2 values(&sid,'&sname',&rating,&age)
new 1: insert into s2 values(31,'lubber',8,55)

1 row created.

SQL> /
Enter value for sid: 44
Enter value for sname: guppy
Enter value for rating: 5
Enter value for age: 35
old 1: insert into s2 values(&sid,'&sname',&rating,&age)
new 1: insert into s2 values(44,'guppy',5,35)

1 row created.

SQL> /
Enter value for sid: 58
Enter value for sname: rusty
Enter value for rating: 10
Enter value for age: 35
old 1: insert into s2 values(&sid,'&sname',&rating,&age)
new 1: insert into s2 values(58,'rusty',10,35)

1 row created.

SQL> select * from s2;

pg. 45
Dept of Computer Science & Engineering
 HYDERABAD INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

SID SNAME RATING AGE

---------- ---------- ---------- ----------
28 yuppy 9 25
31 lubber 8 55
44 guppy 5 35
58 rusty 10 35

SQL> select sname from s1 union select sname from s2;

SNAME
----------
dustin
guppy
lubber
rusty
yuppy

SQL> select sname from s1 union select sname from s2;

SNAME
----------
dustin
lubber
rusty
yuppy
lubber
guppy
rusty

7 rows selected.

SQL> select sid from s1 intersect select sid from s2;

pg. 46
Dept of Computer Science & Engineering
 HYDERABAD INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

SID
----------
31
58

SQL> select age from s1 minus select age from s2;

AGE
----------
45
56

FUNCTIONS:

AGGREGATE FUNCTIONS

SQL> SELECT * FROM EMP;

output:-

ENO ENAME JOB SAL

---------- ---------- ---------- ----------
1001 STEVE SALESMAN 1500
1002 ADAM CLERK 1000
1003 EVE MANAGER 5220
1004 JAMES DIRECTOR 7000

SQL> SELECT COUNT(*)FROM EMP;

output:-
pg. 47
Dept of Computer Science & Engineering
 HYDERABAD INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

COUNT(*)
----------
4

SQL> SELECT SUM(SAL) FROM EMP;

output:-

SUM(SAL)
----------
14720

SQL> SELECT AVG(SAL) FROM EMP;

output:-

AVG(SAL)
----------
3680

SQL> SELECT MAX(SAL) FROM EMP;

output:-

MAX(SAL)
----------
7000

pg. 48
Dept of Computer Science & Engineering
 HYDERABAD INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

SQL> SELECT MIN(SAL) FROM EMP;

output:-

MIN(SAL)
----------
1000

SQL>select * from emp;

OUTPUT:-

EMPNO ENAME JOB SAL DEPTNO

---------- ---------- --------- ---------- ----------
7369 SMITH CLERK 800 20
7499 ALLEN SALESMAN 1600 30
7521 WARD SALESMAN 1250 30
7566 JONES MANAGER 2975 20
7654 MARTIN SALESMAN 1250 30
7698 BLAKE MANAGER 2850 30
7782 CLARK MANAGER 2450 10
7788 SCOTT ANALYST 3000 20
7839 KING PRESIDENT 5000 10
7844 TURNER SALESMAN 1500 30
7876 ADAMS CLERK 1100 20
pg. 49
Dept of Computer Science & Engineering
 HYDERABAD INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

7900 JAMES CLERK 950 30

7902 FORD ANALYST 3000 20
7934 MILLER CLERK 1300 10

14 rows selected.

APPLYING BY GROUP BY ---

SQL> select deptno,max(sal) from emp group by deptno;

OUTPUT:-

DEPTNO MAX(SAL)
---------- ----------
10 5000
20 3000
30 2850

SQL> select deptno,min(sal) from emp group by deptno;

OUTPUT:-

DEPTNO MIN(SAL)
---------- ----------
10 1300
20 800
30 950

SQL> select deptno,max(sal) from emp group by deptno having

max(sal)<3000;

OUTPUT:-

pg. 50
Dept of Computer Science & Engineering
 HYDERABAD INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

DEPTNO MAX(SAL)
---------- ----------
30 2850

SQL>select deptno,min(sal) from emp group by deptno having

min(sal)>1000;

OUTPUT:-

DEPTNO MIN(SAL)
---------- ----------
10 1300

SQL> select ename,count(*) from emp group by deptno;

OUTPUT:-

DEPTNO COUNT(*)
---------- ----------
10 3
20 5
30 6
3 rows selected.

CONVERSION FUNCTIONS(TO_CHAR)

SQL>select to_char(65,'RN')from dual;

OUTPUT:LXV

SQL>select to_char(65,'rn')from dual;

OUTPUT:lxv

pg. 51
Dept of Computer Science & Engineering
 HYDERABAD INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

SQL>select to_char(58,'s9999')from dual;

OUTPUT:+58

SQL>select to_char(-100,'s9999')from dual;

OUTPUT:-100

SQL> select to_char(41,'XXXX')from dual;

OUTPUT:29

SQL> select to_char(10,'XXXX')from dual;

OUTPUT:A

SQL> select to_char(sysdate,'day')from dual;

OUTPUT:MONDAY

SQL> SELECT TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'MONTH')FROM DUAL;

OUTPUT:JANUARY

SQL> SELECT TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'YEAR')FROM DUAL;

OUTPUT:TWO THOUSAND NINE

SQL> select to_char(123456,'9g99g999')from dual;

OUTPUT:1,23,456

SQL> select to_char(1234,'l9999')from dual;

OUTPUT:$1234

SQL> select to_char(123456,'9g99g999d999')from dual;

OUTPUT:1,23,456.000

SELECT TO_CHAR(2234,'L9999','NLS_CURRENCY=RS')FROM DUAL;

OUTPUT:RS2234

pg. 52
Dept of Computer Science & Engineering
 HYDERABAD INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

STRING FUNCTIONS

SQL>SELECT CONCAT(‘ORACLE’,’CORPORATION’)FROM DUAL;

OUTPUT:-ORACLECORPORATION

SQL>SELECT LPAD(‘ORACLE’,15,’*’)FROM DUAL;

OUTPUT:-*********ORACLE

SQL>SELECT RPAD(‘ORACLE’,15,’*’)FROM DUAL;

OUTPUT:-ORACLE*********

SQL>SELECT LTRIM(‘SSMITHSS’,’S’)FROM DUAL;

OUTPUT:-MITHSS

SQL>SELECT RTRIM(‘SSMITHSS’,’S’)FROM DUAL;

OUTPUT:-SSMITH

SQL>SELECT LOWER(‘DBMS’)FROM DUAL;

OUTPUT:-dbms

SQL>SELECT UPPER(‘dbms’)FROM DUAL;

OUTPUT:-DBMS

SQL>SELECT INITCAP(‘ORACLE’,’CORPORATION’)FROM DUAL;

pg. 53
Dept of Computer Science & Engineering
 HYDERABAD INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

OUTPUT:-Oracle Corporation

SQL>SELECT LENGTH(‘DATABASE’)FROM DUAL;

OUTPUT:-8

SQL>SELECT SUBSTR(‘ABCDEFGHIJ’3,4)FROM DUAL;

OUTPUT:-CDEF

SQL>SELECT INSTR('CORPORATE FLOOR','OR',3,2)FROM DUAL;

OUTPUT:-14
DATE FUNCTIONS

SQL>SELECT SYSDATE FROM DUAL;

OUTPUT:-29-DEC-08

SQL>SELECT NEXT_DAY(SYSDATE,’WED’)FROM DUAL;

OUTPUT:-05-JAN-09

SQL>SELECT ADD_MONTHS(SYSDATE,2)FROM DUAL;

OUTPUT:-28-FEB-09

SQL>SELECT LAST_DAY(SYSDATE)FROM DUAL;

OUTPUT:-31-DEC-08
pg. 54
Dept of Computer Science & Engineering
 HYDERABAD INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

SQL>SELECT MONTHS_BETWEEN(SYSDATE,HIREDATE)FROM
EMP;

OUTPUT:-

SQL>SELECT LEAST('10-JAN-07','12-OCT-07')FROM DUAL;

OUTPUT:-10-JAN-07

SQL>SELECT GREATEST('10-JAN-07','12-OCT-07')FROM DUAL;

OUTPUT:-10-JAN-07

SQL>SELECT TRUNC(SYSDATE,'DAY')FROM DUAL;

OUTPUT:-28-DEC-08

SQL>SELECT TRUNC(SYSDATE,'MONTH')FROM DUAL;

OUTPUT:-01-DEC-08
SQL>SELECT TRUNC(SYSDATE,'YEAR')FROM DUAL;

OUTPUT:-01-JAN-08

SQL>SELECT ROUND(SYSDATE,'DAY')FROM DUAL;

OUTPUT:-28-DEC-08
pg. 55
Dept of Computer Science & Engineering
 HYDERABAD INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

SQL>SELECT ROUND(SYSDATE,'MONTH')FROM DUAL;

OUTPUT:-01-JAN-09

SQL>SELECT ROUND(SYSDATE,'YEAR')FROM DUAL;

OUTPUT:-01-JAN-09

NUMBER FUNCTIONS

SQL> select round(12.36), round(14.63) from dual;

OUTPUT:-

ROUND(12.36) ROUND(14.63)
------------ ------------
12 15

SQL> select floor(12.87), floor(11.23) from dual;

OUTPUT:-

FLOOR(12.87) FLOOR(11.23)
------------ ------------
12 11

SQL> select ceil(16.23), ceil(12.78) from dual;

OUTPUT:-
pg. 56
Dept of Computer Science & Engineering
 HYDERABAD INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

CEIL(16.23) CEIL(12.78)
----------- -----------
17 13

SQL> select trunc(56.63) from dual;

OUTPUT:-

TRUNC(56.63)
------------
56

SQL> select mod(11,4) from dual;

OUTPUT:-

MOD(11,4)
----------
3

SQL> select power(2,3) from dual;

OUTPUT:-

POWER(2,3)
----------
8

SQL> select sign(0),sign(34),sign(-56) from dual;

OUTPUT:-

SIGN(0) SIGN(34) SIGN(-56)

---------- ---------- ----------
pg. 57
Dept of Computer Science & Engineering
 HYDERABAD INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

0 1 -1

SQL> select abs(12),abs(-89) from dual;

OUTPUT:-

ABS(12) ABS(-89)
---------- ----------
12 89

SQL> select sqrt(25) from dual;

OUTPUT:-

SQRT(25)
--------
5
INTRODUCTION TO PL/SQL

PL/SQL stands for PROCEDURAL Language Extensions to SQL.

PL/SQL extends SQL by adding programming structures and
subroutines available in any high level language.
PL/SQL can be used for both server-side and Client side
Development.
PL/SQL has syntax and rules that determine how programming
statements work together.
PL/SQL is not a stand alone Programming Language.
PL/SQL is a part of the ORACLE RDBMS and hence can reside in
two environments,the CLIENT and the SERVER.
Any MODULE that is developed using PL/SQL can be moved easily
between SERVER SIDE and CLIENT SIDE applications.
Either in CLIENT/SERVER environments any PL/SQL Block or the
PL/SQL Engine processes Subroutine.

pg. 58
Dept of Computer Science & Engineering
 HYDERABAD INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

PL/SQL Engine is a special component that processes and

executes any PL/SQL statements and sends any SQL statement to
the SQL statement processor.
The SQL statement processes are always located on the ORACLE
SERVER.

As per the necessity the PL/SQL Engine can be located either at

SERVER
CLIENT

When PL/SQL Engine is locted upon the SERVER,the whole PL/SQL

block is passed to the PL/SQL Engine on the ORACLE SERVER.
When the PL/SQL Engine is located upon the CLIENT,the PL/SQL
processing is done on the CLIENT SIDE.All SQL statenents that
are embedded within the PL/SQL block,are sent to the ORACLE
SERVER for further processing.

If the PL/SQL block does not contain any SQL statements,the

entire block is executed on the CLIENT SIDE.

PL/SQL BLOCK

DECLARE
--Declarations of memory variables,constants,cursors etc.,in
PL/SQL
BEGIN
--SQL executable statements
--PL/SQL executable statements
EXCEPTION

pg. 59
Dept of Computer Science & Engineering
 HYDERABAD INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

/*SQL or PL/SQL code to handle errors that may arise during the
execution of the code block between BEGIN and EXCEPTION
section
END;

SYNTAX's of CONTROL STATEMENTS in PL/SQL

1. BRANCHING
2. SELECTION
3. LOOPING

BRANCHING STATEMENTS

1.Simple IF
2.ELSIF
3.ELSE IF

SIMPLE IF

IF condition THEN
statement1;
statement2;
END IF;

IF-THEN-ELSE STATEMENT

IF condition THEN
pg. 60
Dept of Computer Science & Engineering
 HYDERABAD INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

statement1;
ELSE
statement2;
END IF;

ELSIF STATEMENTS

IF condition1 THEN
statement1;
ELSIF condition2 THEN
statement2;
ELSIF condition3 THEN
statement3;
ELSE
statementn;
END IF;

NESTED IF

IF condition THEN
statement1;
ELSE
IF condition THEN
statement2;
ELSE
statement3;
END IF;
END IF;
ELSE
statement3;
pg. 61
Dept of Computer Science & Engineering
 HYDERABAD INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

END IF;

SELECTION IN PL/SQL

SIMPLE CASE

CASE SELECTOR
WHEN Expr1 THEN statement1;
WHEN Expr2 THEN statement2;
:
:
:
ELSE
statementn;

END CASE;

SEARCHED CASE

CASE
WHEN searchcondition1 THEN statement1;
WHEN searchcondition2 THEN statement2;
:
:
:
ELSE
pg. 62
Dept of Computer Science & Engineering
 HYDERABAD INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

statementn;
END CASE;

ITERATIONS IN PL/SQL

SIMPLE LOOP

LOOP
statement1;
EXIT [ WHEN Condition];
END LOOP;

WHILE LOOP

WHILE condition LOOP

statement1;
statement2;
END LOOP;

FOR LOOP

FOR counter IN [REVERSE]

LowerBound..UpperBound
LOOP
statement1;
statement2;
END LOOP;
pg. 63
Dept of Computer Science & Engineering
 HYDERABAD INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

WRITE A PL/SQL PROGRAM TO SWAP TWO NUMBERS WITH

OUT TAKING THIRD VARIABLE

declare
a number(10);
b number(10);
begin
a:=&a;
b:=&b;
dbms_output.put_line('THE PREV VALUES OF A AND B WERE');
dbms_output.put_line(a);
dbms_output.put_line(b);
a:=a+b;
b:=a-b;
a:=a-b;
dbms_output.put_line('THE VALUES OF A AND B ARE');
dbms_output.put_line(a);
dbms_output.put_line(b);
end;

OUTPUT:

SQL> @ SWAPPING.SQL
17 /
Enter value for a: 5
old 5: a:=&a;
new 5: a:=5;
Enter value for b: 3
old 6: b:=&b;
new 6: b:=3;
THE PREV VALUES OF A AND B WERE
pg. 64
Dept of Computer Science & Engineering
 HYDERABAD INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

5
3
THE VALUES OF A AND B ARE
3
5

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

WRITE A PL/SQL PROGRAM TO SWAP TWO NUMBERS BY

TAKING THIRD VARIABLE

declare
a number(10);
b number(10);
c number(10);
begin
dbms_output.put_line('THE PREV VALUES OF A AND B WERE');
dbms_output.put_line(a);
dbms_output.put_line(b);
a:=&a;
b:=&b;
c:=a;
a:=b;
b:=c;
dbms_output.put_line('THE VALUES OF A AND B ARE');
dbms_output.put_line(a);
dbms_output.put_line(b);
end;

pg. 65
Dept of Computer Science & Engineering
 HYDERABAD INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

OUTPUT:

SQL> @ SWAPPING2.SQL
19 /
Enter value for a: 5
old 6: a:=&a;
new 6: a:=5;
Enter value for b: 3
old 7: b:=&b;
new 7: b:=3;
THE PREV VALUES OF A AND B WERE
5
3
THE VALUES OF A AND B ARE
3
5

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

WRITE A PL/SQL PROGRAM TO FIND THE LARGEST OF

TWO NUMBERS

declare
a number;
b number;
begin
a:=&a;
b:=&b;
pg. 66
Dept of Computer Science & Engineering
 HYDERABAD INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

if a=b then
dbms_output.put_line('BOTH ARE EQUAL');
elsif a>b then
dbms_output.put_line('A IS GREATER');
else
dbms_output.put_line('B IS GREATER');
end if;
end;

OUTPUT:

SQL> @ GREATESTOF2.sql
13 /
Enter value for a: 5
old 5: a:=&a;
new 5: a:=5;
Enter value for b: 2
old 6: b:=&b;
new 6: b:=2;
A IS GREATER

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

pg. 67
Dept of Computer Science & Engineering
 HYDERABAD INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

WRITE A PL/SQL PROGRAM TO FIND THE LARGEST OF

THREE NUMBERS

declare
a number;
b number;
c number;
begin
a:=&a;
b:=&b;
c:=&c;
if a=b and b=c and c=a then
dbms_output.put_line('ALL ARE EQUAL');
elsif a>b and a>c then
dbms_output.put_line('A IS GREATER');
elsif b>c then
dbms_output.put_line('B IS GREATER');
else
dbms_output.put_line('C IS GREATER');
end if;
end;

OUTPUT:

SQL> @ GREATESTOF3.sql
17 /
Enter value for a: 8
old 6: a:=&a;
new 6: a:=8;
Enter value for b: 9
old 7: b:=&b;
new 7: b:=9;
pg. 68
Dept of Computer Science & Engineering
 HYDERABAD INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

Enter value for c: 7

old 8: c:=&c;
new 8: c:=7;
B IS GREATER

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

WRITE A PL/SQL PROGRAM TO FIND THE TOTAL AND

AVERAGE OF 6 SUBJECTS AND DISPLAY THE GRADE

declare
java number(10);
dbms number(10);
co number(10);
se number(10);
es number(10);
ppl number(10);
total number(10);
avgs number(10);
per number(10);
begin
dbms_output.put_line('ENTER THE MARKS');
java:=&java;
dbms:=&dbms;
co:=&co;
se:=&se;
es:=&es;
pg. 69
Dept of Computer Science & Engineering
 HYDERABAD INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

ppl:=&ppl;
total:=(java+dbms+co+se+es+ppl);
per:=(total/600)*100;
if java<40 or dbms<40 or co<40 or se<40 or es<40 or ppl<40 then
dbms_output.put_line('FAIL');
if per>75 then
dbms_output.put_line('GRADE A');
elsif per>65 and per<75 then
dbms_output.put_line('GRADE B');
elsif per>55 and per<65 then
dbms_output.put_line('GRADE C');
else
dbms_output.put_line('INVALID INPUT');
end if;
dbms_output.put_line('PERCENTAGE IS '||per);
dbms_output.put_line('TOTAL IS '||total);
end;

OUTPUT:

SQL> @ GRADE.sql
31 /
Enter value for java: 80
old 12: java:=&java;
new 12: java:=80;
Enter value for dbms: 70
old 13: dbms:=&dbms;
new 13: dbms:=70;
Enter value for co: 89
old 14: co:=&co;
new 14: co:=89;
Enter value for se: 72
old 15: se:=&se;
pg. 70
Dept of Computer Science & Engineering
 HYDERABAD INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

new 15: se:=72;

Enter value for es: 76
old 16: es:=&es;
new 16: es:=76;
Enter value for ppl: 71
old 17: ppl:=&ppl;
new 17: ppl:=71;
GRADE A
PERCENTAGE IS 76
TOTAL IS 458
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

pg. 71
Dept of Computer Science & Engineering
 HYDERABAD INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

WRITE A PL/SQL PROGRAM TO CHECK WHETHER THE

GIVEN NUMBER IS AN ARMSTRONG NUMBER OR NOT

declare
a number;
t number;
arm number;
d number;
begin
a:=&a;
t:=a;
arm:=0;
while t>0
loop
d:=mod(t,10);
arm:=arm+power(d,3);
t:=trunc(t/10);
end loop;
if arm=a then
dbms_output.put_line('given no is an armstrong no'|| a);
else
dbms_output.put_line('given no is not an armstrong no');
end if;
end;

OUTPUT:

SQL> @ ARMSTRONGNUM.sql
Enter value for a: 407
old 7: a:=&a;
new 7: a:=407;
given no is an armstrong no407

pg. 72
Dept of Computer Science & Engineering
 HYDERABAD INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

SQL> /
Enter value for a: 406
old 7: a:=&a;
new 7: a:=406;
given no is not an armstrong no

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

WRITE A PL/SQL PROGRAM TO FIND THE SUM OF DIGITS

IN A GIVEN NUMBER

declare
a number;
d number:=0;
sum1 number:=0;
begin
a:=&a;
while a>0
loop
d:=mod(a,10);
sum1:=sum1+d;
a:=trunc(a/10);
end loop;
dbms_output.put_line('sum is'|| sum1);
end;

OUTPUT:

SQL> @ SUMOFDIGITS.sql
16 /
pg. 73
Dept of Computer Science & Engineering
 HYDERABAD INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

Enter value for a: 564

old 7: a:=&a;
new 7: a:=564;
sum is15

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

WRITE A PL/SQL PROGRAM TO DISPLAY THE NUMBER IN

REVERSE ORDER

declare
a number;
rev number;
d number;
pg. 74
Dept of Computer Science & Engineering
 HYDERABAD INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

begin
a:=&a;
rev:=0;
while a>0
loop
d:=mod(a,10);
rev:=(rev*10)+d;
a:=trunc(a/10);
end loop;
dbms_output.put_line('no is'|| rev);
end;

OUTPUT:

SQL> @ REVERSE2.sql
16 /
Enter value for a: 536
old 6: a:=&a;
new 6: a:=536;
no is635

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

pg. 75
Dept of Computer Science & Engineering
 HYDERABAD INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

WRITE A PL/SQL PROGRAM TO DISPLAY NUMBER IN

REVERSE ORDER USING STRING FUNCTION

declare
gn varchar2(5):=4567;
sl number(2);
rv varchar2(5);
begin
sl:=length(gn);
for i in reverse 1..sl
loop
rv:=rv||substr(gn,i,1);
end loop;
dbms_output.put_line('given no r is'||gn);
dbms_output.put_line('given no in reverse order is'||rv);
end;

OUTPUT:

SQL> @ REVERSE.sql
14 /
given no r is4567
given no in reverse order is7654
pg. 76
Dept of Computer Science & Engineering
 HYDERABAD INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

WRITE A PL/SQL PROGRAM TO CHECK WHETHER THE

GIVEN NUMBER IS PRIME OR NOT

declare
a number;
c number:=0;
i number;
begin
a:=&a;
for i in 1..a
loop
if mod(a,i)=0 then
c:=c+1;
end if;
end loop;
if c=2 then
dbms_output.put_line(a ||'is a prime number');
else
dbms_output.put_line(a ||'is not a prime number');
end if;
end;
pg. 77
Dept of Computer Science & Engineering
 HYDERABAD INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

OUTPUT:

SQL> @ PRIME.SQL
19 /
Enter value for a: 11
old 6: a:=&a;
new 6: a:=11;
11is a prime number

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

WRITE A PL/SQL PROGRAM TO FIND THE FACTORIAL OF A

GIVEN NUMBER

declare
n number;
f number:=1;
begin
n:=&n;
for i in 1..n
loop
pg. 78
Dept of Computer Science & Engineering
 HYDERABAD INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

f:=f*i;
end loop;
dbms_output.put_line('the factorial is'|| f);
end;

OUTPUT:

SQL> @ FACTORIAL.sql
12 /
Enter value for n: 5
old 5: n:=&n;
new 5: n:=5;
the factorial is120

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

pg. 79
Dept of Computer Science & Engineering
 HYDERABAD INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

WRITE A PL/SQL PROGRAM TO GENERATE FIBONACCI

SERIES

declare
a number;
b number;
c number;
n number;
i number;
begin
n:=&n;
a:=0;
b:=1;
dbms_output.put_line(a);
dbms_output.put_line(b);
for i in 1..n-2
loop
c:=a+b;
dbms_output.put_line(c);
a:=b;
b:=c;
end loop;
end;

OUTPUT:

SQL> @ FIBONACCI.sql
21 /
Enter value for n: 5
old 8: n:=&n;
new 8: n:=5;
pg. 80
Dept of Computer Science & Engineering
 HYDERABAD INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

0
1
1
2
3

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

WRITE A PL/SQL CODE BLOCK TO CALCULATE THE AREA

OF A CIRCLE FOR A VALUE OF RADIUS VARYING FROM 3
TO 7.
STORE THE RADIUS AND THE CORRESPONDING VALUES
OF CALCULATED AREA IN AN EMPTY TABLE NAMED
AREAS ,CONSISTING OF TWO COLUMNS RADIUS & AREA

TABLE NAME:AREAS

RADIUS AREA

SQL> create table areas(radius number(10),area number(6,2));

Table created.
--PROGRAM
declare
pg. 81
Dept of Computer Science & Engineering
 HYDERABAD INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

pi constant number(4,2):=3.14;
radius number(5):=3;
area number(6,2);
begin
while radius<7
loop
area:=pi*power(radius,2);
insert into areas values(radius,area);
radius:=radius+1;
end loop;
end;

OUTPUT:
SQL> @ AREAOFCIRCLE.SQL
13 /
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.
SQL> SELECT * FROM AREAS;
RADIUS AREA
---------- ----------
3 28.26
4 50.24
5 78.5
6 113.04

WRITE A PL/SQL CODE BLOCK THAT WILL ACCEPT AN

ACCOUNT NUMBER FROM THE USER,CHECK IF THE USERS
BALANCE IS LESS THAN MINIMUM BALANCE,ONLY THEN
DEDUCT RS.100/- FROM THE BALANCE.THIS PROCESS IS
FIRED ON THE ACCT TABLE.

SQL> create table acct(name varchar2(10),cur_bal

number(10),acctno number(6,2));

pg. 82
Dept of Computer Science & Engineering
 HYDERABAD INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

SQL> insert into stud values('&sname',&rollno,&marks);

SQL> select * from acct;

ACCTNO NAME CUR_BAL

---------- ---------- ----------
777 sirius 10000
765 john 1000
855 sam 500
353 peter 800

--PROGRAM

declare
mano number(5);
mcb number(6,2);
minibal constant number(7,2):=1000.00;
fine number(6,2):=100.00;
begin
mano:=&mano;
select cur_bal into mcb from acct where acctno=mano;
if mcb<minibal then
update acct set cur_bal=cur_bal-fine where acctno=mano;
end if;
end;

OUTPUT:

SQL> @ BANKACC.sql
13 /
Enter value for mano: 855
old 7: mano:=&mano;
new 7: mano:=855;
pg. 83
Dept of Computer Science & Engineering
 HYDERABAD INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

SQL> select * from acct;

ACCTNO NAME CUR_BAL

---------- ---------- ----------
777 sirius 10000
765 john 1000
855 sam 400
353 peter 800

pg. 84
Dept of Computer Science & Engineering
 HYDERABAD INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

PL/SQL PROGRAMS- FUNCTIONS

CUBE

create or replace function cube(n number) return number

as
c number;
begin
c:=n*n*n;
return c;
end;

output:-
SQL> @cub
/

Function created.

SQL> select cube(6)from dual;

CUBE(6)
------
216
pg. 85
Dept of Computer Science & Engineering
 HYDERABAD INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

FACTORIAL
create or replace function fact(n number)return number
as

fac number:=1;
begin
for i in 1..n
loop
fac:=fac*i;
end loop;
return fac;
end;
pg. 86
Dept of Computer Science & Engineering
 HYDERABAD INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

output:-

SQL> @func.sql;
12 /

Function created.

SQL> select fact(5) from dual;

FACT(5)
----------
120

IN- PROCEDURE

pg. 87
Dept of Computer Science & Engineering
 HYDERABAD INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

create or replace procedure inpro(dno number,depname

varchar2,city varchar2)
as
begin
insert into dept (deptno,dname,loc)values(dno,depname,city);
end;

OUTPUT:-
SQL> select * from dept;

DEPTNO DNAME LOC

---------- -------------- -------------
10 ACCOUNTING NEW YORK
20 RESEARCH DALLAS
30 SALES CHICAGO
40 OPERATIONS BOSTON

SQL> @pro1
/

Procedure created.

SQL> exec inpro(50,'MARKETING','HYDERABAD');

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

SQL> select * from dept;

DEPTNO DNAME LOC

---------- -------------- -------------
10 ACCOUNTING NEW YORK
pg. 88
Dept of Computer Science & Engineering
 HYDERABAD INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

20 RESEARCH DALLAS
30 SALES CHICAGO
40 OPERATIONS BOSTON
50 MARKETING HYDERABAD

OUT-PROCEDURE

create or replace procedure outpro(dno number,depname out

varchar2,city out varchar2)
as
begin
select dname,loc into depname,city from dept where deptno=dno;
end;

OUTPUT:
SQL> @proc2
/

Procedure created.

SQL> declare
2 x varchar2(20);
3 y varchar2(30);
4 ch number;
5 begin
6 ch:=&ch;
7 outpro(ch,x,y);
pg. 89
Dept of Computer Science & Engineering
 HYDERABAD INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

8 dbms_output.put_line(x || ' ' || y);

9 end;
10 /
Enter value for ch: 10
old 6: ch:=&ch;
new 6: ch:=10;
ACCOUNTING NEW YORK

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

BEFORE TRIGGER
create or replace trigger tday before insert or delete or update on
emp
declare
we varchar2(10);
begin
we:=to_char(sysdate,'dy');
if we='sat' or we='sun' then
raise_application_error(-20015,'its a weekend');
end if;
pg. 90
Dept of Computer Science & Engineering
 HYDERABAD INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

end;

output:-

SQL> @trig1
/

Trigger created.

SQL> delete from emp where empno=7902;

ERROR at line 1:
ORA-20015: its a weekend
ORA-06512: at "SCOTT.TDAY", line 6
ORA-04088: error during execution of trigger 'SCOTT.TDAY'

pg. 91
Dept of Computer Science & Engineering
 HYDERABAD INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT

AFTER TRIGGER

create or replace trigger ttime after insert or delete or update on

emp1 for each row
declare
tt varchar2(5);
begin
tt:=to_char(sysdate,'hh24');
if tt not between 10 and 17 then
raise_application_error(-20010,'not working hours');
end if;
end;

output:-
SQL> @trig2;
10 /

Trigger created.

SQL> update emp1 set empno=7777 where empno=7902;

*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-20010: not working hours
ORA-06512: at "SCOTT.TTIME", line 6
ORA-04088: error during execution of trigger 'SCOTT.TTIME'

pg. 92
Dept of Computer Science & Engineering