Data Structures and

Algorithms in Java
Third Edition
 Data Structures and
Algorithms in Java
Third Edition

Michael T. Goodrich
Department of Computer Science
University of California, Irvine

Roberto Tamassia
Department of Computer Science
Brown University

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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To Karen, Paul, Anna, and Jack
– Michael T. Goodrich

To Isabel
– Roberto Tamassia
Preface to the Third Edition
This third edition is designed to provide an introduction to data structures and al-
gorithms, including their design, analysis, and implementation. With respect to
computer science and computer engineering curricula, we have written this book
to be primarily for Freshman-Sophomore level data structures courses. In terms
of curricula based on the IEEE/ACM 2001 Computing Curriculum, this book is
appropriate for use in the courses CS102 (I/O/B versions), CS103 (I/O/B versions),
CS111 (A version), and CS112 (A/I/O/F/H versions). In terms of curricula based
on the 1978 ACM Computer Science Curriculum, this book is intended for the
CS2 course. We discuss its use for such courses in more detail later in this preface.

The major changes, with respect to the second edition, are the following:

• Expanded coverage of recursion

• Streamlined mathematics to the seven most used functions
• Inclusion of HTML tag matching and favorites list applications
• Simplification of the Java interfaces associated with ADTs
• Better integration with the Java Collections Framework
• Simplified binary tree and priority queue ADTs
• Addition of the map ADT
• Addition of splay trees
• Addition of the union/find partition data structure
• Simplified graph ADT
• Expanded and revised exercises.

This book is related to the following books:

• M.T. Goodrich, R. Tamassia, and D.M. Mount, Data Structures and Algo-
rithms in C++, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2004. This book has a similar over-
all structure to the present book, but uses C++ as the underlying language
(with some modest, but necessary pedagogical differences required by this
approach). Thus, it could make for a handy companion book in a curriculum
that allows for either a Java or C++ track in the introductory courses.
• M.T. Goodrich and R. Tamassia, Algorithm Design: Foundations, Analysis,
and Internet Examples, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2002. This is a textbook
for a more advanced algorithms and data structures course, such as CS7 in
the ACM 1978 curriculum or CS210 (T/W/C/S versions) in the IEEE/ACM
2001 curriculum.

vii
viii Preface

Use as a Textbook

The design and analysis of efficient data structures has long been recognized as a
vital subject in computing, for the study of data structures is part of the core of ev-
ery collegiate computer science and computer engineering major program we are
familiar with. Typically, the introductory courses are presented as a two- or three-
course sequence. Elementary data structures are often briefly introduced in the first
programming or introduction to computer science course and this is followed by a
more in-depth introduction to data structures in the following course(s). Further-
more, this course sequence is typically followed at a later point in the curriculum
by a more in-depth study of data structures and algorithms. We feel that the central
role of data structure design and analysis in the curriculum is fully justified, given
the importance of efficient data structures in most software systems, including the
Web, operating systems, databases, compilers, and scientific simulation systems.
With the emergence of the object-oriented paradigm as the framework of choice
for building robust and reusable software, we have tried to take a consistent object-
oriented viewpoint throughout this text. One of the main ideas of the object-
oriented approach is that data should be presented as being encapsulated with the
methods that access and modify them. That is, rather than simply viewing data as
a collection of bytes and addresses, we think of data as instances of an abstract
data type (ADT) that includes a repertory of methods for performing operations on
the data. Likewise, object-oriented solutions are often organized utilizing common
design patterns, which facilitate software reuse and robustness. Thus, we present
each data structure using ADTs and their respective implementations and we in-
troduce important design patterns as means to organize those implementations into
classes, methods, and objects.
For each ADT presented in this book, we provide an associated Java inter-
face. Also, concrete data structures realizing the ADTs are provided as Java classes
implementing the above interfaces. We also give Java implementations of funda-
mental algorithms (such as sorting and graph traversals) and of sample applications
of data structures (such as HTML tag matching and a photo album). Due to space
limitations, we sometimes show only code fragments in the book and make the full
source code available on the companion Web site http://java.datastructures.net.
The Java code in this the book implementing fundamental data structures is
organized in a single Java package, net.datastructures. This package forms a co-
herent library of data structures and algorithms in Java specifically designed for
educational purposes in a way that is complementary with the Java Collections
Framework.
Preface ix

Web Added-Value Education

This book is accompanied by an extensive Web site:

http://java.datastructures.net
Students are encouraged to use this site along with the book, to help with exercises
and increase understanding of the subject. Instructors are likewise welcome to use
the site to help plan, organize, and present their course materials.

For the Student

For all readers, and specifically for students, we include:

• All the Java source code presented in this book

• The student version of the net.datastructures package
• Slide handouts (four-per-page) in PDF format
• A database of hints to all exercises, indexed by problem number
• Java animations and interactive applets for data structures and algorithms
• Hyperlinks to other data structures and algorithms resources.

We feel that the Java animations and interactive applets should be of particular in-
terest, since they allow readers to interactively “play” with different data structures,
which leads to better understanding of the different ADTs. In addition, the hints
should be of considerable use to anyone needing a little help getting started on
certain exercises.

For the Instructor

For instructors using this book, we include the following additional teaching aids:

• Solutions to over two hundred of the book’s exercises

• A keyword-searchable database of additional exercises
• The complete net.datastructures package
• Additional Java source code
• Slides in Powerpoint and PDF (one-per-page) format
• Self-contained special-topic supplements, including discussions on convex
hulls, range trees, and orthogonal segment intersection.

The slides are fully editable, so as to allow an instructor using this book full free-
dom in customizing his or her presentations.
x Preface

For the Instructor

This book contains many Java-code and pseudo-code fragments, and over six hun-
dred exercises, which are divided into roughly 40% reinforcement exercises, 40%
creativity exercises, and 20% programming projects.

Relation to the IEEE/ACM 2001 Computing Curriculum

This book can be used for the CS2 course in the 1978 ACM Computer Science
Curriculum or courses CS102 (I/O/B versions), CS103 (I/O/B versions), CS111
(A version), and/or CS112 (A/I/O/F/H versions) in the IEEE/ACM 2001 Comput-
ing Curriculum, with instructional units as outlined in Table 0.1.

Instructional Unit Relevant Material

PL1. Overview of Programming Languages Chapters 1 & 2
PL2. Virtual Machines Sections 4.2.3, 4.3.4, & 12.4.4
PL3. Introduction to Language Translation Section 1.9
PL4. Declarations and Types Sections 1.1, 2.4, & 2.4.4
PL5. Abstraction Mechanisms Sections 2.4, 4.2, 4.3, 4.5, 5.1.1, 5.2, 5.3, 5.5, 6.1,
6.3.1, 7.1, 8.1, 8.3, 10.6, & 12.1
PL6. Object-Oriented Programming Chapters 1 & 2 and Sections 5.2.2, 5.5, 6.3.5,
7.1.2, & 12.3.1
PF1. Fundamental Programming Constructs Chapters 1 & 2
PF2. Algorithms and Problem-Solving Sections 1.9, 3.2, & 3.4
PF3. Fundamental Data Structures Sections 1.5, 4.2–4.4, 4.5, , 5.1–5.3, 6.1, 6.3, 6.4,
7.1, 7.3, 8.1–8.4, 9.1–9.6, 12.1, & 12.2
PF4. Recursion Sections 2.5.1 & 4.1
SE1. Software Design Chapter 2 and Sections 5.2.2, 5.5, 6.3.5, 7.1.2, &
12.3.1
SE2. Using APIs Sections 2.4, 2.4.4, 4.2, 4.3, 4.5, 5.1.1, 5.2, 5.3,
5.5, 6.1, 6.3.1, 7.1, 8.1, 8.3, 10.6, & 12.1
AL1. Basic Algorithmic Analysis Chapter 3
AL2. Algorithmic Strategies Sections 10.1.1, 10.7.1, 11.2.1, 11.4.2, & 11.5.2
AL3. Fundamental Computing Algorithms Sections 7.1.4, 7.2.3, 7.3.5, 8.2, & 8.3.3, and
Chapters 10, 11, & 12
DS1. Functions, Relations, and Sets Sections 3.3, 7.1, & 10.6
DS3. Proof Techniques Sections 3.5, 5.1.3, 6.3.3, 7.3, 9.2, 9.3, 9.4, 9.5,
10.2.1, 10.3, 10.6.2, 12.1, 12.3.1, 12.4, & 12.5
DS4. Basics of Counting Sections 2.2.3 & 10.1.5
DS5. Graphs and Trees Chapters 6, 7, 9, & 12
DS6. Discrete Probability Appendix A and Sections 8.2.2, 8.4.2, 10.2.1, &
10.7
Table 0.1: Material for Units in the IEEE/ACM 2001 Computing Curriculum.
Preface xi

Teaching Options
This book is also structured to allow instructors a great deal of freedom in organiz-
ing and presenting the material. In Table 0.2, we illustrate some possible uses of
this book for an intermediate-paced data structures course.

Chapter Possible Options

1. Java Programming skip if students know it already
2. Object-Oriented Design omit the adapter pattern
3. Analysis Tools omit justification methods
4. Stacks, Queues & Recursion omit Java-thread queue application
5. Vectors, Lists, and Sequences omit list iterators
6. Trees omit template method pattern
7. Priority Queues omit bottom-up heap construction
8. Maps and Dictionaries omit extensions of dictionaries
9. Search Trees omit (2,4) and red-black trees or splay trees
10. Sorting, Sets, and Selection omit sorting lower bound
11. Text Processing omit tries, compression, and/or LCS
12. Graphs omit directed graphs or MSTs

Table 0.2: Options for a Freshman-Sophomore data structures course.

Prerequisites
We have written this book assuming that the reader comes to it with certain knowl-
edge. That is, we assume that the reader is at least vaguely familiar with a high-level
programming language, such as C, C++, or Java, and that he or she understands the
main constructs from such a high-level language, including:
• Variables and expressions
• Methods (also known as functions or procedures)
• Decision structures (such as if-statements and switch-statements)
• Iteration structures (for-loops and while-loops).
For readers who are familiar with these concepts, but not with how they are ex-
pressed in Java, we provide a primer on the Java language in Chapter 1. Still, this
book is primarily a data structures book, not a Java book; hence, it does not provide
a comprehensive treatment of Java. Nevertheless, we do not assume that the reader
is necessarily familiar with object-oriented design or with linked structures, such
as linked lists, for these topics are covered in the core chapters of this book.
xii Preface

In terms of mathematical background, we assume the reader is somewhat famil-

iar with topics from high-school mathematics. Even so, in Chapter 3, we discuss
the seven most-important functions for algorithm analysis. In fact, sections that use
something other than one of these seven functions are considered optional, and are
indicated with a star (
). We give a summary of other useful mathematical facts,
including elementary probability, in Appendix A.

About the Authors

Professors Goodrich and Tamassia are well-recognized researchers in algorithms
and data structures, having published many papers in this field, with applications
to Internet computing, information visualization, computer security, and geometric
computing. They have served as principal investigators in several joint projects
sponsored by the National Science Foundation, the Army Research Office, and the
Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency. They are also active in educational
technology research, with special emphasis on algorithm visualization systems.
Michael Goodrich received his Ph.D. in Computer Science from Purdue Uni-
versity in 1987. He is currently a professor in the Department of Computer Science
at University of California, Irvine. Previously, he was a professor at Johns Hop-
kins University. He is an editor for the International Journal of Computational
Geometry & Applications and Journal of Graph Algorithms and Applications.
Roberto Tamassia received his Ph.D. in Electrical and Computer Engineering
from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign in 1988. He is currently a pro-
fessor in the Department of Computer Science at Brown University. He is editor-
in-chief for the Journal of Graph Algorithms and Applications and an editor for
Computational Geometry: Theory and Applications. He previously served on the
editorial board of IEEE Transactions on Computers.
In addition to their research accomplishments, the authors also have extensive
experience in the classroom. For example, Dr. Goodrich has taught data structures
and algorithms courses, including Data Structures as a freshman-sophomore level
course and Introduction to Algorithms as an upper level course. He has earned sev-
eral teaching awards in this capacity. His teaching style is to involve the students in
lively interactive classroom sessions that bring out the intuition and insights behind
data structuring and algorithmic techniques. Dr. Tamassia has taught Data Struc-
tures and Algorithms as an introductory freshman-level course since 1988. One
thing that has set his teaching style apart is his effective use of interactive hyper-
media presentations integrated with the Web.
The instructional Web sites, datastructures.net and algorithmdesign.net, sup-
ported by Drs. Goodrich and Tamassia are used as reference material by students,
teachers, and professionals worldwide.
Preface xiii

Acknowledgments
There are a number of individuals who have made contributions to this book.
We are grateful to all our research collaborators and teaching assistants, who
provided feedback on early drafts of chapters and have helped us in developing ex-
ercises, programming assignments, and algorithm animation systems. In particular,
we would like to thank Jeff Achter, James Baker, Ryan Baker, Benjamin Boer, Mike
Boilen, Devin Borland, Lubomir Bourdev, Stina Bridgeman, Bryan Cantrill, Yi-Jen
Chiang, Robert Cohen, David Emory, Jody Fanto, Ashim Garg, Natasha Gelfand,
Mark Handy, Michael Horn, Benoı̂t Hudson, Jovanna Ignatowicz, Seth Padowitz,
James Piechota, Dan Polivy, Susannah Raub, Andy Schwerin, Michael Shapiro,
Michael Shin, Christian Straub, Galina Shubina, Nikos Triandopoulos, and Luca
Vismara. Lubomir Bourdev, Mike Demmer, Mark Handy, Michael Horn, and Scott
Speigler developed a basic Java tutorial, which ultimately led to Chapter 1, Java
Programming.
Special thanks go to Eric Zamore, who contributed to the development of the
Java code examples in this book and to the design, implementation and testing of
the net.datastructures library of data structures and algorithms in Java.
Many students and instructors have used the two previous editions of this book
and their experiences and responses have helped shape this third edition.
There have been a number of friends and colleagues whose comments have lead
to improvements in the text. We are particularly thankful to Karen Goodrich, Art
Moorshead, David Mount, Scott Smith and Ioannis Tollis for their insightful com-
ments. In addition, contributions by David Mount to Section 2.5.1 and to several
figures are gratefully acknowledged.
We are also truly indebted to the outside reviewers and readers for their copi-
ous comments, emails, and constructive criticism, which were extremely useful in
writing the third edition. We specifically thank the following reviewers for their
comments and suggestions: Divy Agarwal, University of California, Santa Bar-
bara; Terry Andres, University of Manitoba; Bobby Blumofe, University of Texas,
Austin; Michael Clancy, University of California, Berkeley; Larry Davis, Univer-
sity of Maryland; Scott Drysdale, Dartmouth College; Arup Guha, University of
Central Florida; Chris Ingram, University of Waterloo; Stan Kwasny, Washington
University; Calvin Lin, University of Texas at Austin; John Mark Mercer, McGill
University; Laurent Michel, University of Connecticut; Leonard Myers, California
Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo; David Naumann, Stevens Institute
of Technology; Robert Pastel, Michigan Technological University; Bina Rama-
murthy, SUNY Buffalo; Ken Slonneger, University of Iowa; C.V. Ravishankar,
University of Michigan; Val Tannen, University of Pennsylvania; Paul Van Ar-
ragon, Messiah College; and Christopher Wilson, University of Oregon.
xiv Preface

We are grateful to our editor, Paul Crockett, for his enthusiastic support of this
project. The team at Wiley has been great. Many thanks go to Lilian Brady, Ken
Santor, Simon Durkin, Madelyn Lesure, Dawn Stanley, and Jeri Warner.
The computing systems and excellent technical support staff in the departments
of computer science at Brown University and University of California, Irvine gave
us reliable working environments. This manuscript was prepared primarily with
the LATEX typesetting package for the text and Adobe FrameMaker
R and Microsoft
Visio
R for the figures.
Finally, we would like to warmly thank Isabel Cruz, Karen Goodrich, Giuseppe
Di Battista, Franco Preparata, Ioannis Tollis, and our parents for providing advice,
encouragement, and support at various stages of the preparation of this book. We
also thank them for reminding us that there are things in life beyond writing books.

Michael T. Goodrich
Roberto Tamassia