Introduction to Systems Analysis

and Design

1
 Information and paperwork are the most abundant
products generated by modern business.

There are two reasons for the overwhelming

information and paperwork:
PEOPLE. People is the reason because a growing
population generate a tremendous amount of data that
needs to be entered, manipulated, processed, and output
like medical files, school records, employment to name a
few.

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

2
GOVERNMENT. The second reason is the increase of
government regulation and controls. Computers,
particularly, microcomputers are widely used to cope with
this burgeoning paperwork. It fuels information based
upon which large and small decisions are made. It is use
to help management policy and make better decisions
about employment, purchasing, and distribution patterns.
The flow and availability of data has become
indispensable vital element of almost every human
enterprise. It requires planning, people, machines, and
money.

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

3
Data vs. Information
D Consist of raw facts concerning people,
at events, or other entities collected in vast
quantities from both internal and external
a
sources.
Examples:
employee’s name, number of hours worked
Types of Data:
1. Alphanumeric Data - numbers, letters and other
characters
2. Audio Data - sound, noise, or tones
3. Image Data - graphical images or pictures
4.Video Data - moving images or pictures
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
4
 Information
Data that has been process and presented in a
form suitable for human interpretation and decision
making.
A collection of facts organized in such a way that
they have additional value beyond the value of the
facts themselves.

Rules and relationship can be set-up to organized

data into useful, valuable information. The type of
information created depends upon the relationships
defined between existing data. Adding new or different
data means relationships can be redefined, and new
information can be created.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
5
Process
Refers to turning data and information
A set of logically related tasks performed to
achieve a defined outcome

Data Process Information

Process of transforming data into information

The process of defining relationship between
data and information requires knowledge.
Knowledge – body of rules, guidelines and procedures
used to select, organized, and manipulate data to
make it suitable for specific task.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
6
 Characteristics of Valuable Information
1. ACCURATE - error-free
2. COMPLETE - contains all important facts
3. ECONOMICAL - information must not be costly
to produce
4. FLEXIBLE - can be used for a variety of
purposes
5. RELIABLE - can be depended on
- reliability of information depends on
the source of information.
6. RELEVANT - important
7. SIMPLE - not overly complex causing information
overload.
8. TIMELY - deliverable when needed.
9. VERIFIABLE - can easily be checked to determine
correctness.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
7
Importance of Information
Information has taken its place in organization
as a major corporate resource. It represents other
sources in an organization such as money and
materials especially when the size of the firm
increases. This is so because monitoring the physical
operation of an organization will be time consuming
to do. As a manager, they rely on information to
monitor these physical operation. The manager uses
many reports or information displays to reflect the
firm’s conditions and use these in decision-making.

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

8
Information Must Be Manage
According to McLeod, Information must be manage
accordingly and correctly, just as other resources found in
the organization. Manager needs to understand that there
are costs associated with production, distribution, security,
storage and retrieval of all information. Although
information is all around, it is not free, and its strategic use
for positioning a business competitively should not be
taken for granted.

[MCLEOD, 1998]

9
Reasons For Information Management
1.Increasing complexity of management task due to:
a.International economic influences
b.Increasing complexity of technology
c.Shrinking time frames
d.Competitive pressures
e.Social pressures
2. Availability of Problem-Solving tools such as
computer

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

10
Information Resource Management
Concept that information is a major corporate
resource and must be managed using the same
principles being applied in managing other assets of
the organization.

Principles:
1. A business organization is composed of resources
that flow into the organization and then return to the
environment where these resources comes from.
[MCLEOD, 1998]

11
2. There are two basic types of resources:
a.physical resources such as:
i. personnel iv. machines
ii. materials v. money
iii. facilities
b.conceptual resources such as:
i. data ii. Information

3. As the scale of operation grows, it becomes more

difficult to manage the physical resources by
observation. Thus, the manager is forced to rely on
the conceptual resources.
4. The same basic principles that have been
developed for the management of physical
resources can be applied to the management of
conceptual resources.
[MCLEOD, 1998]
12
5. Management of data and information includes:
a.acquisition prior to the time they are needed
b.security measures design to protect the resources
from destruction and misuse
c.quality assurance
d.removal procedures that discharge the resource
from the organization
when they are no longer needed.

6. Management of data and information can be

achieved only through organizational, not individual
commitment.
[MCLEOD, 1998]

13
System
A regularly interacting and interdependent group of
element forming a unified whole.
A set of interacting elements to accomplish a certain
goals or objectives.
Consists of tools, supplies, machine, procedure and
people. Usually requiring some type of orderly
management.
Major attributes of system is that they possess
qualities and capabilities not found in individual
elements. This attribute – the whole producing results
that are greater than the sum of its parts.
Example:
car
[MCLEOD, 1998]
14
Characteristics of a System
1. Component
-an irreducible part or aggregation of parts that
makes a system.
-also called a subsystem
2. Interrelated components
-dependence of one subsystem on one or more
subsystems
3. Boundary
- the line that marks the inside and the outside of
a system and which sets off the system from its
environment.

[MCLEOD, 1998]

15
4. Purpose
-overall goal or function of a system
5. Environment
-refers to anything that is external to a system
that interacts with a system
6. Interface
- point of contact where a system meets its
environment or where subsystems meet each
other

[MCLEOD, 1998]

16
Functions of interfaces:
a.security – protecting the system from undesirable elements
that may want to infiltrate it.
b.filtering – unwanted data both for elements leaving the
system and entering it.
c.coding and decoding – incoming and outgoing messages
d.detecting and correcting errors – in its interaction with the
environment
e.buffering – providing a layer of slack between the system
and its environment, so that the system and its
environment can work on different cycle and at different
speeds.
f.summarizing – raw data and transforming them into the level
of detail and format needed throughout the system(for an
input interface) or in the environment(for an output
interface)

[MCLEOD, 1998]
17
7. Constraints
- limit to what a system can accomplish
- can either be imposed by internal or external
factors
8. Input
-refers to what ever a system takes from its
environment in order to fulfill its purpose.
9. Output
-refers to whatever a system returns to its
environment in order to fulfill its purpose.

[MCLEOD, 1998]

18
Business Systems
A collection of policies, procedures, methods, people
machines, and other elements that interact and
enable the organization to reach each of its goals-
to profit or to render service.

A system concerned with accomplishing specific

business goals and is broken down into a number
of subsystems.

Business systems rely on the data provided by

the information system
[HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1999]

19
 Information Systems
Set of interrelated elements or components that collect
(input), manipulate and store(process),
disseminate(output) data and information and provide a
mechanism for feedback

System that manages data needed by a business

system

Considered an asset to gain competitive advantage if

effectively manage
BURCH, 1992

due to the increase in volume of information that

must be processed, it led to a greater reliance upon
computer-based information system(CBIS)
Considered an asset to gain competitive advantage if
effectively manage.
20
INFORMATION SYSTEMS ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

A complex, challenging, and stimulating

organizational process that a team of business
and systems professionals uses to develop and
maintain computer-based information systems

Series of processes systematically under taken to

improve a business through understanding of
organization’s objectives, structures, and
processes as well on how can exploit information
technology for the system’s advantage

[HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1999]

21
SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
The scientific study of systems processes, including
investigation of inputs, and outputs, in order to find
better, more economical, and more efficient
means of processing.
Used to gain an understanding of an existing system
and what is required of it.
[HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1999]
SYSTEMS DESIGN
Proposes a new system that meets the requirements
specified. This new system maybe built a new or
by changing the existing system.
[HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1999]
22
NEED FOR SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
AND DESIGN

1.Used to analyze, design, and implement improvements

in the functioning of businesses that can be Seeks to
analyze data input or data flow, processing or
transforming data, data storage, information output
within the context of a particular business
2.accomplished through the use of computerized
information systems.

1. [HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1999]

23
ADVANTAGE OF SYSTEMS
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
1. Greater efficiency
2. Maximizing profit
3. Resources to the best advantage
4. Reduction of human effort
5. Faster turnaround
6. Reduction and elimination of errors in data and
information
7. Consistent operations and procedures
[SILVER & SILVER, 1992]

24
LIMITATIONS OF SYSTEM ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
1.Some business problems are beyond the scope of systems
analysis and design
2.Efforts cost time and money
3.Human element can cause complications
4.Effort is required to sell a system
[HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1999]
SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT TEAM
- Systems development is a team effort.
Characteristics of a systems development team:
1.Diversity in backgrounds, skills and goals that comes from
all different groups interested in the system
2.Tolerance diversity, uncertainty, ambiguity
3.Clear and complete communication
4.Trust [HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1999]
25
Computer-Based Information System
CBIS is an information system that is composed
CBIS
of hardware, software, databases, telecommunication,
people and procedures that are configured to collect,
manipulate, store, and processed data into information.
[HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1999]
Components:
1. Hardware - consists of computer equipments used
top perform input, processing, and output activities
2. Software - consists of programs and instructions
given to the computer and to the user
3. Database - an organized collection of facts and
information
[HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1999]
26
4. Telecommunications - allows organization to link
CBIS
computer systems together into effective
networks
5. People - any person involved in information systems
development including information systems
personnel that manages, run, program, and
maintain computer systems
- any person that benefits in the use of the
information system(users)
6. Procedures- includes strategies, policies, methods, and
rules that human use to operate the CBIS

[HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1999]

27
Types of CBIS
1. Transaction Processing System
- an organize collection of people,
procedures,
record
CBIS
databases, and devices used to
completed business transaction
- system to process large amount of data for
routine business transactions
- support day-to-day activities of the
business
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
2. Office Automation Systems
- support data workers
- includes all of the formal and informal
electronic systems primarily concerned with the
communication of information to and from
persons both in and outside the firm
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
28
Data Workers

CBIS
workers that do not usually create data or new
knowledge but rather analyze information in order
to transform data or manipulate it in some way
before sharing it with, or formally disseminating it
throughout the organization and, sometimes,
beyond.

Office Automation Applications

a. word processing
b. communication
c. spreadsheet
d. desktop publishing
e. electronic scheduling
[HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1999]
29
3. Knowledge Work Systems
–support professional workers or knowledge
workers by aiding them in their effort to create new
CBIS
knowledge and by allowing them to contribute it to
their organization or to the society at large.
Examples: CAD/CAM
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
4. Management Information Systems
– an organize collection of people, procedures,
databases, and devices used to provide routine
information to managers and decision makers
– provide periodic reports, special report and
outputs of mathematical simulation that comes
from transaction processing system

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

30
 CBIS
TPS
Marketing Production
MIS MIS
Common
Database

Financial MIS Other MIS

Management Information System

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

31
5. Decision Support System
- an organized collection of people, procedures,
CBIS
databases, and devices used to support problem- specific
decision making
- support middle management of information workers
who needs assistance with semi-structured
problems(problems that contains some aspects of being
easily predictable as well as other aspects that require
the exercise of judgment)
- an interactive system that supports a single manager
or relatively small group of managers in the solution
of semi structured problems by providing
information or suggestions, and varying degrees,
concerning specific decisions

[HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1999]

32
 DSS
CBIS
Generator

Model Database
Base
user
interface

Decision Support System

[HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1999]
33
 6. Expert System
-information system that can function as a
consultant to a problem solver, not only to by suggesting
CBIS
to a solution but also by explaining the line of reassuring
that leads to the solution as what a human expert can do.

-branch of artificial intelligence and is also called

knowledge-based systems
Expert Systems

Rule basic
user User interface
Inference

Knowledge base
[HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1999]
34
7. GROUP DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEM
- Intended to bring a group together to solve a
problem with the help of various supports such as
CBIS
polling, questionnaires, brainstorming, and scenario
creation
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
- Helps middle managers and information workers
collectively plan and decide important business
issues
8.COMPUTER SUPPORTED COLLABORATIVE WORK
- Intended for team collaboration via networked
computers that uses a software called “group
ware” [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
9. EXECUTIVE SUPPORT SYSTEMS
- Support senior managers of the firm in the
strategic planning function.

35
 ESS
GDSS

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

CSCWS

ES

DSS

MIS
Knowledge Work
System Office
Automation System

Transaction Processing Systems

Systems Analyst may be involved with any or all of these systems

36
BENEFITS OF INFORMATION SYSTEMS

[HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1999]

1.Added value to products (goods or services)
2.Better service advantage
3.Competitive
4.Fewer errors
5.Greater accuracy
6.Higher- quality products
7.Improved communications
8.Increased efficiency
9.Increased productivity
10.More efficient administration
11.Reduced operation requirements
12.Reduced operation casts
13.Superior financial decision making
14.Superior control over operations
15.Superior managerial decision making

37
 CAUSES OF UNSUCCESSFUL SYSTEM
1.Systems developed did not support business strategies and
policies
2.Poor systems planning and inadequate project management
3.Failure to define or understand user requirements and get
users involved in systems development
4.Negligence in estimating cost and benefit of the system
project
5.Creation of a myriad of design defects and errors
6.Acquisition of computers and soft ware that no one needs or
knows to use
7.Installation of incompatible or inadequate technology
8.Negligence in implementing adequate controls
9.Development of unstructured, unmaintainable software
10.Inadequate implementation tasks

[BURCH, 1992]
38
Problem caused by poorly develop systems can range
from loss of life, to loss of assets, to loss of
customers, and revenues, to management making
wrong decisions based on inaccurate or untimely
information, to wasted time and decreased
productivity.

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

39
WAYS TO HAVE SUCCESFUL SYSTEMS

1.Stressing user involvement in systems development

2.Implementing planning and the use of project management
techniques
5.Develop alternatives for system design for evaluation before
making majors commitments to final design, technology,
and software development
6.Designing all system design components functionally
7.Use of detailed functional design as guide for software
design, and testing
8.Prepare clear, complete, and current documentation
9.Using coordinated, planned approach to systems
implementation
10.Performance of post-implementation reviews
11.Design and perform systems maintenance
BURCH, 1992
40
CATEGORIES OF PEOPLE INVOLVED IN SYSTEMS
DEVELOPMENT

1. SYSTEM OWNERS
- Information system’s sponsors and chief advocates
- Usually responsible for budgeting the money and time
to develop and support information systems, and for the
ultimate acceptance o0f the information system.

[HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1999]

2. SYSTEMS USERS
- People who use (and directly benefit from) the
information system on a regular basis- capturing, validating,
entering, responding to, and storing data and information.

[HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1999]

41
ROLES OF SYSTEM USERS
a.Define problems to be solve
b.Define opportunities to be exploited
c.List down requirements to be fulfilled
d.State business constraints to be imposed by or for the
information system

primary concern is to “get the job done”

[HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1999]

42
TYPES OF SYSTEM USER
a. CLERICAL WORKERS
-People performing day-to-day activities in the business
-People who initiate or handle the bulk of any organization’s
data. They often make routine decision based on data and
generate information for managers. They are of need of
systems that help them process more data with greater speed
and fewer mistakes.
Examples:
Bookkeeper, clerk, office, clerk, salesperson, secretary
b. TECHNICAL AND PROFESSIONAL STAFF
-Consists largely of business and
industrial specialists who perform highly skilled and
specialized work
-Also called knowledge workers
Examples: Accountant, engineer, lawyer, scientist, statistician

43
[HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1999]
c. SUPERIOR
-Lowest level of management who controls the day-to-
day operations of the organization.
-Tend to be interested in “budget for” and “efficiency of”
the operations they supervise
Examples:
Foreman, group leader, project manager, shift leader.

d. MIDDLE MANAGERS
-Concerned with relatively short-term/ tactical planning,
organizing, controlling, and decision-making.
Examples:
Accounts receivable manager, department
head, purchasing manager

[HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1999]

44
 e. EXECUTIVE MANAGER
– Responsive for long-term/strategic planning and

[HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1999]

control for the organization.
Examples:
Chief executive officer(CEO), chief information
officer(CIO), college dean, president, principal

3. SYSTEM DESIGNER
– translates user’s business requirement and constraints

into technical solutions.

– Design computer files, database, inputs, outputs,
screen, networks and programs that will meet the
system user’s requirements
– Also integrate technical solution back into the day-to-day

business environment
Examples:
45
Systems analyst, data analyst, network analyst
4. SYSTEM BUILDERS
– construct multi-user information system based upon
the design specifications.

Examples:
Application programmer, database programmer,
network administrator

[HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1999]

46
The Systems Analyst

Systems Analyst
One who systematically assesses the
functioning of business by examining the input and
processing of data, and the outputs of the
information with the intent of improving
organizational processes.

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

47
JOB DESCRIPTION OF A SYSTEMS ANALYST

The system analyst gathers and analyzes information

about current systems and any new requirements for any
new systems. He or she uses that information to plan
modifications to existing systems or to design new systems.
The analyst introduces the specifications through formal
presentations and documentations. The analyst supervises
the coding and testing of new programs, site preparation,
documentation and training, conversion, and maintenance

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

48
DUTIES OF A SYSTEMS ANALYST

1.Apply fact-gathering techniques to study current

systems and develop requirements for the
proposal of a new information system.
2.Develop solution to business system procedures.
3.Design procedures for data collection and processing.
4.Used structured diagramming and documentation
methods to illustrate and define both existing and
proposed Information systems.
5.Estimating requirements for time and resources, and
estimate benefits.
6.Perform cost – benefit analysis on any proposed
system solution.

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

49
7.Supervise site preparation
8.Choose hardware and software.
9.Use prototyping technique to develop abbreviated
systems quickly during analysis and design.
10.Evaluate system designs for quality and ease of
maintenance
11.Design input forms, output reports, and display formats.
12.Incorporate security measures into system design.
13.Supervise coding, testing, and quality control.
14.Supervise user documentation and training.
15.Oversee conversion to new system.
16.Supervise maintenance and change control after the
system is in operation.
17.Establish system development standards.
18.Keep current with developments in the field of computer
technology. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

50
ROLES OF A SYSTEMS ANALYST
1.As a consultant
2.As a supporting expert
3.As a change agent
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

QUALIFICATIONS OF A SYSTEMS ANALYST

1.Bachelors degree in computer science, information
science, accounting, statistics or business.
2.Experienced programmer
3.Training in systems analysis and design.
4.Experience or training in business systems.
5.Effective verbal and written communication skills.
6.Experience or training in management skills.
[SILVER & SILVER, 1992]

51
CRICITAL SUCCESS FACTORS OF A SYSTEMS
ANALYST
1.Creativity and innovation
2.Good verbal and written communication skills.
3.Positive attitude towards others.
4.Technical knowledge of computers and information
systems hardware and software.
5.Knowledge of basic business theories and concepts.
6.Willingness to work with others
7.Ability to solve problems.
[SILVER & SILVER, 1992]
1.

52
DOMAIN OF SKILLS

1. Analytical Skills
–Understanding of the organization and its functions, to
identify the opportunities and problems, and to analyze
and solve problems.
a. Systems thinking
b. Organizational knowledge
c. Problem identification
d. Analysis and solving of problems

2. Technical Skills
Understanding the potentials and limitations of
information technology.

[HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1999]

53
Knowledge in:
a. Types of computers
b. Programming languages
c. Operating systems
d. Data communication standards and
software for LAN and WAN
e. Systems development tools and
environments
f. Decision support system generators and
data analysis tools.
g.
[HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1999]

54
Can be achieve through:
a. Reading computer publications and books
b. Joining professional societies interested in
computer technologies.
c. Attending computer classes or teach at a local
college
d. Attending any courses or training sessions
offered by your organization
e.Attending professional conferences, seminars,
or trade shows
f.Participating in electronic bulletin boards, news
groups or conferences

[HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1999]

55
3. Management Skills

[HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1999]

– Understanding how one must manage projects,
resources, risks and changes
Knowledge in :
a. resource management
b. project management’
c. risk management
d. change management
4. Interpersonal Skills
– Understanding how one will work with end users as

well as other persons involved in systems

development
a. communication skills
b. working alone and with a team
c. facilitating groups
d. managing expectations
56
Academic Training Industry Experience
CAREER PATH
Industry experience OF A Academic Training
SYSTEMS ANALYST
Junior Analyst

Senior Analyst

Private Consulting Management

SILVER & SILVER, 1992

57
THE SYSTEMS ANALYST

SDLC
Sequence of steps used to organize a large of
activities needed to build system

Traditional methodology used to develop, maintain,

and replace information system

SILVER & SILVER, 1992

58
 4. Systems Evaluation
And Selection
3. General Systems
SDLC
5. Detailed Systems
Design Design

2. Systems
Analysis 6. Systems
Implementation

7. Systems
1. Planning
Maintenance
SILVER & SILVER, 1992
59
PHASES OF SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE
CYCLE (SDLC)

SDLC
1. SYSTEMS PLANNING
– Initial investigation of the system
– A brief study of the problem to determine
whether the systems project should be
pursued
– Net result is a rough plan for how-and
whether-to proceed with the project.
2. SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
– Its purpose is to understand the existing
system and propose alternate replacement
system at the end.

SILVER & SILVER, 1992

60
3.SYSTEMS DESIGN
– Conceptualizes the system to be developed
– Provides plans for data-entry procedures, user-
interfaces, file and database design controls and
backup procedures.

SDLC
4.SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT
– Phase where the system is actually being
developed
– Involves programming and testing of system
5.SYSTEMS IMPLEMENTATION
– Phase where system is put into operational use.
6.SYSTEMS MAINTENANCE
- Longest phase and the costliest phase in the SDLC
- Phase where the system is monitored and made

necessary adjustments to make the system produce

SILVER & SILVER, 1992
continuously expected results of it.
61
Information Requirements
Analysis

62
 Determining Feasibility

PROJECT FUNDAMENTALS
1.Determining project feasibility
2.Scheduling projects
3.Planning and then managing activities and team
members for productivity
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

Systems Project
Begins with problems or with opportunities for the
improvement within a business that often come up as the
organization adapts to change
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
63
Business people suggest systems project for two
broad reasons:
1.To experience problem that lend themselves that
systems solutions
2.To recognize opportunities for improvement through
upgrading, altering installing new systems when they
occur
[KENDALL & KENDALL,1999]
1.
The systems analyst serves as catalyst and
supporting expert primarily by being able to see where
processes can be improved.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

64
Improvements to systems can be defined as changes
that will result in incremental yet worthwhile benefits:
1.Speeding up a process.
2.Streamlining a process through the elimination of
unnecessary or duplicated steps.
3.Combining processes.
4.Reducing errors in input through changes of forms and
display screens.
5.Reducing redundant output.
6.Improving integration of systems and subsystems.
7.Improving worker’s satisfaction with the system.
8.Improving ease of costumer, supplier, and vendor
interaction with the system.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

65
CRITERIA FOR SELECTION OF SYSTEMS PROJECTS
1.Backing from management
2.Appropriate timing of project commitment
3.Possibility of improving attainment of organizational goals
4.Practical in terms of resources for systems analyst and
organization
5.Project is worthwhile compared to other ways that
organization could invest resources
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
Remember that when a business commits to one
project, it is committing resources that thereby become
unavailable for other projects.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

66
SEVERAL ACCEPTABLE OBJECTIVES FOR SYSTEMS
PROJECTS, INCLUDES:

1.Reducing errors and improving the accuracy of data input.

2.Reducing the cost of the system output by streamlining and
eliminating duplicate or unnecessary reports.
3.Integrating business subsystems.
4.Upgrading customer services to gain a competitive edge.
5.Speeding up input.
6.Shortening data-processing time.
7.Automating manual procedures to improve them in some
way (reduce errors, increase speed or accuracy, cut down
on employee time required, etc.)
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

67
ASSESSING PROJECT FEASIBILITY

All projects are feasible given unlimited resources and

infinite time [PRESSMAN, 1992]
Most projects must be developed within tight budgetary
and time constraints
[HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1996]
is a required activity for all information systems project and
is potentially a large undertaking that requires a systems
analyst to evaluate a wide range of factors.
[HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1996]

68
SOME OF THE FEASIBILITY FACTORS ARE
REPRESENTED BY THE FOLOWING CATEGORIES:

1.Technical Feasibility
2.Economic Feasibility
3.Operational Feasibility
4.Schedule Feasibility
5.Legal and Contractual Feasibility
6.Political Feasibility
7.
[HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1996]

69
vTECHNICAL FEASIBILITY
The analyst must find out whether current
technical resources can be upgraded or added to in a

manner that fulfills the request under consideration.

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
this is where the expertise of systems analysts is
beneficial, since by using their own experience and

their contact with vendors, they will be able to answer

the question of technical feasibility .
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

70
The potential consequences of not assessing and
managing risks can include the following outcomes:
a.
b.Failure to attain expected benefits from the project.
c.Inaccurate project cost estimates
d.Inaccurate project duration estimates
e.Failure t achieve adequate system performance levels
f.Failure to adequately integrate the new system with
existing hardware, software,or organizational
procedures.
[HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1996]

71
v ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY
its purpose is to identify the financial benefits and
costs associated with the development project; it is often
referred to as cost-benefit analysis.
[HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1996]
a.Determining Project Benefits
i.Tangible Benefits– refer to items that can be
measured in dollars and with certainty.
Example:
Lower transaction costs/higher profit
margins

[HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1996]

72
 MOST TANGIBLE BENEFITS WILL FIT WITHIN THE
FOLLOWING CATEGORIES:
§ Cost reduction and avoidance
§ error reduction
§ Increased flexibility
§ Increased speed of activity
§ Improvement of management planning and control
§ opening new markets and increasing sales opportunities
[HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1996]
ii.Intangible Benefits
– refer to items that cannot be easily measured in dollars
or
with certainty.
– may have direct organizational benefits such as the
improvement of the employee morale or they may have
broader societal implications such as the reduction of
waste creation or resource consumption.
[HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1996] 73
b. Determining Project Costs
– similar to benefits, an information system can have both
tangible and intangible costs
– besides tangible and intangible costs, you can distinguish

IS-related development costs as either one-time or

recurring.
ONE-TIME COSTS – refer to those associated with
project
initiation and development and the start-up of the system.
These costs typically encompasses activities
such as:
i.System development
ii.New hardware and software purchases
iii.User training
iv.Site preparation
v.Data or system conversion
[HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1996]
74
RECURRING COSTS –refer to those costs resulting from
the ongoing evolution and use of the system.
These cost typically include:
i.Application software maintenance
ii.Incremental data storage expense
iii.New software and hardware leases
iv.Supplies and other expenses
example:
paper, forms, data center personnel
[HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1996]
Both one-time and recurring cost can consist of items that
are fixed or variable in nature.
Fixed Cost –refer to cost that are billed or incurred at a
regular interval and usually at a fixed rate.
[HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1996]
75
TYPES OF COSTS:
i.Procurement => EXAMPLE: Consulting Costs;
Equipment purchase or lease; Site
preparation and modifications; Capital
Cost
ii.Start-Up => EXAMPLE: Operating system software;
Communication equipment installation;
Start-up personnel
iii.Project-Related=> EXAMPLE: Application software;
Software modifications to fit local
system; Collecting and analyzing data; Preparing
documentation
iv.Operating => EXAMPLE: System maintenance costs;
Asset depreciation; Management,
operation, and planning personnel
[KING & SCHREMS, 1978]
76
c. The Time Value of Money

–most techniques used to determine economic feasibility

encompass the concept of TVM.
–refers to the concept of present cash outlays to future
expected returns.
[HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1996]

Cost of Capital –the rate of which money can be borrowed

or invested.
Discount Rate –the rate of return used to compute the
present value of future cash flow.
Present Value –the current value of a future cash flow.
[HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1996]

77
COMMONLY USED ECONOMIC COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS
TECHNIQUE
1.Net Present Value(NPV)
–uses a discount rate determined from the company’s cost
of capital to establish the present value of a project.
– the discount rate is used to determine the present of value
of both cash receipts and outlays.
2.Return On Investment(ROI)
–is the ratio of the net cash receipts of the project
divided by the cash outlays of the project.
–tradeoff analysis can be made among
projects competing for investment by comparing their
representative ROI ratios.
3.Break-Even Analysis(BEA)
–finds the amount of the time required for the cumulative
cash flow from a project to equal its initial and ongoing
investments.
[HOFFER,GEORGE & VALACICH, 1996]
78
Formula in figuring out the present value:
_1 _ present value of money
PVn = Y [ ]
n discount rate
(1+i)
years from now

[HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1996]

79
Example of TVM:
Suppose you want to buy a used car from an
acquaintance and she asks that you make three payments of
$1,500 for three years, beginning next year, for a total of
$4,500.
Solutions:
_1_ _
PV1 = 1500 x [ 1 ] = 1500 x .9091 = 1363.65
(1+.10)
_1_ _
PV1 = 1500 x [ 2 ] = 1500 x .8264 = 1239.60
(1+.10)
_1_ _
PV1 = 1500 x [ 3 ] = 1500 x .7513 = 1126.95
(1+.10)
where PV1 , PV2 , and PV3 reflect the present value of each
$1,500 payment in year one, two, three, respectively.
[HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1996]
80
To calculate the Net Present Value (NPV) of the three
$1,500 payments simply add the calculated present values:

NPV = PV1 + PV2 + PV3

= 1363.65 + 1239.60 + 1126.95
= $3,730.20

[HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1996]

81
v OPERATIONAL FEASIBILITY

is dependent on the human resources available for the

project and involves projecting whether the system will
operate and be used once it is installed.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

Its purpose is to gain an understanding of the degree to

which the proposed system will likely solve the business
problems or take advantage of the opportunities outlined
in the systems service request or project identification
study.
[HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1996]

82
v SCHEDULE FEASIBILITY
the process of assessing the degree to which the
potential time frame and completion dates for all major
activities within a project meet organizational deadlines
and constraints for affecting change.
[HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1996]
the schedule of activities produced during project
initiation and planning will be very precise and detailed
for the analysis phase.
[HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1996]

83
KEY ELEMENTS IN DEVELOPING A PROJECT PLAN:

1.A definition of scope for the project stating which general

functions within the purchasing department will be analyzed
and which activities outside of purchasing will be considered.
2.A more complete problem statement.
3.An initial requirements statement specifying in general terms
which types of information and information processing are
needed, how urgent the situation is, and what constraints
seem to be in place on a systems solution.
4.A request for resources of people, time, and money to develop
the information requirements and system functional
specifications.
5.A time line indicating when the project team will perform
various steps of the project.
6.A business case or justification for continuing with the project.
[HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1996]
84
 Data gathering
Analysis Data Flow and Decision Analysis
Proposal Preparation
Break
Data Entry Design apart the major
Input Design activities into
Design smaller ones.
Output Design
Data Organization
Implementation
Implementation
Evaluation
Beginning to plan a project by breaking it into three major
activities.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
85
PLANNING INCLUDES ALL OF THE ACTIVITIES
REQUIRED TO:

1.Select a systems analysis team

2.Assign members of a team to appropriate
projects
3.Estimate the time required to complete each task
4.Schedule the project so that tasks are completed
in a timely fashion.

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

86
ACTIVITY PLANNING AND CONTROL

1.Estimating Time Required

The systems analyst’s first decision is to determine the
amount of detail that goes into defining the activities.
The lowest level of detail is the Systems Development
Life Cycle (SDLC) itself, while the highest extreme is to
include every detailed step.
Sometimes the most difficult part of project planning is the
crucial step of estimating the time it takes to complete
each task or activity.

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

87
 Detailed Activity Weeks
Required
Data Gathering Conduct Interviews 3
Administer Questionnaires 4
Read Company Reports 4
Introduce Prototype 5
Observe Reactions to Prototype 3
Data Flow and Analyze Data Flow 8
Decision Analysis
Proposal Perform Cost / Benefit Analysis 3
Preparation Prepare Proposal 2
Present Proposal 2
Refining the planning and scheduling of analysis activities by
adding detailed tasks and establishing the time required to
complete these tasks. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
88
2. Gantt Charts for Project Scheduling
It is essentially a chart on which bars represent each
task or activity.
The System analyst will find not only that this
technique is easy to use but also that it lends itself to
worthwhile communication with end users.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
Advantages:
1.Its simplicity
2.The bars representing activities or tasks are drawn to
scale; that is the size of the bar indicates the relative
length of time it will take to complete each task.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
89
 Activity Incomplete Activity
Conduct Completed Activity
Interviews Partially Completed Activity
Administer
Questionnaires [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
Read Company
Records
Analyze Data Flows
Introduce Prototype
Observe reactions
Perform Cost / Benefit
Prepare Proposal
Present proposal

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
q Using a two-dimensional Gantt Chart for planning Weeks
activities that can be accomplished in parallel.
90
3. PERT Diagrams
Was developed in the late 1950s for use in the U.S.
Navy’s Polaris nuclear submarine project
PERT is an acronym for Program Evaluation and
Review Techniques.
is useful when activities can be done in parallel rather
than in sequence.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
A program (project) is represented by a network of nodes
and arrows that are then evaluated to determine:
1.Critical activities
2.Improvement of the schedule if necessary
3.And review progress once the project is
undertaken.

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

91
THE CIRCULAR NODES ARE PRESENT TO:
1.Recognize that an activity is completed.
2.Indicate which activities need to be completed before
a new activity may be undertaken (precedence).
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
Critical path –is determined by calculating the longest path,
it is defined as the path that will cause the
whole project to fall behind even if one day
delay is encountered on it.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
Events –are circles on the PERT diagram, and can be
identified by numbers, letters, or any other
arbitrary form of designation.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
92
REASONS FOR USING A PERT DIAGRAM
OVER A GANTT CHART:

1.Easy identification of the order of precedence.

2.Easy identification of the critical path and thus
critical activities.
3.Easy determination of slack time.

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

93
Activity Predecessor Duration
A Conduct Interviews None 3
B Administer Questionnaires A 4
C Read Company Reports None 4
D Analyze Data Flow B,C 8
E Introduce Prototype B,C 5
F Observe Reactions to Prototype E 3
G Perform Cost / Benefit Analysis D 3
H Prepare Proposal G 2
I Present Proposal H 2

Listed activities for use in drawing a PERT diagram.

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
94
 q A completed PERT diagram for the analysis
20
phase of a systems project.
A,3 B,4
C,4 D,8 G,3 H,2 I,2
10 30 50 60 70 80

E,4 F,3
40

In this example, there are four paths:

10-20-30-50-60-70-80
The longest path which
10-20-30-40-60-70-80
takes 22 days.
10-30-50-60-70-80
10-30-40-60-70-80
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
95
MANAGING ANALYSIS AND DESIGN ACTIVITIES
1.Communication Strategies for Managing Teams
–a way to organize your thinking about teams is to visualize
them as always seeking a balance between
accomplishing the work at hand and maintaining the
relationships among team members.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
2.Setting Project Productivity Goals
–systems analysts are accustomed to thinking about the
productivity goals for employees who show tangible outputs
such as the number of entries keyed in per minute, or the
number of items scanned per second.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

96
GOALS NEED TO BE FORMULATED AND AGREED
BY THE TEAM SHOULD BE BASED ON:

1.Team member’s expertise

2.Former performance
3.And the nature of the specific project
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

Using the hints or methods for estimating time required

and coupling them with experience will enable the team
to set worthwhile productivity goals.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

97
3. Motivating Project Team Members
–motivation is an extremely complex but a good one to
consider.
–setting goals can also motivate team members by clarifying
for them and others what must be done in order to get
results. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

4.Avoiding Project Failures

–management along with the feasibility studies are usually
the best defenses possible against taking on projects that
have a high probability of failure.
–the decision process of your team must be open stand up to
scrutiny from those outside of it and the team members
should consider that their reputation and standing in the
organization are inseparable from the projects they accepts.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
98
v Legal and Contractual Feasibility
The process of assessing potential legal and contractual
ramifications due to the construction of a system.
Typically, legal and contractual feasibility is a greater
consideration if your organization has historically used
an outside organization for specific systems or services
that you now are considering handling yourself.
[HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1996]
Contractual Obligations my Involve in:
1.Ownership of software used in joint ventures
2.License agreements for use of hardware or software
3.nondisclosure agreements with partners
4.Or elements of a labor agreement
[HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1996]

99
v Political Feasibility
The process of evaluating how key stakeholders within
the organization view the organization.
[HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1996]

Since an information system may affect the distribution

of information within the organization, and thus the
distribution of power, the construction of an IS can have
political ramifications.
[HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1996]

100
Sampling and Investigating Hard Data
S aThe
m process
p of systematically selecting representative
l ielements
n g of a population
Helps accelerate the process by gathering
selected data rather than all data for the entire
organization
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
REASONS OF SA TO SELECT REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLE
OF DATA TO EXAMINE:
1.Containing costs
2.Speeding up the data gathering
3.Improving effectiveness
4.Reducing bias

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

101
STEPS THAT SA MUST FOLLOW TO DESIGN A
GOOD SAMPLE ARE:
1.Determining the Data to be Collected or Described
–SA needs a realistic
plan about what
will be done with the data once it is collected
–duties and responsibilities of
systems analyst at this
point are to identify the variables, attributes, and
associated data items that needed to be gathered in
[KENDALL
the sample.& KENDALL, 1999]
2.Determining the Population to be Sampled
–SA has to determine whether the
population should include only one level of
organization, all levels, or even the reactions of
customers &
[KENDALL if necessary.
KENDALL, 1999]
102
 3. Choosing the Type of Sample

a. Convenience Samples
– the easiest to arrange but it is also the most
unreliable
– unrestricted, non probability samples
Example:
SA put a notice in
a company newsletter asking for everyone interested in the
new sales performance to come to a meeting at 1:00 on
Tuesday.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
b.Purposive Sample
– is based on judgment
– still non probability sample but
moderately reliable – SA can choose a
group of individuals who appear knowledgeable and
who are interested in the new[KENDALL information system.
& KENDALL, 1999]
103
c. Simple Random Sample
– not practical, especially when
sampling involves documents and reports
– a numbered list of
population should be obtain to ensure that each document
or person in the population has an equal chance of being
selected.
[KENDALL
d.Complex Random & KENDALL, 1999]
Samples that are most appropriate
for the SA are:
i.Systematic Sampling-simplest method of probability
sampling
ii.Stratified sampling- the process of identifying
subpopulations, or strata, and then selecting objects or
people for sampling within the subpopulations.

iii.Cluster Sampling-the systems analyst select a group

of documents or people to study.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
104
4.Deciding on the Sample Size
– it is important to remember that the absolute number is

more important in sampling than the percentage of

population.
– it is necessary to set a sample size greater that one
but
less than the size of the population itself.

– if each of the documents in a population contained

exactly the & same
[KENDALL information
KENDALL, 1999] as every other
document, a sample size of one would be sufficient.

Sample Size Decision- often depends on the cost

involved or the time required by the systems analyst- or
even the time available by people in the organization.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
105
TYPES OF HARD DATA:
a.ReportsDocuments
1.Analyzing Quantitative used for decision making

– SA needs to obtain some of the documents such as

reports regarding the status of the inventory, sales, or
production that are used in running the business.
– Many of these reports are not complex, but they
serve mainly a feed back for quick action.
– Many summary reports are used by decision makers
to provide background information, spot exceptions to

normal occurrences, and afford strategic overviews of

organizational plans.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
b.Performance Reports

– its important function is to assess the size of the gap

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
between actual and intended performance. 106
– provide periodic updates of what is occurring in the
business.
– Many summary reports are used by decision makers to

provide background information, spot exceptions to

normal occurrences, and afford strategic overviews of
organizational plans. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
WAYS OF ANALYST IN INSPECTING RECORD:
i.Checking for errors in amounts and totals

ii.Looking for opportunities for improving the recording form

design
iii.Observing the number and type of transactions

iv.Watching for instances where the computer can simplify

the work (that is, calculations and other data
manipulation. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
107
 d.Data Capture forms
–understanding the system that is currently in place should
be done before you set out to change the information
flows in the organization.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
Steps in creating a catalog of form to help you understand
the information flow that is currently in use in the business:
i.Collect examples of all the forms in use, whether officially
sanctioned by the business or not (official vs. bootleg
forms).
ii.Note the type of form (whether printed in-house,
handwritten, computer-generated in-house on-line,etc.).
iii.Document the intended distribution pattern.
iv.Compare the intended distribution pattern with who actually
receives the form.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
108
2.Analyzing Qualitative Documents
Guidelines that can help analyst to take a systematic
approach to this sort of analysis are:
a.Examine documents for key or guiding metaphors.

b.Look for insiders versus outsiders or an “us against

them” mentality in documents.

c.List terms that characterize good or evil and appear

repeatedly in documents.

d.Recognize a sense of humor, if present.

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

109
Qualitative Documents
a.Memos
– are not kept or they are made available only to those
who have “a need to know”, as defined in organizational
policy.
– analysis of memo content will provide you with a clear
idea of the values, attitudes, and beliefs of organizational
members. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
b.Signs on bulletin boards or in work areas
– serve as subtle reinforces of values to those who
read them.
– it is also instructive to note whom signs are
intended or and to find out through interviews whether
organizational members are held accountable for
acting on the information posted.

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

110
c.Corporate Web Sites
– web sites accessible to the public should
also be viewed by the analyst.
– examine the contents for
metaphors, humor, use of design features (such as color),
and the meaning and clarity of any messages provided.
d.Manuals
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
– it should be analyze following the four guidelines spelled
out previously.
–examining manuals, both printed and on-line,
systematically will give you a picture of the way things
ought to happen. – writers of
manual are allowed more elaboration in making a point
than is typically accorded to those writing memos or
posting signs.

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

111
e.Policy Handbooks
– while this documents typically cover both areas of
employee and corporate behavior, you can be primarily
concern with those that address policies about computer
services, use, access, and charges.
– policies are larger guidelines that spell out the
organization ideal of how members should conduct
themselves in order to achieve strategic goals.
– examining policies allows the systems analyst to gain an
awareness of the values, attitudes, and beliefs that are
guiding the corporation

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

112
 Interviewing
Opinions

Kinds of Information sought Goals Feelings

in interviewing…….
Informal
Procedures
Planning for Interview:
1.Read Background Material – read and as much background
information about the interviewees and their organization
as possible.
[KENDALL
2. Establish Interviewing & KENDALL,
objectives – the1999]
use of background
information being gathered as well as own experienced to
establish interview objectives.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
113
Key Areas of Decision-Making:
a.Information sources
b.Information formats
c.Decision-making frequency

d.Qualities of information

e.Decision-making style
3.Decide Who to Interview
[KENDALL
– when deciding & who
KENDALL, 1999]include key people at all
to interview,
levels who will be affected by the system in some manner.
– strive for balance so that as many user’s needs are
addressed as possible.

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

114
4.Prepare the Interviewee
– prepare the person to be interviewed by calling ahead or
sending an e-mail message and allowing the interviewee
a time to think about the interview.
– interview should be kept at 45 minutes to an hour at
the most.
[KENDALLType
5.Decide on Question & KENDALL, 1999]
and Structure
– proper questioning techniques are the heart of
interviewing, so better write the questions to cover the
key areas of decision making that you discovered when
you ascertained interview objectives.

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

115
QUESTION TYPES:
a.Open-Ended Questions
– include those questions such as “what’s” and
“how’s”
that answers most likely their opinions.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
b. Closed Questions
– answers finite number, such as ‘none’, ‘one’, or
‘fifteen’.
– limits the response available to the interviewee.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
BIPOLAR QUESTION – is special kind of closed question, it
limits the interviewee even further by only allowing a choice
on either pole, such as yes or no, true or false, agree or disagree.

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

116
BENEFITS OF USING OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONS:
i.Putting the interviewee at ease.
ii.Allowing the interviewer to pick up on the interviewees
vocabulary, which reflects his/her education, values,
attitudes and beliefs. iii. providing richness of detail..
iii.revealing avenues of further questioning that may have
gone untapped.
iv.making it more interesting for the interviewee.
v.allowing more spontaneity.

vi.making phrasing easier for the interviewer.

vii.using them in pinch if the interviewer is caught
unprepared.

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

117
DRAWBACKS OF USING OPEN-ENDED QUESTION:
i.asking question that may result in too much irrelevant
detail.
ii.Possibly losing control of the interview.
iii.Allowing responses that may take too much time for
the amount of useful information gained.
iv.Potentially seeming that the interviewer is
unprepared.
v.Possibly giving the impression that the interviewer is
on a “fishing expedition” with no real objective for
the interview.

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

118
BENEFITS OF USING CLOSED QUESTIONS:
i.Saving time
ii.easily comparing interviews
iii.getting to the point
iv.Keeping control over the interview
v.Covering lots of ground quickly
vi.Getting to relevant data

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

119
DRAWBACKS OF USING CLOSED QUESTION:
i.Being boring for the interviewee
ii.Failing to obtain rich detail( due to the fact that the
interviewer supplies the frame of reference for the
interviewee)
iii.Missing main ideas for the preceding reason

iv.Failing to build rapport between interviewer and

interviewee. .

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

120
 Attributes of Open-Ended and Closed Question
Open-ended closed
low Reliability
Reliability of
of data
data high

low Efficient
Efficient use
use of
of time
time high

low Precision
Precision of
of data
data high

much Breadth
Breadth and
and depth
depth little

much Interviewer
Interviewer skill
skill required
required little

difficult Ease
Ease of
of analysis
analysis easy
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
121
c.Probes
– the strongest “probe” or “follow-up” is the simplest “why”
– if done in a systematic and determined manner, your
probing will be acknowledged as a sign that you are
listening to what’s being said, thinking it through, and
responding appropriately.
– it allows the systems analyst to follow up questions to
get more detailed responses.

EXAMPLES:
§Why?
§What makes you feel that way?

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

122
QUESTION PITFALLS

1.Avoiding leading questions

– leading questions tend to lead the interviewee
into a response that using seem to one
EXAMPLE:
You agree with other managers that inventory
control should be computerized, don’t you?

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

123
2.Avoiding double-barreled questions
– are those that use only one question mark for what
are actually two separate questions.
– double-barreled question is poor choice
because interviewees answers only one question
(purposely or not), or may mistake which question they
are answered and draw the wrong conclusion.
EXAMPLE:
What decisions are made during a typical
day and how do you make them?

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

124
ARRANGING QUESTIONS IN A LOGICAL SEQUENCE:
1.Pyramid Structure
– inductive organization of interview questions
can be visualized as having a pyramid shape.
– the interviewer begins with very
detailed, often closed, questions.
– should be use if you
believe your interviewee needs to warm up to the
topic. – useful if
the interviewee seems reluctant to address the
topic. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
EXAMPLE:
If you are interviewing someone who
has told you over the phone that he or she does not need
to talk with you because that person already knows what is
wrong with the forecasting model, you should be probably
structure the interview as a pyramid.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
125
 [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
start with a what
specific precisely
question is the
problem in your
forecasting model?

Have you considered

obtaining more up-to-
date information?

What do you think would make

forecasting here more effective?
In general, how do you feel about and end
forecasting ? with a
general one
Pyramid Structure
126
2. Funnel Structure
– the interviewers takes a deductive approach by
beginning with generalized, open-ended questions and then
narrowing the possible responses by using closed questions.
– provides an easy, non-
threatening way to begin an interview.
begin with What are your reactions to the new system?
a general
question What computers do you use?

What is the cost of the new

computer system?
Is the new computer
system worth
the
and end cost?
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] with a
specific one 127
3. Diamond-Shaped Structure
– is the best because it is the combination of
the two previous structures.
– begins with easy, closed
questions that provide a warm-up to the interview
process.

– in the middle of the interview, the interviewee is asked

for opinions for broad topics that obviously have no “right”
answers.
[KENDALL
– the chief advantage of this&structure
KENDALL, 1999] your
is keeping
interviewee’s
Rememberinterest
thatand
onceattention through
you know howa to
variety of right
ask the
questions.
questions at the right time, you have many options for
sequencing them. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
128
 [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
begin with How
a
do you make
specific
question, your distribution
decisions?
move toward
Do you think you can teach
general
someone else to make these decisions?
questions,
What would it take to setup decision rules so
others can benefit from your experience?
Are computers helpful in making
decisions?
Can a computer make
these distribution and end with
decisions? a specific
question.
129
 Structured vs. Unstructured Interviews
Unstructured Structured
difficult Evaluation
Evaluation easy
high Amount
Amount of
of time
time required
required low
Much needed Training
Training required
required limited
much Allows
Allows spontaneity
spontaneity little
much opportunity Provides
Provides interviewee
interviewee insight
insight very little
great flexibility
flexibility little
low Interviewer
Interviewer control
control high
low Precision
Precision high
low Reliability
Reliability high
high Breadth
Breadth and
and Depth
Depth low
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
130
 Questionnaires
attitudes
Kinds of Information sought
when using beliefs behavior
Questionnaires…….

characteristics

Once you have determined that you have good cause to

use a questionnaire and have pinpointed the objectives to
be fulfilled through its use, you can begin formulating
questions.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
131
Some guidelines to help you decide whether use
of Questionnaires is appropriate:
1.The people you need to question are widely dispersed
(different branches of the same corporation)
2.A large number of people are involved in the systems project,
and it is meaningful to know what proportion of a given group
(for example, management) approves or disapproves of a
particular feature of the proposed system.
3.You are doing a exploratory study and want to gauge overall
opinion before the systems project is given any specific
direction.
4.You wish to be certain that any problems with the current
systems are identified and addressed in follow-up interviews.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
132
Basic question types used on the questionnaire are:
1.Open-Ended Questions

– are particularly well-suited to situations in which you want

to get at organizational member’s opinions about some
aspect of the system, whether product or process.
– when it is impossible to list effectively all of the
possible responses to the question.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
2.Closed Questions

– should be used when the systems analyst is able to list

effectively all the possible responses to the question and
when all the listed responses are mutually exclusive, so that
choosing one precludes choosing any of the others. – when
you want to survey a large sample of people.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
133
 Trades-off between the use of open-ended and
closed questions on Questionnaires
Open-ended closed
slow Speed
Speed of
of completion
completion fast

high Exploratory
Exploratory nature
nature low

high Breadth
Breadth and
and depth
depth low

easy Ease
Ease of
of preparation
preparation Difficult

Difficult Ease
Ease of
of analysis
analysis easy

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

134
Some guidelines to use when choosing language of your
questionnaire:
1. Use the language of respondents whenever possible. Keep
wording simple.
2. Work of being specific rather than vague in wording.
However, avoid overly specific question as well.
3. Keep questions short.
4. Do not patronize respondents by talking down to them
through low-level language choices.
5. Avoid bias in wording. This also means avoiding
objectionable questions
6. Target questions to the right respondents. Don’t assume too
much knowledge.
7. Ensure that questions are technically accurate before
including them.
8. Use software to check whether the reading level is
appropriate for the respondents. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
135
 Scaling in
QIsuthe
e sprocess
tionn of aassigning
i r e s numbers or other symbols to an
attribute or characteristic for the purpose of measuring it.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

Reasons for Scaling

1. To measure the attitudes or the characteristics of the people
answering the questionnaires.
2. To have the respondents judge the subjects of the
questionnaire.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

136
Four different forms of measurement scales:
1.Nominal scale –are used to classify things.
2. Ordinal scale –allows classification and also implies rank
ordering.
3. Interval scale –posses the characteristic that the interval
between each of the numbers are
equal but there is no absolute zero.
4.Ratio scale –when the interval is equal and there is an
absolute zero. used less often by the
systems analyst.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

137
Reasons for Scaling
1. Validity –is the degree to which the questions measures
what the analyst intends to measure.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
2.Reliability –measures consistency.

a. External Consistency – if the same result obtained both

times when question was administered once
and then again under the same conditions.
b. Internal Consistency – if the questionnaire contains
subparts and these parts have equivalent
results.

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

138
 Observation
Kinds of Information sought activities
when Observing
decision-maker behavior messages relationships
and the office
environment.
influence

Observing the decision maker and the decision maker’s

physical environment are important information-gathering
techniques for the systems analyst.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
139
The following steps aid in observing a
manager’s typical decision making activities:
1.Decide what is to be observed (activities).
2. Decide at what level of concreteness activities are to be
observed that is, will the analyst observed that “The manager
freely shared information with subordinates” or make a much
more concrete observation such as “Manager sends a copy
of the same memo to three subordinates”?). Determining the
level of concreteness of observation will also dictate the
amount of inference in each observation and subsequently
the amount of interpretation needed once observations are
made.
3. Create categories that adequately capture key activities.
4. Prepare appropriate scales, checklists; or other materials for
observation.
5. Decide when to observe. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
140
 Time Sampling Event Sampling
Cuts down on bias Allows observation of

with randomization of behavior as it unfolds

Advantages observations Allows observation of

Allows a an event designated

representative view of
Gathers data in a
as important
Takes a great deal of
frequent activities
fragmented fashion analyst’s time
that doesn’t allow Misses a

Disadvantages time for a decision to representative

unfold sample of frequent
Misses infrequent but decisions
important decisions

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

141
Methods for Structured Observation of the
environment is referred to as STROBE:
1.It provides a standard methodology and standard
classification for the analysis of those organizational
elements that influence decision making.
2. It allows other systems analyst to apply the same
analytic framework for the same organization.
3. It limits analysis to the organization as it exists during
the current stage in its life cycle.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

142
 Analogy between filmic elements for observation
and strobe
FILMIC ELEMENTS ORGANIZATIONAL ELEMENTS
Set location Office location
People position within a Decision maker’s placement in an
frame office (i.e., desk placement)
Stationary objects File cabinets, bookshelves, and
equipment for storing information
Props (movable objects) Calculator, PCs, and other items used
for processing information

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

143
FILMIC ELEMENTS ORGANIZATIONAL ELEMENTS
External objects Trade journals, newspapers, and
(brought in items used for external information
from other scenes) Office lighting and color
Lighting and color Clothing worn by decision makers
Costumes

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

144
 A summary of decision-maker characteristic that
correspond to observable elements in the physical
environment
Characteristics of Decision- Corresponding Elements in
makers
Gathers information informally the Physical
Warm, Environment
incandescent lighting
Seeks extra organizational and colors
Trade journals present in office
information
Processes data personally Calculators, PCs present in
Stores information personally office
Equipment/files present in office

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

145
Characteristics of Decision- Corresponding Elements in
makers
Exercises power in decision the
DeskPhysical Environment
placed for power
making
Exhibits credibility in decision Wears authoritative clothing
making
Shares information with others Office easily accessible

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

146
 Prototyping user
reactions
user
Kinds of Information sought innovations suggestions
when Prototyping…

revision
plans

Prototyping of information system, is a worthwhile

technique for quickly gathering specific information about
users’ information requirements.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
147
KINDS OF PROTOTYPES
1.Patched-up
– it has to do in with constructing a system that works but
is patched up or patched together.
–in engineering this approach is refer to as
breadboarding-creating a patched together, working
model of an integrated circuit.
2.Non-operational
[KENDALL & Prototype
KENDALL, 1999]
–is that of a non working scale model which is set up to
test certain aspects of the design. –a
non working scale model of an information system might
be produce when the coding require by the applications is
too extensive to prototype but when the useful idea of the
system can be gained through the prototyping of the
input and the output only.

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

148
 Input Process Output

A non operational prototype may seek users’ opinions on

the interfaces (input and output).
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
149
3. First-Of-A-Series
–involves a first full scale model of a system, often
called a pilot.
–it is useful when many installations of the
same information systems are plan.
FULL-SCALE WORKING MODELS -
allows users to experience realistic interaction with the
new system, yet it minimizes the cost of overcoming any
problems that it presents.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
4. Selected Features
–concerns with building an operational model that
includes some, but not all of the features that the
final systems will have.
–when this kind of prototyping is done the
system is accomplished in modules, so that if the
features that are prototyped are evaluated successfully.

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

150
 Facility 3
Facility 2
Facility 1

A First-Of-A-Series Prototype is a working model that will

be used elsewhere if its is successful.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
151
 Facility 1

Facility 2

Facility 3

A First-Of-A-Series Prototype is a working model that will

be used elsewhere if its is successful.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
152
GUIDELINES FOR DEVELOPING A PROTOTYPE
1.Working in manageable modules
–one that allows users to interact with its key features yet
can be built separately from other system module.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
2.Building the prototype rapidly
–analyst can use prototyping to shorten this gap by
using traditional information-gathering technique to pinpoint
prominent information requirements and then they can
quickly make decisions that bring forth a working model.
–it is important to emphasize that at
this stage in the life cycle, the analyst is still gathering
information about what users need and want from the
information system. –when this kind of prototyping is
done the system is accomplished in modules, so that if the
features that are prototyped are evaluated successfully.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
153
3.Modifying the prototype
–making the prototype modifiable means creating it in
module that are not highly interdependent.
–a helpful attitude that demonstrates to users how
necessary their feedback is if the system is to improve.
[KENDALL
4. Stressing & KENDALL,
the user interface1999]
–to easily interact with the systems prototype.
–must be well developed to enable users to to pick-up
the system quickly.
–on-line, interactive systems using GUI interfaces
are ideally suited to prototype.

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

154
DISADVANTAGES ADVANTAGES
Difficult to manage Potential exists for changing the

prototyping system early in its development

Users and analyst may Opportunity exists to stop development

adopt a prototype as a on a system that is not working

completed system when May address user needs and

it is inadequate expectations more closely.

Disadvantages and Advantages of prototyping

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

155
THREE MAIN WAYS A USER CAN BE OF HELP IN
PROTOTYPING:
1.Experimenting with the prototype
–allows user the reality of hands-on interaction.
–limited functionality along with the capability to send
comments to the systems team ca be included.
[KENDALL
2.Giving & KENDALL,
open reactions to the1999]
prototype
–making users secure enough to give an
open reaction is part of the relationship between analysts
and users that your team works to build.
–providing a private (relatively
unsupervised) period for users to interact with and
respond to the prototype is one way to insulate them
from unwanted organizational influences.

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

156
3. Suggesting to the prototype
–is their willingness to suggest additions to and/or
deletions from the features being tried. –in the
end it is the analyst responsibility to weigh this feedback
and translate it into workable changes where necessary.

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

157
Analysis Phase

158
 DATA FLOW DIAGRAM
A graphical representation of data processes
throughout the organization
Advantages of the Data Flow approach:
1.Freedom from committing to the technical implementation of
the system too early.
2.Further understanding of the interrelatedness of the systems
and subsystems.
3.Communicating current system knowledge to users through
data flow diagrams
4.Analysis of a proposed system to determine if the necessary
data and processes have been defined. [KENDALL &
KENDALL, 1999]

159
 SYMBOLS MEANING EXAMPLE

Entity Student

Flow of Data New Student

Information

2.1
Process Create
Student Student
Record

Data Store 03 Student Master

The four basic symbols used in Data Flow Diagram by

Gane & Sarson. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
160
vExternal entity
– can either be a department, a business, a person,
or a machine
– also called a source or destination of data

vFlow of Data
– are the arrow that shows movement of data from
one point to another, with head of the arrow pointing toward
the data’s destination.
vProcess
– A rectangle with rounded corner is used to occurrence of
a transforming process.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

161
Process represent work being performed within the system
and should be named using one of the following formats:

a.Assigned the name of the whole system when naming a

high-level process.
example: inventory control system.
b.To name a major subsystem, such as Inventory Reporting
Subsystem.
c.Use a verb-adjective-noun format for detailed processes.

VERB – describes the type of activity.

examples: compute, verify, prepare, print or add
ADJECTIVE – illustrates which specific output, such as
backordered or inventory, is produced.
examples:compute sales tax, print backordered report.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

162
DEVELOPING DATA FLOW DIAGRAM
1.Creating the context diagram
– is the highest level in a data flow diagram and
contains only one process, representing the entire
system. – the initial context diagram should be
an overview, one including basic inputs, the general
system,diagram
2.Drawing and outputs.
0 (the next level)
– is the explosion of the context
diagram and may include up to nine processes.
3.Creating child diagrams (more detailed levels)
– the process on diagram 0 that is exploded is called the
parent process, and the diagram that results is called the child
diagram.
– the primary rule for creating diagram, vertical balancing,
dictates that child diagram cannot produce output or receive
input that the parent process is not also produce or receive.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
163
 Input A
Entity 1 0
Output C
System
Entity 3
Input B Name
Entity 2

1 2
Input A General Data Flow B General Output C
Entity 1 Process Process Entity 3
AAA BBB
vContext
01 Data Store 1 02 Data Store 2
Diagrams
3 4 (above)
Input B General Data Flow D General Can be
Process Process “exploded”
Entity 2 CCC DDD
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] into
Diagram
164
0
 4.Checking the diagram for errors

Data Flows
2
should not split
11 into two or more
different data
3 flows

processes need 2 all Data Flows

to have at least must either
one input data originate or
flow and one terminate at a
output data flow process

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

165
 The progression of models from physical to logical…

Current logical New logical New Physical

data flow diagram data flow diagram data flow diagram

Derive the logical Create the logical Derive the physical

data flow diagram data flow diagram data flow diagram
for the current for the new system by examining
system by by adding the processes on the
examining the input, output, and new logical diagram.
physical data flow processes Determine where
diagram and required in the the user interfaces
isolating unique new system to the should exists, the
business activities. logical data flow nature of the
diagram for the processes, and
current system. necessary data
stores.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
166
LOGICAL DATA FLOW DIAGRAM
Are often more stable because they are based on business
events and not on a particular technology or method of
implementation.
Has a business emphasis and helps the analyst to
understand the business being studied, to grasp why
procedures are performed, and to determine the expected
result of performing a task.
Advantages in using a logical diagrams:
1.Better communication with users.
2.More stable system.
3.Better understanding of the business by analyst.
4.Flexibility and maintenance.
5.Elimination of redundancies and easier creation of the
physical model. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

167
 PHYSICAL DATA FLOW DIAGRAM
Shows how the system will be constructed.
Also have intermediate data stores-often, a transaction file.

Advantages of data flow diagram:

1.Clarifying which processes are manual and which are
automated.
2.Describing processes in more detail than do logical DFDs.
3.Sequencing processes that have to be done in a particular
order.
4.Identifying temporary data stores.
5.Specifying actual names of files and printouts.
6.Adding controls to ensure the processes are done
properly.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

168
 SIX REASONS FOR PARTIONING DATA FLOW DIAGRAMS:
1.Different user groups – if the processes performed by several
different users groups, often at different physical location
within the company, they should be partitioned in different
computer programs.
2.Timing – examined the timing of the processes. If two
processes execute at different times, they cannot be grouped
into one program.
3.Similar tasks – if two processes performed similar tasks and
both are batch processes, they may be grouped into one
computer program.
4.Efficiency – several batch processes may be combined into
one program for efficient processing.
5.Consistency of data – processes may be combined into one
program for consistency of data.
6.Security – processes may be partitioned for security reasons.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
169
 DATA DICTIONARY
Is a reference work of data about data(that is, metadata),
one that is compiled by systems analysts to guide them
through analysis and design.
The data dictionary may be used to:
1.Validate the data-flow diagram for completeness and
accuracy.
2.Provide the starting point for developing screens and reports
3.Determine the contents of data stored in files.
4.Develop the logic for data-flow diagram processes.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

170
DATA REPOSITORY
While the data dictionary contains information about data
and procedures, a larger collection of project information.

The Repository concept is one of the many impacts of

CASE tools and may contain the following:
1.Information about the data maintained by the system,
including data flow, data stores, record structures, and
elements.
2.Procedural logic.
3.Screen and report design.
4.Data relationships, such as how one data structure is linked
to another.
5.Project requirements and final system deliverables.
6.Project management information, such as delivery schedules,
achievements, issues that need resolving, and project
users. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
171
Data Flow Data Dictionary
Diagram

Data Flow Data Data

Data Flow Description Structures Elements
Form
XXX XXX

XXX

Data Store Data Data

Description Structure Elements
Data Store Form
XXX XXX XXX

How the data dictionaries relate to data flow diagram

[KENDALL & KENDALL 1999]

172
 v DATA
-should
FLOW be described first for all input and output,
followed by the intermediate data flow and the data flow to
and from
data stores.
-the detail of each data flow is described using the data
structure, a group of elements sometimes called fields.
v DATA STRUCTURES

-are usually described using algebraic notation like:

•= means “is composed of”
•+ means “and”
•{ } indicate repetitive elements
•[ ] represents an either/or situation
•( ) represents an optional elements
-allows the analyst to produce a view of elements that make
up the data structure, along with information about those
elements.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 173
v DATA ELEMENTS

-each of it should be defined once in a data dictionary and

may also be entered previously on an element description
form.

v DATA STORES
-all base elements must be stored with in the system.
-are created for each different data entity being stored.
-when data flow base elements are grouped together to
form a structural record, it is created for each unique structural

record.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

174
 CREATING THE DATA DICTIONARY

1.Analyzing Input and Output

An important step in creating the data dictionary is to
identify and categorize system input and output data
flow.
2.Developing data store
Contains information of a permanent (item number,
description, and item cost) or semi-permanent nature.
It is acceptable to start with some information and then
add more information to the data store when you
analyze more data flows and realize more information to
be added.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

175
STRUCTURED DECISION
Conditions, condition alternatives, actions, and
action rules must be known in order to design
systems systems for structured decision.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
The analyst first determine the conditions-that is,
occurrence that might affect the outcome of
something else.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

176
 THREE ALTERNATIVES FOR DECISION ANALYSIS OF
STRUCTURE DECISIONS:

1.Structured English
when structured decisions are not complex, this is the
appropriate technique in analyzing the decision process.
it is based on:

a.structured logic or instructions organized into nested

and grouped procedures.
b.simple English statements such as add, multiply,
move, and so on.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
a.

177
 Writing Structured English
•Express all logic in terms of sequential structures, decision
structures, case structures, or iterations.
•Use and capitalized accepted keywords such as IF, THEN,
ELSE, DO, UNTIL, and PERFORM.
•Indent blocks of statements to show their hierarchy
(nesting) clearly.
•When words or phrases have been defined in a data
dictionary, underline those words or phrases to signify
that they have a specialized, reserved meaning.
•Be careful when using “and” and “or”, and avoid confusion
when distinguishing between “greater than” and “greater
than or equal to” and like relationships. [KENDALL &
KENDALL, 1999]

178
 Calculate
CalculateBase
BasePremium
Premium
IF
IF construction
constructionisisbrick
brick
THEN
THENdeduct
deduct 1010percent
percent ofof base
basetotototal
total
ENDIF
ENDIF
IF
IF owner
owner chooses
chooses$100$100deductible
deductible
THEN
THENaddadd1515 percent
percent ofof subtotal
subtotal
ENDIF
ENDIF
IF
IF home
homehas
hasburglar
burglar alarm
alarm
THEN
THENdeduct
deduct 55percent
percent of
of adjusted
adjustedsubtotal
subtotal
ENDIF
ENDIF

Using structured English for analyzing the decision

process for a simple sequential decision
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
179
Structured English Type example
Sequential Structure Action #1
A block of instructions Action #2
where no branching occurs Action #3
Decision Structure IF Condition A is true
Only IF
a condition is true, THEN
complete the following implement Action A
statements; ELSE implement Action B
otherwise jump to the ELSE ENDIF
Example of logic expressed in a sequential structure and
decision structure
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

180
 Structured English Example
Type Structure
Case IF Case #1 implement Action #1
A
special type of decision,
structure where the cases are ELSE IF Case #2
mutually exclusive (if one implement Action #2
occurs the others cannot) ELSE IF Case #3 implement
Action #3
ELSE IF Case #4 implement
Action #4
ELSE print error
ENDIF
Iteration DO WHILEthere are Customers.
Blocks of Statements Action #1
that are repeated until ENDDO
done
Example of logic expressed in a case structure and an iteration

181
 2.Decision Tables
is a table of rows and columns, separated into four
quadrants.
when the it is used to determine which actions need to
be taken, the logic moves clockwise beginning from the
upper left.

Conditions and Action Rules

Conditions Condition Alternative
Actions Action Entries

The standard format used for presenting a decision table

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

182
 3.Decision Trees
are used when complex branching occurs in a
structured decision process.
Analyst tree
does not contain probabilities
and outcomes, because in systems analysis trees are
used mainly for identifying and organizing conditions and
actions in a completely structured decision process.
Condition Action 2
Means IF 2
Condition Action 1
2 1
3
can be thought
Action 3 of as meaning
1 1 Condition 2 THEN
Action 4
Condition 2
4
Conventions for drawing a decision tree
2 [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
183
CHOOSING A STRUCTURED DECISION ANALYSIS
TECHNIQUE:
1.Structured English when
a.There are many repetitious actions.
OR b.
Communication to end users is important.
3.Decision Tables when
a. Complex combinations of conditions, actions, and rules are
found. OR b. You require a method
that effectively avoids impossible situations,
redundancies, and contradictions.
4.Decision Trees
a. The sequence of conditions and actions is critical.
OR b. When
not every condition is relevant to every action (the branches
are different). [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

184
 SEMI-STRUCTURED DECISION
Are those that are partially programmable but still require
human judgment.
DSS are most powerful when addressing semi-structured
decisions, since the DSS supports the decision maker in
all phases of decision making but does not mandate one
final answer. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
Decision Support System
Posses many characteristics that differentiate them from
other, more traditional Management Information System.
Supports the decision-making process through the
presentation of information that is designed for the
decision maker’s problem-solving approach and
application needs. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
185
THREE MAJOR CONCERNS ARISE WHEN ANALYZING
SEMI-STRUCTURED DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEM:
1.Whether decision makers are primarily Analytic or heuristic
2.How decisions are made in the three problem-solving phases
of intelligence, design, and choice
3.The multiple-criteria methods that are useful in solving semi-
structured problems. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
Analytic Decision Maker Heuristic Decision Maker
Learns by analyzing Learns by acting

Users step-by-step procedure

Values quantitative information Uses trial and error

and models Values experience

Builds mathematical models and

algorithms Rules on common sense

Seeks optimal solution

Seeks Satisfying solution

KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
186
 Unable to identify the problem
Intelligence Unable to define the problem
Unable to prioritize the problem

Unable to generate alternative

Design Unable to quantify or describes Alternative
Unable to assign criteria, values
weights, and makings

Unable to identify a choice method

Choice Unable to organize and present
information Unable to
select alternative

Common Bottlenecks in the three phases of Decision Making

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
187
 Information
Certainty and
experience
increase
certainty.

Risk

Decisions are made under

certainty, uncertainty, and risk,
which are determined by the
Uncertainty availability of information and
experience.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

188
DIMENSIONS OF SEMI-STRUCTURED DECISIONS

1.The degree of decision-making skill required

-relates back to the concepts of analytic and heuristic
decision makers
-is measured in the analytic and experience-based maturity
of the decision maker.
2.The degree of problem complexity
-DSS can help in this regard by encouraging the decision
maker to define the boundary of the system, and he/she b
would accomplish this goal by clearly defining the problem
and limiting the number of variables.
3.The number of decision criteria
-a manager concerned is dealing with a structured problem,
but most real-world problems have multiple, conflicting goals
and multiple decision criteria.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
189
Multiple-Criteria Decision Making

Approaches allow decision makers to set their own

priorities, and most allow the decision maker to perform
sensitivity analysis by asking “what-if” types of question
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999
Give the decision maker a more powerful way to evaluate
alternatives and the design phase of decision making
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999
A decision involving multiple criteria may include
choosing a software package that is powerful, has clear
documentation, and is user friendly but inexpensive.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

190
PREPARING THE SYSTEM PROPOSAL
Systems proposal is a destination of all the
systems analyst has learned about the business
and about what is needed to improve its
performance.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
In order to address information requirements
adequately, the systems analyst must used systematic
methods for acquiring hardware and software, must
identify and forecast future costs and benefits, and
must perform cost-benefit analysis.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

191
Ascertaining Hardware and Software Needs

The systems analyst needs to work along with user

to determine what hardware will be needed

Hardware determination can come only in

conjunction with determining information
requirements.
Knowledge of the organizational structure can also
be helpful in hardware decision.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

192
 Inventory
computer
hardware
Steps in choosing
hardware and software…

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

Estimate
Workloads

Evaluate Evaluate
hardware Software

Choose
the vendor

Acquire the
computer
equipment
193
If an Updated Computer Hardware is an available,the
systems analyst needs to sit up one quickly and carry
through on it. You need to know:

1.The type of equipment - model number, manufacturer.

2.The status of the equipment operation - on order,
operating, and storage, in need of repair.
3.The estimated age of the equipment.
4.The physical location of the equipment.
5.The projected life of the equipment.
6.The department of person consider responsible for the
equipment.
7.The financial arrangement for the equipment - owned,
leased, or rented.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

194
ESTIMATING WORKLOADS
Means that systems analyst formulate numbers
that represent both current and projected
workloads for the system, so that any hardware
obtain well posses the capability to handle current
and future workloads.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

195
EVALUATING COMPUTER HARDWARE
Is the share responsibility of management, users, and
systems analysts.
Criteria that the Systems Analysts and Users should use to
evaluate performance of different systems hardware
include:
1.The time required for average transactions(including how long
it takes to input data and how long it takes to receive
output).
2.The total volume capacity of system(how much can be
processed at the sane time before the problem arises).
3.The idle time of the central processing unit.
4.The size of the memory provided.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
 ACQUISATION OF COMPUTER EQUIPMENT
Advantages Disadvantages
Buying Cheaper that leasing or renting Initial cost is high
over the long run Risk of obsolescence

The ability to change system / Risk of being stuck if choice was

Full control wrong

Provides tax advantages of Full responsibility

accelerated depreciation

Leasing No capital is tied up Company doesn’t owned the

No financing is required system when lease expires
Leases are lower than rental Usually a heavy penalty or

payments terminating the lease

Renting  No capital is tied up  Company doesn’t owned the
 No financing is required Computer
 Easy to change systems  Cost is very high because vendors

 Maintenance and insurance assumes the risk(most expensive

are usually included option)

197
Software Evaluation
1.Performance Effectiveness
a. Able to perform required tasks
b. Able to perform all task that maybe desired at some time
in the future
c. Well design display screens
d. Adequate capacity
2.Performance Efficiency
a. Fast response time d. Efficient storage of data
b. Efficient input e. Efficient back-up
c. Efficient output
3.Ease of Use
a. Satisfactory users interface e. Adequate feedback
b. Help menus available f. Good error recovery
c. Readme files for last minute changes
d. Flexible interface [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

198
4.Flexibility
a. Options for input
b. Options for output
c. Usable with other software
5.Quality of Documentation
a. Good organization
b. Adequate on-line tutorial
c. Web site with FAQ
6.Manufacturer Support
a. Tech support hotline
b. Newsletter or e-mail
c. Web site with downloadable product updates

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

199
IDENTIFYING BENEFITS AND COSTS

Tangible Benefits
Are advantages measurable in dollars that accrue to the
organization through the use of information system
Examples:
Increase in the speed processing
The advantage of the computer’s superior calculating
power
Intangible Benefits
Include improving the decision making process, in
enhancing accuracy, becoming more competitive in
customer service, maintaining a good business image, and
increasing job satisfaction for employees by eliminating
tedious tasks.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
200
Tangible Costs
Are the cost of the equipment such as computers and
terminals, the cost of resources, the cost of systems
analysts’ time, the cost of programmers’ time, and other
employees’ salaries.
Intangible Costs
Include losing a competitive edge, losing the reputation
for being first with an innovation or the leader in a field
declining company image due to increased customer
dissatisfaction, and effective decision making due to
untimely or inaccessible information.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

201
Design Phase

202
 OUTPUT DESIGN
Is information delivered to users through the information
system by way of intranets, extranets, or the World Wide
Web.
Six objectives for output:
1.Design output to serve the intended purpose.
2.Design output to fit the user.
3.Delivered the appropriate quantity of output.
4.Assure that the output is where it is needed.
5.Provide the output on time.
6.Choose the right output method.

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

203
vPrinters
are changing so rapidly that any list of
them is outdated the next year.

Three key factors:

1.Reliability
2.Compatibility with software and hardware
3.Manufacturer support.

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

204
Output Method Advantage Disadvantage

Printer  Handles large volumes May be noisy

Specially of output.
Can easily accomplish Cannot be

Printers (label special tasks that would networked

makers, etc.) be difficult on standard
Display Screen Good for frequently
printer.
Can be expensive
accessed, ephemeral if required for many
Audio Screen messages.
Good for individual user users
Is expensive to
develop

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

205
Output MethodAdvantage Disadvantage

Microform Handles large volume Can be



of information expensive initial

investment
DVD and CD- Has large capacity Is more difficult
ROM to update

Electronic Can be update very Has generally

Output (e-mail, easily lower resolution
faxes and Web Can be made Web sites need

pages interactive diligent

Can be “broadcast” maintenance

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

206
•Specialty printers
involved in expensive, highly useful desktop
technology.
•Screens as output
are an increasingly popular output technology.
may provide an ideal output technology for
information that is needed only once and that need never
be stored.
•Audio output
Is interpreted by the human ear as speech,
although it is actually produced by discrete digital
sounds that are then put together in such a way as to be
perceived as V continuous words.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

207
•CD-ROMS and DVDs
CD-ROMs are being used to output any information that is
voluminous and somewhat stable in content.
DVD(Digital Versatile Disk) is expected to replace the
CD-ROM soon because a DVD has more capacity and a DVD
drive can read CD-ROMs as well as DVDs.
•Microforms
are ideal for large volumes of output such as cataloged parts
or customer lists, and they can significantly reduce the
physical space required for storage.
•Electronic output
in a form of e-mail, faxes and bulletin board messages that
can be sent from one computer to another without the need
for hard copy.
[KENDALL&KENDALL, 1999]

208
Factors to consider when choosing output technology
1.Who will use(see) the output(requisite quality)
2.How many people need the output?
3.Where is the output needed(distribution/logistics)?
4.What is the purpose of the output?
5.What is the speed with which output is needed?
6.How frequently will the output be accessed?
7.How long will(or must) the output be stored?
8.Under what special regulations is the output produced,
stored, and distributed?
9.What are the initial and ongoing costs of maintenance
and supplies?
10.What are the environmental requirements(noise
absorption, controlled temperature, space for equipment, and
cabling) for output technologies?

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

209
Realizing how output bias affect users
1.Recognizing bias in the way output is used
bias is present in everything that humans create.
Three main ways in which presentation of output are
unintentionally biased:
1. How information is sorted. 3. Choice of graphics.
2. Setting of acceptable
limits.
2.Introducing bias when information is sorted
bias is introduced to output when the analyst makes
choices about how information is sorted for a report.
3.Introducing bias by setting limits
many reports are generated on an exception basis only,
which means that when limits on values are set
beforehand, only exceptions to those values will be output.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

210
Four general problems with setting limits that may
bias output:
1.Limit set too low.
2.Limit set too high.
3.Range of exceptions output too narrow.
4.Range of exceptions output too wide.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

211
Introducing bias through graphics
1.Avoiding bias in the design of output:

a.Be aware of the sources of bias.

c.Create an interactive design of output that
includes users and a variety of differently-configured
systems during the testing of Web document
appearance.
d.Work with users so that they are informed of the
output’s biases and can recognize the implications of
customizing their displays.
e.Create output that is flexible and that allows users to
modify limits and ranges.
f.Train users to rely on multiple output for conducting
“reality tests” on system output.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

212
Designing printed output
1.Report design conventions
Constant information – is information that remains the
same whenever the report is printed.
Variable information – is information
that can vary each time the report is printed out.
2.Paper quality, type, and size
3.Special output forms
4.Functional attributes
a. the heading or title of the report
b. the page number
c. the data preparation
d. the column headings
e. the grouping of related data
items together f. the use of control
breaks [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

213
5.Stylistic/aesthetic attributes
Steps in designing output reports with a computer-
aided software tool
a. determine the need for the report.
b. determine the users.
c. determine the data items
to be included. d. estimate the overall
size of the report. e. title the
report.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

214
Steps in designing output reports with a computer-aided
software tool:
a.determine the need for the report.
b.determine the users.
c.determine the data items to be included.
d.estimate the overall size of the report.
e.title the report.
f.number the pages of report.
g.include the preparation date on the report.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

215
h.label each column of data appropriately.
i. define variable data, indicating on the screen
whether each space or field is to be used for an
alphabetic, special, or numeric character.
j.indicate the positioning of blank lines used to help
organize information.
k.view prototype reports with users and programmers
for feasibility, usefulness, readability, and aesthetic
appeal.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
Designing screen output
Guidelines for screen design
1. Keep the screen simple.
2. Keep the screen presentation consistent.
3. Facilitate user movement among screens.
4. Create an attractive screen.

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

217
Screen Design Example:
1.Tabular output for decision support systems
information systems that were designed to support
decisions makers in semi-structured decision
systems.
2.Graphical output for decision support systems
to organize information through the use of data
flow diagrams;
and to inform management about
recommendations on the proposed information
system.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

218
Designing a web site
1.General guidelines for designing web sites
b.Use professional tools
-use software called a web editor like
Microsoft’s front page or adobe page mill.
c.Study other web sites
-analyze design elements are being used,
and see how they are functioning.
d.Use the resources that the web has to offer
e.Examine the web sites of professional designers
f.Use the tools you’ve learned.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

219
a.
g.Consult the books
h.Look at some poor examples of web pages, too
i.Create templates of your own
j.Use plug-ins, audio, and video very sparingly
k.Plan ahead.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

220
Web Terms Meaning
book mark A stored address of a web page, (in Microsoft
internet explorer bookmarks are called “favorites.”)
You can jump to a page by clicking on its bookmark.
FAQ “frequently asked question.” Web sites often have a
page devoted to these so the company sales force
or tech support are not inundated with the same
questions over and over again and users can have
FTP “file transfer
24 hour protocol”
access is currently the most common
to answers.
way to move files between computer systems.

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

221
browser Software that allows you to read web pages, copy,
save, and print these pages.
GIF “graphic interchange format” a popular compressed
image format best suited for artwork.
Java An object oriented language that allows dynamic
applications to be run on the internet.
Webmaster The person responsible for maintaining the web
site.
www “world wide web” a global hypertext system that
uses the internet.
VRML “virtual reality markup language” a language similar
to HTML that allows users to browse in 3D.

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

 “joint photographic expert group” developed and
JPEG gave the acronym of its name to title this popular
compressed image format best suited for
HTML photographs.
“hypertext markup language” is the language behind
the appearance of documents on the web.
http:// “hypertext transfer protocol” is used to move web
pages between computers.
Hyperlink In a hypertext system words, phrases or images that
are underlined or emphasized in some way(often
plug-ins Additional software(often
with a different color). developed by a third party)
that can be used with another programs.
URL “uniform resource locator” is the address of a
document or program on the internet.

223
 INPUT DESIGN
The systems analyst is acknowledging that poor input
calls into question the trustworthiness of the entire
system. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

Data is usually input to a processing system in one of

two modes; by the transaction or by the batch.

[SILVER & SILVER, 1989]

224
Transaction-Oriented Processing – source data is entered
directly into the processing system at the time the transaction
occurs without intermediate storage. Input is made in real
time. This mode is also known as online data entry.
[SILVER & SILVER, 1989]
Batch Processing – involves preparing data to be input to a
system at a later time. In this mode, source data is
transcribed on to machine-readable storage media. This mode
is also known as offline data entry.
[SILVER & SILVER, 1989]

225
Elements of Data Input
A source document is a record of an original
transaction, generated at a time the transaction takers places.
Source documents contain the about the procedures or
activities initiated during the transaction. The data on source
documents must be made available for processing by the
system. This involves transferring the data on the source
document to another record that is machine readable.
[SILVER & SILVER, 1989]

Input Media
Several methods are used to prepare source data for input
into a system. The purpose of all input devices is to convert
media into electronic pulses that can be stored and
manipulated by computers or other devices.
[SILVER & SILVER, 1989]
226
Most Common Input Media
1.Keyboard Terminals
a.Smart terminal – have an integrated microprocessor
2. b.Dumb Terminals – Do not have integrated microprocessor.
3.
4.Manual
a.LongData
handEntry
or onDevices
a typewriter
5.
6.Optical Scanning Devices
7. a.Mark Sense Readers
8. b.Optical Character Readers
9.Magnetic ink Character Readers
10. a.Magnetic Ink Character Recognition
11.Voice Recognition Devices
12.Other Input Devices ( mice, wands, joysticks, digitizers, and
light pens.)
[SILVER & SILVER, 1989]
227
Design of Source Document
A source document should capture data in the
sequence in which it will be entered to the system. It
should have adequate space for the user to fill in the
data. Filled should be labeled, and explanatory notes
should be included in the form to make sure that data
is entered correctly.
[SILVER & SILVER, 1989]

228
Input Verification Control
Well-designed information systems have transaction
controls that monitor input data to make sure it is correct, in the
proper range, and complete.

•Range Test – data must be entered within the range or limit

that is expected for the kind of transaction being process.
•Test for Completeness – all data must be necessarily
entered for the processing transaction.
•Accuracy Test – the data must be entered accurately.
•Sequence Test – the data must be entered in proper
sequence.
•Data Type Check – data entered in the field must be in the
correct data type.
•Combination Test – information entered into two field must be
properly related. [SILVER & SILVER, 1989]

229
Verification
Involves making comparisons to check the
accuracy of the data transferred from one document
to another.
•Keyboard Information Twice
•Batch Totals – some of all values in a given field in
a batch.
[SILVER & SILVER, 1989]

230
Input Design Guidelines
•Design input screens for operator convenience. Place related
items close together. Avoiding shifting between capital letters
and lower case and between figures and numbers unless
necessary.
•Use a consistent style. Don’t call for a date to be entered one
way, for instance 1/29/89, and later ask for it to be entered
as January 29, 1989.
•Only variable data should be entered, not constants. Structure
records, for example, so that the operator enters “6723,” not
“EMPLOYEE NUMBER 6723.”
•Use common expressions to identify fields: ADDRESS rather
than LOCATION or DOMICILE, LAST NAME rather than
SURNAME, and so on.
[SILVER & SILVER, 1989]

231
• Enter data in a logical sequence. For instance, name,
address, phone number, is more logical than name, phone
number, address.

•Use the computer to perform the computations. For example,

enter the number of hours worked and the pay rate, and let the
computer calculate the gross pay.
•Design forms with the end user in mind. Provide enough space
for people to write or print required information. For example,
leave adequate space for names of states or individuals.
•Use codes or abbreviation to simplify data entry. It is obviously
easier to enter F for female and M for male, rather than having
to key in the full words.
•Provide entry operators with a guide showing standard
abbreviations to be used and explanations of style and format
for all fields. [SILVER & SILVER, 1989]

232
Four guidelines for form design should be
observed in order to design useful forms:

1.Make forms easy to fill out.

2.Ensure that forms meet the purpose for which they
are designed.
3.Design forms to assure accurate completion.
4.Keep forms attractive.

[KENDALL&KENDALL, 1999]

233
 Incident Report
Types of incident Data Time
Good Form
Location Investigating Officer

Name of first person involved

Design

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

1.Form
1.Form
Address Phone Injuries
Flow
Name of second person involved
-forms
should Address Phone Injuries
flow
Name of witness
from
left to Address Phone Comments
right
Describe what happened
and top
to Action taken
bottom.
Suggestions
234
2.Seven sections of a form
-a second technique that makes it easy
for people to fill out forms correctly in logical grouping of
information.
Seven main sections of a strong form are:
a.Heading e. Signature and verification
b.Identification and access f. Totals
c.Instructions g.Comments
d.Body

3.Captioning
– another technique that can make easy work of filling
out a form.
– tell the person completing the form what to put
on the blank line, space, or box.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
235
Good screen and web forms design
good form design is
transferable to screen design and eventually to the good
design of Web sites and their pages.
Four guidelines for screen design:
1.Keep the screen simple.
– the first guideline for good screen design is to keep
the screen display simple.
– the display screen should show only that
which is necessary for the particular action being
undertaken.
2.Keep the screen presentation consistent.
3.Facilitate user movement among screens.
4.Create an attractive screen.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

236
Keeping the screen consistent
the second guideline for good screen design is to
keep the screen display consistent.
Facilitating movement
the third guideline for good screen design is to make it
easy to move fro one screen to another.
Scrolling
this is an extremely easy way for inexperienced users
to change screens.
Calling up more detail
another general approach to movement between
screens allows users to call up another screen quickly
by using cursor positioning along with a specific
command
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

237
On-screen dialog
Displaying prompts facilitate of user movement between
screens.
Designing an attractive screen
the fourth guideline for good screen design is to create an
attractive screen for the user.
Three screen sections
this method is useful because it simplifies
interactions with screens.
the top of the screen features a “heading”
section, part which is written into the software to describe to
the user where he or she is in the package.
the middle section is called the “body”of the screen
this can be used for data entry and is organized from
left to right and top to bottom.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

238
Using windows hyperlinks
another way to keep the screen display simple is to list a
few basic commands that, when used, will overlay windows to
partially or totally fill the current screen with new information.

Inverse video and blinking cursors

Techniques that effectively enhance the attractiveness
of screens.

Using different type of fonts

are another way to make screens attractive to users.

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

239
Attributes
attribute characters control the characteristics of the
screen field to the right of them and include the following
qualities:
1.Protection
-determines whether the user may
enter data into the screen field or not.

2.Intensity
-is how bright a screen field will appear

3.Shift and extended attributes

-limits data fields to numeric or
alphanumeric entries when data is keyed.
Attribute character
considerations when
designing mainframe terminal screens for
entering data, the attribute character must be
taken into consideration. [KENDALL & KENDALL,240
Screen code generation
may be designed using a number of CASE tools.
1.Using icon in screen design
-icons serve functions similar to those of words
and may replace them in many menus, since
their meaning is more quickly grasped
than words. -icons designed for the
spreadsheet for excel 7.0
2.Graphical user interface
-uses a windows, OS/2, Macintosh, or other
graphics screen for entering and displaying
data.
3.Tab control dialog boxes
-are another part of graphical user interfaces and
another way to get users organized and into
system material efficiently.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
241
Guidelines for designing the control dialog boxes:
a.Create a separate tab for each unique feature.
b.Place the most commonly used tabs in front and
display them first.
c.Consider including three basic buttons in your
design: OK, cancel, and help.

4.Using color in screen design

-color is an appealing and proven way to facilitate
computer input. The top five most legible combinations of
foreground lettering on background are(starting with
the most legible combination):
a. black on yellow d.
white on blue b.
green on white e. yellow on black c.
blue on white
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
242
 FILE OR DATABASE
Is a central source of data meant to be shared by many
users for a variety of applications.
Conventional files
will remain a practical way to store data for some (but not
all) applications.
Design Objectives:
1.Purposeful information retrieval.
2.Efficient data storage.
3.Efficient updating and retrieval.
4.Data integrity.
5.Data Availability.

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

243
The effectiveness objectives of the database
include:
1.Ensuring that data can be shared among users for a
variety of applications.
2.Maintaining data that are both accurate and consistent.
3.Ensuring that all data required for current and future
applications will be readily available.
4.Allowing the database to involve and the needs of the
users grow.
5.Allowing users to construct their personal view of the
data without concern for the way the data are
physically stored.

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

244
Data concepts

Reality - the real world itself will be referred to as

reality.
Data - data collected about people, places, or
events in reality will eventually be stored in
the file or database.
Metadata - the information that describes data
Entities
any object or event about which someone chooses to
collect data.
Relationships
are associations between entities (sometimes they are
referred to as data associations).
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

245
Records
is a collection of data items that have
something in common with the entity.

Keys
is one of the data items in a record that is used
to identify report
when a key uniquely identifies a record, it is
called a primary key.
is called a secondary key if it cannot uniquely
identify a record.

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

246
File Organization
•File types
-files can be used for storing data for an
indefinite period of time, or they can be used to
store data temporarily for a specific purpose.
•Master files
-contain records for a group of entities.
-if the master file is stored using conventional file
methods, an expansion area is reserved at the end
of each record.
•Table files
-contains data used to calculate more data or
performance measures.
Example: tax table
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

247
 • Transaction files
-is used to enter changes that update the master file
and
produce reports.
-may contain several different kinds of records such as the
three used for updating the newspaper subscription master,
with a code on the transaction file indicating the type of
•Worktransaction.
files
-a program can work efficiently if a work file is used.
•Report files
-is used when it is necessary to run a program but no

printer is available(busy).

-is very useful because users can take files to other

computer systems and output to specialty devices such as
laser printers,microfiche units, and even computerized
typesetting machines. [KENDALL
248
& KENDALL, 1999]
v Sequential organization
when records are physically in order in a file.
when it is updated, it is necessary to go through
to the entire file.
sequential master file are used when the
hardware(magnetic tape) requires it when the normal
access requires that most of the records be accessed.
vLinked lists
are achieved by using a set of pointers to the direct you
to the next logical record located any where in the file.
vHashed File Organization
is the process of calculating an address from the record
key.
a common hashing techniques is to divide the original
number by a prime number that approximates the storage
locations and then to use the remainder as the address.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
249
v Indexed Organization
index is different from a pointer, since it is stored in a
file that is separate from the data file.

vIndexed-Sequential Organization
also called ISAM(indexed-sequential access
method).
a widely used method of file organization
allow program to read records directly without reading
other records in the file.
ISAM – the records are arrange in blocks.
VSAM – or virtual storage access method, a more
modern and efficient method for handling
indexed-sequential files. [KENDALL & KENDALL,
1999]

250
DATABASE ORGANIZATION

Hierarchical Data Structures

imply that entity can have no more than one owning
entity. Therefore it is structure made up of many one-
to-many or one-to-one associations.

Network Data Structures

a relational structure consists of one or more two-
dimensional tables, which are referred to as relations.

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

251
Normalization of a relation User
is accomplished in three Views
major steps……….

Unnormalized
relationship
Step 1 Remove repeating groups

Normalized
relations(1NF)
Step 2 Remove partial dependencies
Second normal
form
(2NF)relations
Step 3 Remove transitive dependencies
Third normal
form(3NF)
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] relations
252
GUIDELINES FOR FILE OR DATABASE RELATION
DESIGN

1. Each separate data entity should create a master file.

Item master file – should contain only item
information.
Vendor master file – should contain only vendor
information.
2. A specific data field should exist only on one master file.
Example: CUSTOMER NAME should exist only on
the CUSTOMER MASTER FILE, not on the
ORDER FILE or any other master file
3. Each master file or database relation should have
programs to create, read, update, and delete(CRUD) the
records.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

253
Eight steps in the retrieval and presentation of data:

1.Choose a relation from the database

2.Join two relations together
3.Project columns from the relation
4.Select rows from the relation
5.Derive new attributes
6.Index or sort rows
7.Calculate totals and performance measure
8.Present data

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

254
 USER INTERFACE
OBJECTIVES
1.Effectiveness is achieved through the design of interfaces
that allow users to access the system in a way that is
congruent with their individual needs.
2.Efficiency as demonstrated through interfaces that both
increase the speed of data entry and reduce errors.
3.User consideration as demonstrated in the design of
suitable interfaces and by providing appropriate feedback
to user from the system.
4.Productivity as measured by ergonomically sound principles
of design for user interfaces and work spaces.

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

255
Types of User Interface
1. Natural language interfaces –
are perhaps the dream and ideal of inexperienced users,
since they permit users to interact with the computer in
their everyday or natural language.

2.Question-and-answer interfaces
– the computer displays a question to the user on the
screen.
3.Menus
– this interface appropriately borrows its name from the
list of dishes that can be selected in the
restaurant.
– provides the user with an on-screen list of available
selections.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
256
4.Form-fill interfaces(input/output forms)
– consist of on-screen forms or web-based forms
displaying fields containing data items or parameters
that need to be communicated to the users.
5.Command-language interfaces
– allows the users to control the application with a
series of key strokes, commands, phrases, or some
sequence of these three methods.
– manipulate the computer as a tool by allowing the
user to control the dialog.
– require memorization of syntax rules that may
prove to be obstacles for inexperienced users.

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

257
6. Graphical user interfaces(GUIs)
– allow direct manipulation of the graphical
representation on the screen, which can be
accomplished with keyboard input, joystick, or a
mouse – its creation poses a challenge, since an
appropriate model of reality or an acceptable
conceptual model of the representation must
be invented.

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

258
Dialog
Is the communication between the computer and a
person.
Well designed dialog makes it easier for people to use a
computer and leads to less frustration with the computer
system.
Guidelines for dialog design:

1.Meaningful communication, so that the computer understand

what people are entering and people understand what the
computer is presenting or requesting.
2.Minimal user action.
3.Standard operation and consistency.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

259
Communication
presenting an appropriate title on each screen,
minimizing the use of abbreviations, and providing clear
user feedback.

Minimal user action

keying is often the lowest part of a computer
system, and good dialog will minimize the number of
keystrokes required.

Standard operation and consistency

the system should be consistent throughout its set
of different screens and mechanisms for
controlling the operation of the screens throughout
different applications.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
260
Feedback is Needed to Tell the User That:
The computer has accepted the input
The input is the correct form

The input is not in the correct form

There will be a delay in the processing

The request has been completed

The computer is unable to complete the request

More detailed feedback is available(and how to

get it)

[KENDALL&KENDALL, 1999]

261
STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE(SQL)
is a popular way to implement queries.
It uses a series of keywords and commands to select
the rows and columns that should be displayed in the
resulting table. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
DATA MINING
its concept came from the desired to use the database
for a more selective targeting of customers. [KENDALL
& KENDALL, 1999]

Data mining collects personal information about

customers in an effort to be more specific and
interpreting and anticipating their preferences.

Diagram below

262
 Warranty card
customer sent
in
External
Data
Prospects or mailing list
from other companies Information from survey
that customer filled out
Data
External Maintained
Data Internally
Customer purchased
history from credit card
Customer profile obtained
when customer made
purchase from the web
External Customer
Special promotion offer
Data demographics
for customer
from
municipality [KENDALL & KENDALL,1999]
263
Quality Assurance Through
Software Engineering

264
APPROACHES

SQA
APPROACHES TO QUALITY

1.Securing total quality by designing

systems and software with a top-down,
modular approach
2.Documenting software with appropriate
tools
3. Testing, maintaining , and Auditing
software.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

265
TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT

vResponsibility
•The full organizational support of management must exist

SQA
•Early commitment to quality from the analyst and the
business is necessary to achieve the goal of quality
•Providing on-the-job time for Information System quality
circles for implementations of improvements.
•Reshaping a new system or modification of the
information system
•Encouraging users to crystallize their expectations about

information systems and their interactions with them.

•Departmental quality standards must be communicated
through feedback to the systems analysis team.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
vStructured Walkthrough
- a way of using peer reviewers to monitor the

SQA
system’s programming and over-all development, to
point out problems and to allow the programmer or
analyst responsible for that portion of the system to
make suitable changes [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

- it involves at least 4 people:

a.programmer/analyst
b.walkthrough coordinator
c.programmer/analyst peer
d.a peer who takes notes about suggestions
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

267
Systems Design and Development

vBottom-Up Design
- identifying the process that need computerization
as they arise, analyzing them as systems and either

SQA
coding the process of or purchasing package software to
meet the immediate problem. [KENDALL & KENDALL,
1999]

Limitations:
a. Interface bugs are enormously costly to correct and many of
them are not uncovered until programming is complete.
b. There is a duplication of effort in purchasing software and
even in entering data
c. Much worthless data are entered into the system.
d. Overall organizational objectives are not considered and
hence cannot be met. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
268
vTop-Down Design
- allows the systems analyst to ascertain overall
organizational objectives first, as well as to ascertain
how they are best met in an overall system

Advantages: SQA
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

a.Avoiding the chaos of attempting to design a system

“all at once”.
b. It enables separate systems analysis teams to work in
parallel on different but necessary subsystems.
c. It avoids a Major problem associated with the bottom-
up approach
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

269
Pitfalls:
• The system would be divided into a “wrong”
subsystems.
• Once systems division are made, their interfaces

SQA
maybe neglected or ignored.
• Eventually subsystems must be reintegrated.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
Total quality management and the top-down approach
to design can go hand in hand. The top-down approach
provides the systems group with a ready-made division
of users into task forces for subsystem.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

270
 ORGANIZATIONAL
OBJECTIVES LEVEL
(coordinating systems to
meet company objectives)

FUNCTIONAL
SYSTEMS LEVEL
(e.g., payroll, accounting,
and product systems)

OPERATIONAL SYSTEMS
LEVEL (e.g., manage
editing, updating, and
printing)

PROGRAM
MODULE LEVEL (e.g.,
read data, sort, write to
files and printer)

Overall organizational objectives using top-down approach

271
Modular development
- useful in programming and works well with top-
down design

SQA
- involves breaking the programming into logical,
manageable potions or modules.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

Advantages:
a.Modules are easier to write and debug because they
are virtually self-contained.
b.Modules are easier to maintain.
c.Modules are easier to grasp, since they are self-
contained subsystems.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

272
Guidelines for modular programming:
a.Keep each module to manageable size

SQA
b.Pay particular attention to the critical
interfaces
c.Minimize the number of modules the user
must modify when making
changes.
d.Maintain the hierarchical relationships set
up into the top-down phases.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

273
 Modularity in the Windows Environment
Two systems to link programs:
1. Dynamic Data Exchange(DDE)
- shares code by using Dynamic Link Library(DLL)

SQA
files.
Server - programs that contain the original data
Client - programs that uses the data
Advantage:
a.Programs will have the same look and feel as other
Windows programs.
b.It speeds development because common DLL files
have code contained.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

274
Disadvantage:
a. It is limited in features

SQA
b. Programs tend to use the least common
nominator rather than take advantage of
potentially powerful features.
4. Object Linking and Embedding(OLE)
- it is superior to DDE because it ties in application
data and graphics, it retains all of the properties of
the originally created data.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
Structure Charts
-recommended tool for designing a
modular, top-down system.
- a diagram consisting of
rectangular boxes, which represents the modules
and connecting arrows. [KENDALL & KENDALL,
1999]
Two types of Arrow:
a.data couples – arrows with the empty circles
b.control flags/switches – arrows with the field-in circles
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
Drawing a Structure Chart
- are meant to be drawn from the top down,
the data- flow diagram [KENDALL & KENDALL,
1999]

276
 1
The higher level
module calls the
lower module

Arrows with filled-in

circles represent
“control flags”

Arrows with empty

1.1 circles represent 1.2
“data couples.”

A structure diagram encourages top-down design

using modules
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
277
Objective of drawing structure chart:
1.To encourage a top-down design
2.To support the concept of modules and identify
the appropriate modules
3.To identify and limit as much as possible the
data couples and control flags that pass
between modules.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

278
Types of Modules
a. Control modules – contain the logic performing the
lower-level modules. It may or may not be represented
on data flow diagram.Types of statements for control
modules are ‘if’, ‘perform’ and ‘do’.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
b.Transformational modules – are those created from a
data-flow diagram. They usually perform only one task,
although several secondary tasks may be associated
with the primary task. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
c.Functional or specialized modules – are the lowest in the
structure, with a rare subordinate module beneath them.
Perform only one task. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

279
Module Subordination
Subordination of module is one of the lower on the
structure chart called by another module higher in the
structure. Allowing the lower-level module to perform a task
not required by the calling module is called improper
subordination. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
Even when a structure chart accomplishes all of the
purposes for which it was drawn, the structure chart cannot
stand alone as the sole design/ documentation technique.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

280
DOCUMENTATION
Is the primary source of information about the system
and the current state of development. It provides an
overview of the system itself. The documentation should
record all essential facts and decision about the system.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
Includes all management and quality assurance
materials, specification which are the product for
analysis and design operations, source code and
technical guides and user manual use to describe the
finished system. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
A good documentation is clear, concise, consistent and
accurate. A document must be accurate, as its value
decreases rapidly with every error it contains.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
281
Nassi- Shneiderman Charts
Advantage:
a.it adopts the philosophy of structured programming.
b.it uses a limited number of symbols so that the flowchart
takes up less space.
c.it can be read by someone unfamiliar with symbols used in
other of flowcharts.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

Process

Three Basic Symbols: Decision

Iteration

282
Pseudocode
-similar to structured English because it is not a particular
type of programming code, but it can be used as
intermediate step for developing program code.
[KENDALL & KENDALL,1999]
Procedures Manuals
-they may contain background comments, steps required
to accomplish different transactions, instruction on how to
recover from problems, and what to do next if something is
not working(troubleshooting). [KENDALL & KENDALL,
1999]

283
Biggest complaints
a.they are poorly organized
b.it is hard to find needed information in them.
c.the specific case in question does not appear in the
manual
d.the manual is not written in the English
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

284
The Folklore Method
is a system documentation technique that was created to
supplements some of the techniques just covered. It gathers
information that is often shared among users but is seldom
written down. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] is a
systematic techniques, based on traditional methods used in
gathering folklore about people and legends.It requires the
system analyst to:
a.interview users
b.investigate existing documentation in files
c.and observe the processing of information

Objective of Folklore Method is to gather information

corresponding to one of the four categories: Folklore, Tales,
Saying and art forms. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
285
STOMS
STOMSDescriptions
Descriptionsofofhow
howusers
userscurrently
currentlyget
getthe
thesystem
systemtotorun
run
ART
ARTFORMS
FORMSDiagram,
Diagram,tables
tablesand
andflowcharts
flowcharts

SAYINGS
SAYINGS“Do
“Dothis
thisand
andititworks.”
works.”
TALES
TALES Stories
Storiesabout
abouthow
howusers
userswere
wereable
abletotoget
getth
t

Customs, tales, sayings and art forms used in the

FOLKLORE method of documentation apply to
information system.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
286
Choosing a Design and Documentation Technique Choose
a technique that:
1.Is compatible with existing documentation
2.Is understood by others in the organization
3.Allows you to return in working on the system after you
have been away from it for a period of time.
4.Is suitable for the size of the system you are working on.
5.Allows for a structured design approach if that is
considered to be more important than other factors
6.Allows for easy modification
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

287
CODE GENERATION AND DESIGN
Code Generation -is the process of using software–often a
lower or integrated CASE product to create all or part of
computer program.
•Full Code Generatorsrequires a full methodology for:
entering all data, business rules, screen designs and so on.
•Partial Code Generators generate only specific pieces of
code that maybe incorporated into program being constructed
by the programmers.
One advance approach to code generation is a set of
program called XperCASE by Siemens AG österreich., with
this sophisticated set of tools, the system analyst cannot only
generate program code, but also reengineer existing code.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

288
Design
Specification requirement reflected in software design,
modularity effective, functional independence software well
structured, loose coupling interfaces for modules and external
elements defined data structures consistent with specification
and information consideration given to maintenance and
documentation state to design and plan reconcilable.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
Coding
Design verified in the coding compliance with any
coding standards and conventions code readily readable
(including typing and data declarations) state of code and plan
reconcilable. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

289
REENGINEERING (Reverse Engineering)
Refers to the complete process of converting program
code to the CASE design, modifying the design, and
generating the new program code
Reverse engineering is the opposite of code generation.
The computer source code is examined, analyst, and
converted into repository entities.
modify the logic and output it as computer code in a
different language.
Once the program has been reverse engineered, the
design may be modified, eliminating unused features and
adding new features to the program.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

290
Corporation Product Name
Bachman Information Systems, Inc. Analyst Capture
Cadre Technologies, Inc,. CGI Teamwork
Systems, Inc.
PacReverse
Intersolv
XL Recovery
Siemens AG XperCASE

Selected reverse engineering tools

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

291
 Reverse engineering concepts
Do process records
Reverse
Add 1 to counter
Engineering
Add amt. to Total
Toolset
………..
ENDDO

Computer Source Reverse CASE repository

Code: C, COBOL, engineering CASE repository is
Xbase… toolset examines created including:
Existing computer computer source structure charts,
programs loaded into coded and record and element
the reverse produces CASE descriptions in the
engineering toolset. repository data dictionary,
screen and report
layouts.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999
292
THE ADVANTAGES OF USING A REVERSE ENGINEERING
TOOLSET ARE NUMEROUS:

1.The time required for system maintenance is reduced,

freeing uptime for new development.
2.Documentation, which may have been nonexistent or
minimal for older programs, is produced.
3.Structured programs are created from unstructured or
loosely structured computer code.
4.Future maintenance changes are easier to make, since
changes may be made at the design level rather than at the
code level.
5.Analysis may be performed on the system to eliminate
unused portions of computer code, code that may stills
exist in order programs even though it was made obsolete
revisions of the program through out the years.
6.
293
 TESTING
All of the system newly written or modified application
programs- as well as new procedural manuals, new
hardware, and all system interfaces must be tested
thoroughly, Haphazard, trial and error testing will not
suffice. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
Testing is done through system development, not just at
the end. It is meant to turn up heretofore unknown
problems not to demonstrate the perfection of programs,
manual, or equipment.
Although testing is tedious, it is an essential series of
steps that helps assure the quality of the eventual system.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

294
v Testing is accomplished on sub systems or program
modules as work progresses.It is done on many different levels
at various intervals.before system is put into production, all
programs must be desk-checked,checked with test data, and
check to see if the modules work together with one another as
planned. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
The system as working whole must also be tested, this
includes:
a.testing the interfaces between subsystems
b.the correctness of output, and the usefulness
c.understandability of system documentation and output.

Programmers, analysts, operators, users all play

different roles in various aspects of testing.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
295
Program Testing with Test Data
-he system analysts serve as an advisor and coordinator for
program testing, in this capacity the analyst work to ensure
that correct testing techniques are implemented by the
programmers but probably does not personally carry out this
level of checking.
In this stage Programmers must:
a.desk check their programs to verify the way the system will
work.
b. create both valid and invalid test data

Link Test with Test Data -it is referred to as string testing. It

checks to see if programs that are interdependent
actually work together as planned.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
296
 Program Testing Link Testing with
with test data test data

Programmers Analyst

Testing
Operators Users

Full Systems Full Systems

Testing with test Testing with live
data data

Programmers, analyst, operators, and users all

play different roles in testing software and
systems
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
297
Full Systems Testing with Test Data
- operators and end users become actively
involved in testing
Factors to consider when systems testing with test data:
a. Examining whether operators have adequate
documentation in procedure manuals to afford correct
and efficient operation.
b. Checking whether procedure manuals are clear enough in
communicating how data should be prepared for input.

c. Ascertaining if work flows necessitated by the new or

modified system actually “flow”.
d. Determining if output is correct and whether users
understand that this is, in all likelihood, how output will
look in this form. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

298
Full Systems Testing with Live Data
- data that have been successfully processed through
the existing system. It allows an accurate comparison of the
new system’s output with what you know to be correctly
processed output, as well as good feel for how actual data will
be handled. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
Maintenance Practices
- is performed most often to improve the existing software
rather than to respond to a crisis or system failure. It is also
done to update software in response to the changing
organization. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
Auditing
- is another way of assuring the quality of information
contained in the system. It refers to having an expert who is not
involved in setting up or using a system examine information in
order to ascertain its reliability. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

299
Implementing The Information
System

300
IMPLEMENTING APPROACHES
The process of translating logical design into a physical
implementation is the implementation phase.
It is also the process of assuring that the information system
is operational and then allowing users to take over its
operation for use and evaluation.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

First Approach - the movement of computer powers to

individual users by setting up and shifting computer power
and responsibility to groups throughout the business with the
help of distributed computing. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

301
 Second Approach -using different strategies for training users
and personnel, including taking them in their own level, using
a variety of training techniques and making sure that each
user understand any new role that he or she must take on
because of the information system.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
Third Approach -choosing a conversion strategy, the system
analyst needs to weigh the situation and propose a conversion
plan that is appropriate for particular organization and
information system. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
Fourth Approach-involves evaluating the new or modified
information system, the analyst need to formulate
performance measures on which to evaluate the system,
evaluation comes from users, management, and analyst
themselves. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

302
Process-oriented
-translation of module specification into
program specifications, the program development cycle
can then be applied: this involves specification review,
design, coding, testing and integration.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
Data-oriented
-information system still need to concentrate
on system’s data requirements. Translating a logical
data model expressed in terms of entities, attributes,
domains and relationships into a physical data
implementation. This translation process can be
considered into a mapping of one model.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

303
Implementing Distributed System
- if the reliability of a telecommunication
network is high, it is possible to have distributed
systems for businesses, a setup which can be
conceived of as an application of telecommunications.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
- the concept of distributed systems is used in many
different ways, it will be taken in a broad sense so
that it includes workstation that can communicate
with each other and data processors, as well as
different hierarchal architectural configuration of
data processors that can communicate with each
other and that have differing data storage
capabilities.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

304
Client/Server Technology
-the client/server (C/S) model.
-client/server computing
-client/server technology
-
client/server architecture
This refer to a design model that can be thought of as
applications running on a local area network (LAN).
Client/ server network- is performing its distributed
processing,.since it should have the look and feel of a
unified system.
Peer-to-peer network - PCs can act as either the server or
the client , depending on the requirements of the
applications.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

305
Client as Part of the Client/Server Model using a LAN
Client – refers to the network machines which are
typically points of entry to the client/server system.that is
used by human. It could be a network desktop computer; a
workstations or laptop computers; or any way in which the
user can enter the system. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
Client Workstations used smaller programs that stay
resident in the client to do “front-end processing”(as
opposed to back-end processing), including communicating
with the user. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
Client-based application means that the applications
resides in a client computer and cannot be access by other
users on network. It requires separate installation on each
workstation if the LAN has not purchased a site license.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

306
 A client/server system configuration
Microsof
Local t
User-specific
data Application Powerpo
int

Visible Visio
Analyst

Microsoft Microsoft
Excel Word
Clients
Microso
ft
Access

General
Application

Enterpris
e
Data Server

307
 File server- is the term used to denote a computer
on a LAN that stores on its hard disk the application
programs and data files for all of the clients on the
network. Server-based applications are types of client
processing capabilities that permits the user to
request network applications(program stored on a
network server rather than on users computer) from
the server.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
Print Server- on a LAN is accessible to all
workstations. It is a PC dedicated to receiving and
(temporarily) storing files to be printed.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

308
Advantages of Client/Server Model
a.there are well-documented high start-up or
switch-over cost associated with a movement
to a C/S architecture.
b.it affords greater computer power end greater
opportunity to customize applications.
Disadvantages of Client/Server Model
a.systems are not always the best solution to an
organization problem.
b.it is more expensive than other options
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

309
Types of distributed system networks:
Standard types of network:
a.Local Area Network(LAN)
b.Wide Area Network(WAN)
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
Main Types of Distributed Systems Networks
1.Hierarchical Networks
2.Star Networks
3.Ring Networks
4.Bus configuration
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

310
Advantages of Distributed Systems
Allow data storage out of the way of on-line, real-time

transactions.
Allow less expensive media for data storage when all data

are not needed all of the time by all users.

Lower equipment cost since not all system parts need to

perform all functions.

Lower equipment cost by permitting flexibility in choice of

manufacturer.
Less expensive than large systems initially since

expansion can be planned for without actually purchasing

hardware.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

311
Disadvantages of Distributed Systems
Difficulty in achieving a reliable system

Security concerns increase commensurately when more

individuals have access to the system

Analysts must emphasize the network and the interactions

it provides and de-emphasize the power of subsystems.

Choosing the wrong level of computing to support (i.e.,

individual instead of department, department instead of

branch)
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

312
 TRAINING USERS
Systems analysts engage in an educational process
with users. Throughout the system development life
cycle, the user has been involved, so that by now the
analyst should possess an accurate assessment of the
users who must be trained.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
In the implementation of large projects, the analyst
will often be managing the training rather than be
personally involved in it. the analyst can bring to any
training situation is the ability to see the system from
users viewpoint.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

313
Training Strategies are determined by who is
being trained and by who will train them.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]
Who to train
- all people who will have
secondary or primary use of the system must
be trained. This includes everyone from data-
entry personnel to those who will use output to
make decisions without personally using a
computer. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

314
 vPeople who train users. Possible training sources
include:
1. Vendors
2. Systems Analysts
3. External Paid Trainers
4. In-House trainers
5. Other System user
Guidelines For Training
1.Establishing measurable objectives
2.Using appropriate training methods
3.Selecting suitable training sites
4.Employing understandable training materials
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

315
Elements Relevant Factors
Training objectives Depend on requirements of user’s job.
Training methods Depend on user’s job, personality,
Training sites background,
Depend and experience;
on training objectives,use cost,
Training materials combination
Depends
availability; of lecture,
onfree
user’s demonstration,
needs;
vendors operating
sites with
hands-on,
manuals, and study.
cases,
operable equipment; prototypes
in-house of
equipments and output;on-line
installation; rented facilities tutorials

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

316
CONVERSION
A third approach to implementation is
physically converting the old information system to
the new or modified one. There are many
conversion strategies available to analysts, and
there is also a contingency approach that takes
into account several organizational variables in
deciding which conversion strategy to use. There
is no best way to proceed with conversion. The
importance of adequate planning and scheduling
of conversion, file backup, and adequate security
cannot be overemphasized.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

317
Conversion Strategies
1.Direct changeover
-it means that on specified date, the old system is dropped
and the new system is put into use.
Advantage:
Users has no possibility of using the old system rather the new
one.
Disadvantage:
a.It is considered as risky approach because long delays might
ensue if errors occur since there is no alternate way to
accomplish processing.
b.Users may resent being force into using an unfamiliar
system without recourse. [KENDALL
& KENDALL, 1999]

318
 2.Parallel conversion
-refers to running the old system and the new
system at the same time, in parallel. This is the most
frequently use approach but its popularity maybe
declined because it works best when a computerized
system replaces a manual one.
Advantages:
a. Possibility of checking new data against old data in
order to catch any errors in processing in the new
system.
b. Offers a feeling of security to users, who are not
forced to make an abrupt change to the new system.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

319
Disadvantages
a.the cause of running two systems at the same time
and the burden on employees of virtually doubling
their workload during conversion.
b.unless the system being replaced is a manual one, it
is difficult to make comparison between outputs of a
new system and the old one
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

320
3.Phased or gradual conversion
- attempts to combine the best features of
the earlier two plans, without incurring all of the risk.

Advantage:
Allows users to get involved with the
system gradually and the possibility of detecting and
recovering from errors without a lot of down time.

Disadvantage:
It takes too long to get the new system in place
and its inappropriateness for conversion of small,
uncomplicated systems.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

321
4.Modular prototype conversion
This approach to conversion uses the building of modular,
operational prototypes to change from old systems to new
in a gradual manner.
Advantage:
a.each module is thoroughly tested before being used.

b.users are familiar with each module as it becomes

operational.
Disadvantage:
a.prototyping is often not feasible automatically rules out this
approach for many conversions.
b.special attention must be paid to interfaces so that the
modules being built actually work as a system. [KENDALL
& KENDALL, 1999]

322
5.Distributed conversion
-refers to a situation in
which many installations of the same systems are
contemplated, as is the case in banking or in
franchises such as restaurants or clothing stores
Advantages:
Problems can be detected and contained rather than
inflicted simultaneously on all sites.
Disadvantage:
Even when one conversion is successful, each site
will have its own peculiarities to work through, and
this must be handled accordingly.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

323
 Direct
DirectChangeover
Changeover

Parallel
ParallelConversion
Conversion

Gradual
GradualConversion
Conversion

Modular
ModularPrototype
Prototype
Conversion
Conversion

Distributed
DistributedConversion
Conversion

Five conversion strategies for information systems

324
Security security of computer
facilities, stored data, and the information generated is
part of a successful conversion. It is the
responsibilities of all those who come into contact with
the system and is only as good as the most lax
behavior policy and the organization. [KENDALL &
KENDALL, 1999]
Three interrelated aspects:
1.Physical security – refers to securing the computer
facility,its equipment, and software through physical
means. It includes controlling access to the computer
room by means of machine-readable badges or a
human sign-in/sign-out system.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

325
2.Logical Security – refers to logical controls
within software itself. These are
passwords or authorization codes of some
sort. Special encryption software has been
develop to protect commercial transaction
from the Web, and business transactions
are from the proliferating.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

326
3. Behavioral security– behavioral expectations of an
organization are encoded in its policy manuals and even
on signs posted in bulletin boards. But the behavior that
the organization members internalized is also critical to
the success of security efforts. Security can begin with
the screening of employees who will eventually have
access to computers, data, and information in order to
ensure that their interest are consistent with the
organization’s interests and they fully understand the
importance of carrying through on security procedures.

Part of the behavioral facet of security is

monitoring behavior at irregular intervals in order to
ascertain that proper procedures are being followed and
to correct any behaviors that may have eroded with time.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

327
Other conversion considerations
1.Ordering equipment(up to three months ahead of
planned conversion).
2.Ordering any necessary materials that are externally
supplied to the information system, such as toner
cartridges, paper, preprinted forms, and magnetic
media.
3.Appointing a manager to supervise or personally
supervising the preparation of the installation site.

4.Planning, Scheduling, and supervising programmers

and data-entry personnel who must convert all
relevant files and databases.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

328
Organizational Metaphors and Their relationship to
Successful Systems
Be aware of organizational metaphors when you attempt to
implement a system you have just developed.
1.When the predominant metaphoris war, journey, or jungle, the
environment is chaotic, like the zoo. However, the war and the
journey metaphors are oriented toward an organizational goal,
while the zoo and jungle are not.
2.In addition to the machine metaphorssuch as society, family,
and the game, all signify orders and rules.the society and the
zoo do not stress the company’s goal but instead allow the
individuals in the corporation to set their own standards
3.Another metaphor, the organism, appears balanced between
order and chaos, corporate and individual goals.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

329
 Success less Type of Information system Success more
likely with this likely with this
metaphors metaphors
War jungle Traditional Family society
TraditionalMIS
MIS
machine
War journey Decision Family society
DecisionSupport
SupportSystems
Systems
organism
Game organism
Jungle zoo Expert
ExpertSystems/AI
Systems/AI machine

Society zoo Journey game

Cooperative
CooperativeSystems
Systems organism
Zoo family War game
Competitive
CompetitiveSystems
Systems
society organism
Organism
Journey zoo Executive
ExecutiveInformation
InformationSystems
Systems
game
330
 EVALUATION
Throughout the systems development life cycle, the
analyst, management, and users have been evaluating the
evolving information systems and networks in order to give
feedback for their eventual improvement. Evaluation is also
called for following system implementation.
Evaluation Techniques:
a.Cost Benefit Analysis
- models that attempt to estimate the value of a decision
based on the effects of revised information using information
theory. It is simulation or Bayesian statistics -
user evaluation that emphasize implementation problems and
user involvement `
-information system utility approaches that examine the
properties of information. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

331
Types of evaluation
1.Revised decision evaluation approach presents difficulty
since all variables involved with the design, development
and evaluation of the information system cannot be
calculated or quantified.
2.The user involvement approach yields some insight for
new projects by providing a checklist of potentially
dysfunctional behavior by various organizational members.

3.The information system utility approach can be more

comprehensive than the others if it is expanded and
systematically applied. It also serves as guide in
development in future project the analyst might undertake.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

332
 The information system utility approach is a workable and
straight forward framework for evaluating large-scale
information systems,projects and ongoing efforts.
Utilities of information
a.Possession utility (Who should receive output?)
b.Form utility (What kind of output?)
c.Place utility (Where the information is distributed?)
d.Time utility (When information is delivered?)
e.Actualization utility (How the information is introduced and
used by the decision maker?)
f.Goal utility (answers ‘why’ information systems by asking
whether the output has value in helping the organization
obtain its objective. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

333
Evaluating the system an
information system can be evaluated as successful if
it possesses all six utilities.
a.“poor” the entire module will be the destined to
failure.
b.partial/ “fair” will result in a partially successful
module.
c.“good” the module is a success
The information utility approach is a workable and
straightforward framework for evaluating large scale
information systems projects and on-going efforts.
[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

334