Transmission System

Introduction.
Low capacity transmission.
High capacity transmission.
Optical Fibre.
Network configuration.

December 7, 2021, Slide No 1

 Access and Trunk Network

The Transport Network is divided into two parts:

Access network
Users are grouped together by being connected to the same switching node; the
local exchange or access node (AN).

Trunk network
Trunk network connects ANs and network nodes (NN) with other ANs and NNs.

Transmission Media’s
Copper Cable
Radio link
Optical fibre

December 7, 2021, Slide No 2

 AUC

HLR
BSC
 MS Mobile Station = phone + SIM card
 BTS Base Transceiver Station

VMS EIR

PrePaid MSC SMSC

Node VLR
Telenor Nett
INTERNET
IN

PSTN PSTN PABX MSC BSC

Fixed network International

December 7, 2021, Slide No 3

Media
Copper cable
Low bandwidth (-)
Sensitive to crosstalk and noise(-)
Attenuation per Km depends on wire diameter (0.4-1.1mm) and
frequency.
Reliable(+)
*** Attenuation is the loss of signal energy is measured in decibel,db.
Attenuation = 10log(P1/P2)
P1=transmitted signal power
P2=received signal power.
***Noise is the random variation in current and voltage produced by all electrical
circuits.
***Crosstalk is the interference from another conversation/line.

December 7, 2021, Slide No 4

Media

Radio
Flexibility +
Quick installation +
Sensitive to ambient disturbance. (Rain and Multipath fading).-
Time and frequency dependent.+
Modulation /Demodulation.+
Low bit error (BER) in bursts.+
QAM (Quadrature Amplitude Modulation) [PSK+AM] .
Radio license fees.-

***Non modulated signal is called Baseband signal

December 7, 2021, Slide No 5

Media
Optical Fibre

High transmission quality. (minimum attenuation). +

High transmission capacity. +
Resistance to ambient disturbance. +
Long Implementation time. -

December 7, 2021, Slide No 6

Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH)

As the semiconductor development proceeded successfully higher

hierarchic levels have been standardized, each level handling timing
transparency.

PDH is a standardized bit interleaved multiplexing hierarchy for digital

plesiochronous signals, using bit justification to achieve timing
transparency.

Actually there are three PDH hierarchies- two are based on 1.5 Mbits
and used in North America & Japan. The European hierarchy is 2Mbits .

December 7, 2021, Slide No 7

 Europe and Most other Japan North
countries America

400Mbps
140Mbps
x4 nx45Mbps
x4
100 Mbps
34Mbps
x3

x4 45mbps
x4 32Mbps

8Mbps 8Mbps
x5
x4
6Mbps
6Mbps
x120
2Mbps 2Mbps

x4 x4
x31
x31
64Kbps 1.5Mbps
64 Kbps
x24
Synchronous
8Kbps 64K
bps Plesiochronous
December 7, 2021, Slide No 8
Radio Path Calculation
Radio wave propagation
Propagation mechanism
Earth Properties
Fading free condition
Free space loss
Gas absorbtion
Obstacle loss
Fading Condition
Fade Margin
Fading Mechanism
Link Budget
Repeaters
Active or Passive

December 7, 2021, Slide No 9

 Attenuation of the radio wave

Earth properties Propagation mechanisms

• Atmosphere • Free space

• Earth topography • Absorption
• Electrical properties of earth • Diffraction
surface • Reflection/scattering
• Earth curvature • Refraction
• Multipath propagation

December 7, 2021, Slide No 10

Fading free condition
Fading Free Condition
Free space loss
Gas absorbtion
Obstacle loss

Pr(dbm)=Pt(dbm)+Gt(db)+Gr(db)-20logf(ghz)-20logd(km)-92.4

Free space loss= 20logf(ghz)+20logd(km)+92.4

December 7, 2021, Slide No 11

The Fresnel zone
The radiated power is distributed in a
zone surrounding the direct line-of-sight
d

Refracted

Direct
da db
Reflected
hA hB

1st fresnel zone : da+db-d=λ/2

December 7, 2021, Slide No 12

Ground clearance and k factor
Radio optical line of sight

Geometrical line of sight

d

K=α
Refracted K=4/3

Direct
K=1
da db
Reflected
hA hB

Ground clearance
K=2/3

Due to refraction in the atmosphere the radio beam is bent normally slightly downwards
The bending effect is described by the earth factor k
K =157/157+dn/dh=4/3 ; where dn/dh=- 40,
N= density
H=height
December 7, 2021, Slide No 13
Terminology

Path loss

Wave propagation loss

•Free-space loss
•Gas absorption
Antenna gain •Obstacle loss
Antenna gain
Cable loss Cable loss
Trans-
Receiver
mitter

Received
Output Effective radiated Power
Power power (dBm)
(dBm) (dBW)

December 7, 2021, Slide No 14

Obstacle loss
When the size of an obstacle is large compared with the wavelength,
diffraction may occur giving obstacle loss

0 dB 0 dB 6 dB 12 dB 16 dB 20 dB

December 7, 2021, Slide No 15

Fading Mechanisms
Variation in signal strength in time, phase or polarization
Attenuation that is changing temporarily.

Fading Mechanisms

K- fading
Rain Fading Multipath Fading

Reflections
Flat fading Frequency selective fading

Atmospheric fading ( Absorbtion,

Atmospheric fadingrefraction)
( Absorption, refraction)
Ground based fading( Tidesand other variations)
Ground
Man made fading(based fading(
temporary Tidesboats
constructions, and ,other variations)
aircrafts)
Man made fading( temporary constructions, boats , aircrafts)

December 7, 2021, Slide No 16

Link budget & Fade Margin
POWER
output
power antenna Free space
Free loss+ +
space loss
gain gas absorption++
gas absorption
obstacle loss
feeder loss obstacle loss

wave propagation losses

received power
feeder loss
fade margin
antenna gain
receiver threshold
value
Fade margin
Should be large enough to
Fade Margin is required for proper performance
guarantee that quality and
If Rx power is high from the level of the fade margin then availability objectives are met
Interference will occur. during fading conditions
FM=P (n) – P (th)
December 7, 2021, Slide No 17
Maximum attenuation before giving out of service
 Attenuation of the radio wave

Earth properties Propagation mechanisms

• Atmosphere • Free space

• Earth topography • Absorption
• Electrical properties of earth • Diffraction
surface • Reflection/scattering
• Earth curvature • Refraction
• Multipath propagation

December 7, 2021, Slide No 18

Loss and fading
Obstacle loss
Reflection loss
Maximum values
Free-space attenuation
Rain fading
Gas attenuation
Multipath fading Free space 130 dB
Gas 5 dB
Predictable Obstacle < 20 dB
if present
Reflection 15 dB
Always present and Not always present
predictable but statistically pre-
dictable

Link budget Fading prediction

Quality & availability

December 7, 2021, Slide No 19

Quality and availability Targets

Recommendations from ITU-T

G.821

Error performance of a digital connection below the primary rate

(commonly used in PDH Network)

G.826

Error performance of a digital connection at or above the primary rate

(Commonly used in SDH network)

December 7, 2021, Slide No 20

Definitions of bit errors
Errored second (ES)
A one-second period in which one or more bits are in error.
G.821
Severely errored second (SES)
-3
A one-second period which has a bit error ratio higher than 10 .

Errored blocks (EB)

A block in which one or more bits are in error.

Errored second (ES)

G.826 A one-second period in which one or more blocks are in error.

Severely errored second (SES)

A one-second period which contains >30% errored blocks.

Background block error (BBE)

An errored block not occurring as part of an SES

December 7, 2021, Slide No 21

Definitions of availability (G.826)

Time

10 sec < 10 10 sec

sec

Unavailability detected Availability detected

Unavailable period Available period

T1306430-95
Severely Errored Second

Errored Second (non-SES)

Error-free Second

December 7, 2021, Slide No 22

 Thank you!

December 7, 2021, Slide No 23