COMSATS Institute of Information

Technology, Islamabad

COMPUTING FOR MANAGEMENT

Final project report

PROJECT: Random Access Memory

SUBMITTED TO: Sir Azfar Shakeel
PRESENTED BY:

NAME: REG NO:

Muhammad Mubashir CIIT/FA09-MBA-101/ISB
Muhammad Muneeb CIIT/FA09-MBA-102/ISB
Muhammad Tariq Maqbool CIIT/FA09-MBA-112/ISB
Waseem Akhter CIIT/FA09-MBA-189/ISB
Farhan Ahmad CIIT/FA09-MBA-122/ISB

CLASS: MBA 1st (Section B)

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RANDOM ACCESS
MEMORY

INTRODUCTION:
Random-access memory is a form of computer data storage. Today, it
takes the form of integrated circuits that allow stored data to be accessed
in any order. RAM stands for Random Access Memory. It is also called
main memory or Direct Access Memory.
Random access means that each individual
byte in the entire memory is directly
accessible. A program must be loaded into
RAM before execution.
RAM is temporary memory. When the power
is turned off, the information in this memory is
lost. Thus it is called volatile memory. CPU can
read data from RAM and write data to RAM.
That is why RAM is also known as read/write
memory. It is used to store data and
instruction while it is being executed.

HISTORY:
An early type of widespread writable random-access memory was
the magnetic core memory, developed from 1949 to 1952, and
subsequently used in most computers up until the development of
the static and dynamic integrated RAM circuits in the late 1960s and
early 1970s. Before this, computers used relays, delay line memory,
or various kinds of vacuum tube arrangements to implement
"main" memory functions. some of which were random access,
some not. Latches built out of vacuum tube triodes, and later, out of
discrete transistors, were used for smaller and faster memories
such as random-access register banks and registers. Prior to the
development of integrated ROM circuits, permanent (or read-only)
random-access memory was often constructed using semiconductor
diode matrices driven by address decoders.

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WHY RANDOM ACCESS?
RAM is called "random access" because any storage location can be
accessed directly. Originally, the term distinguished regular core
memory from offline memory, usually on magnetic tape in which an
item of data could only be accessed by starting from the beginning
of the tape and finding an address sequentially. Perhaps it should
have been called "nonsequential memory" because RAM access is
hardly random. RAM is organized and controlled in a way that
enables data to be stored and retrieved directly to specific
locations. Note that other forms of storage such as the hard disk
and CD-ROM are also accessed directly (or "randomly") but the term
random access is not applied to these forms of storage.
In addition to disk, floppy disk, and CD-ROM storage, another
important form of storage is read-only memory (ROM), a more
expensive kind of memory that retains data even when the
computer is turned off. Every computer comes with a small amount
of ROM that holds just enough programming so that the operating
system can be loaded into RAM each time the computer is turned
on.

RAM VS HARD DISK

RAM can be compared to a person's short-term memory and the
hard disk to the long-term memory. The short-term memory focuses
on work at hand, but can only keep so many facts in view at one
time. If short-term memory fills up, your brain sometimes is able to
refresh it from facts stored in long-term memory. A computer also
works this way. If RAM fills up, the processor needs to continually go
to the hard disk to overlay old data in RAM with new, slowing down
the computer's operation. Unlike the hard disk which can become
completely full of data so that it won't accept any more, RAM never
runs out of memory. It keeps operating, but much more slowly than
you may want it to.

HOW BIG IS RAM?

RAM is small, both in physical size (it's stored in microchips) and in
the amount of data it can hold. It's much smaller than your hard
disk. A typical computer may come with 256 million bytes of RAM
and a hard disk that can hold 40 billion bytes. RAM comes in the
form of "discrete" (meaning separate) microchips and also in the
form of modules that plug into holes in the computer's
motherboard. These holes connect through a bus or set of electrical

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paths to the processor. The hard drive, on the other hand, stores
data on a magnetized surface that looks like a phonograph record.
Most personal computers are designed to allow you to add
additional RAM modules up to a certain limit. Having more RAM in
your computer reduces the number of times that the computer
processor has to read data in from your hard disk, an operation that
takes much longer than reading data from RAM. (RAM access time is
in nanoseconds; hard disk access time is in milliseconds.)

WHAT RAM LOOKS LIKE:

In general, RAM is much like an arrangement of post-office boxes in which
each box can hold a 0 or a 1. Each box has a unique address that can be
found by counting across columns and then counting down by row. In
RAM, this set of post-office boxes is known as an array and each box is a
cell. To find the contents of a box (cell), the RAM controller sends the
column/row address down a very thin electrical line etched into the chip.
There is an address line for each row and each column in the set of boxes.
If data is being read, the bits that are read flow back on a separate data
line. In describing a RAM chip or module, a notation such as 256Kx16
means 256 thousand columns of cells standing 16 rows deep.
In the most common form of RAM, dynamic RAM, each cell has a charge
or lack of charge held in something similar to an electrical capacitor. A
transistor acts as a gate in determining whether the value in the capacitor
can be read or written. In static RAM, instead of a capacitor-held charge,
the transistor itself is a positional flip/flop switch, with one position
meaning 1 and the other position meaning 0.
Externally, RAM is a chip that comes embedded in a personal computer
motherboard with a variable amount of additional modules plugged into
motherboard sockets. To add memory to your computer, you simply add
more RAM modules in a prescribed configuration. These are single in-line
memory modules (SIMMs) or dual in-line memory modules (DIMMs). Since
DIMMs have a 64-bit pin connection, they can replace two 36-bit (32-bits
plus 4 parity bits) SIMMs when synchronous DRAM is used. Laptop and
notebook computers contain smaller 32-bit DIMMs known as small outline
DIMMs (SO DIMMs).

HOW DATA IS ACCESSED:

When the processor or CPU gets the next instruction it is to perform, the
instruction may contain the address of some memory or RAM location
from which data is to be read (brought to the processor for further
processing). This address is sent to the RAM controller. The RAM
controller organizes the request and sends it down the appropriate
address lines so that transistors along the lines open up the cells so that
each capacitor value can be read. A capacitor with a charge over a
certain voltage level represents the binary value of 1 and a capacitor with
less than that charge represents a 0. For dynamic RAM, before a capacitor
is read, it must be power-refreshed to ensure that the value read is valid.
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Depending on the type of RAM, the entire line of data may be read that
the specific address happens to be located at or, in some RAM types, a
unit of data called a page is read. The data that is read is transmitted
along the data lines to the processor's nearby data buffer known as level-
1 cache and another copy may be held in level-2 cache.
For video RAM, the process is similar to DRAM except that, in some forms
of video RAM, while data is being written to video RAM by the processor,
data can simultaneously be read from RAM by the video controller (for
example, for refreshing the display image).

HOW RAM EFFECTIVENESS IS

MEASURED:
The amount of time that RAM takes to write data or to read it once the
request has been received from the processor is called the access time.
Typical access times vary from 9 nanoseconds to 70 nanoseconds,
depending on the kind of RAM. Although fewer nanoseconds is better,
user-perceived performance is based on coordinating access times with
the computer's clock cycles. Access time consists of latency and transfer
time. Latency is the time to coordinate signal timing and refresh data
after reading it.

TYPES OF RAM:
The following are some common types of RAM:

• SRAM: Static random access memory uses multiple

transistors, typically four to six, for each memory cell but
doesn't have a capacitor in each cell. It is used primarily for
cache.

• DRAM: Dynamic random access memory has memory cells

with a paired transistor and capacitor requiring constant
refreshing.

• FPM DRAM: Fast page mode dynamic random access

memory was the original form of DRAM. It waits through the
entire process of locating a bit of data by column and row and
then reading the bit before it starts on the next bit. Maximum
transfer rate to L2 cache is approximately 176 MBps.

• EDO DRAM: Extended data-out dynamic random access

memory does not wait for all of the processing of the first bit
before continuing to the next one. As soon as the address of
the first bit is located, EDO DRAM begins looking for the next

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 bit. It is about five percent faster than FPM. Maximum transfer
rate to L2 cache is approximately 264 MBps.

• SDRAM: Synchronous dynamic random access memory

takes advantage of the burst mode concept to greatly
improve performance. It does this by staying on the row
containing the requested bit and moving rapidly through the
columns, reading each bit as it goes. The idea is that most of
the time the data needed by the CPU will be in sequence.
SDRAM is about five percent faster than EDO RAM and is the
most common form in desktops today. Maximum transfer rate
to L2 cache is approximately 528 MBps.

• DDR SDRAM: Double data rate synchronous dynamic RAM

is just like SDRAM except that is has higher bandwidth,
meaning greater speed. Maximum transfer rate to L2 cache is
approximately 1,064 MBps (for DDR SDRAM 133 MHZ).

• RDRAM: Rambus dynamic random access memory is a

radical departure from the previous DRAM architecture.
Designed by Rambus, RDRAM uses a Rambus in-line memory
module (RIMM), which is similar in size and pin configuration
to a standard DIMM. What makes RDRAM so different is its
use of a special high-speed data bus called the Rambus
channel. RDRAM memory chips work in parallel to achieve a
data rate of 800 MHz, or 1,600 MBps. Since they operate at
such high speeds, they generate much more heat than other
types of chips. To help dissipate the excess heat Rambus
chips are fitted with a heat spreader, which looks like a long
thin wafer. Just like there are smaller versions of DIMMs, there
are also SO-RIMMs, designed for notebook computers.

• Credit Card Memory: Credit card memory is a

proprietary self-contained DRAM memory module that plugs
into a special slot for use in notebook computers.

• PCMCIA Memory Card: Another self-contained DRAM

module for notebooks, cards of this type are not proprietary
and should work with any notebook computer whose system
bus matches the memory card's configuration.

• CMOS RAM: CMOS RAM is a term for the small amount of

memory used by your computer and some other devices to
remember things like hard disk settings -- see Why does my
computer need a battery? for details. This memory uses a
small battery to provide it with the power it needs to maintain
the memory contents.

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 • VRAM: VideoRAM, also known as multiport dynamic random
access memory (MPDRAM), is a type of RAM used specifically
for video adapters or 3-D accelerators. The "multiport" part
comes from the fact that VRAM normally has two independent
access ports instead of one, allowing the CPU and graphics
processor to access the RAM simultaneously. VRAM is located
on the graphics card and comes in a variety of formats, many
of which are proprietary. The amount of VRAM is a
determining factor in the resolution and color depth of the
display. VRAM is also used to hold graphics-specific
information such as 3-D geometry data and texture maps.
True multiport VRAM tends to be expensive, so today, many
graphics cards use SGRAM (synchronous graphics RAM)
instead. Performance is nearly the same, but SGRAM is
cheaper.

TYPES OF RAM ACCORDING TO

TECHNIQUE AND WORKING:
Your computer probably uses both static RAM and dynamic RAM
at the same time, but it uses them for different reasons because of
the cost difference between the two types. If you understand how
dynamic RAM and static RAM chips work inside, it is easy to see why
the cost difference is there, and you can also understand the
names.
Dynamic RAM is the most common type of memory in use today.
Inside a dynamic RAM chip, each memory cell holds one bit of
information and is made up of two parts: a transistor and a
capacitor. These are, of course, extremely small transistors and
capacitors so that millions of them can fit on a single memory chip.
The capacitor holds the bit of information -- a 0 or a. The transistor
acts as a switch that lets the control circuitry on the memory chip
read the capacitor or change its state.
A capacitor is like a small bucket that is able to store electrons. To
store a 1 in the memory cell, the bucket is filled with electrons. To
store a 0, it is emptied. The problem with the capacitor's bucket is
that it has a leak. In a matter of a few milliseconds a full bucket
becomes empty. Therefore, for dynamic memory to work, either the
CPU or the memory controller has to come along and recharge all of
the capacitors holding a 1 before they discharge. To do this, the
memory controller reads the memory and then writes it right back.
This refresh operation happens automatically thousands of times
per second.
This refresh operation is where dynamic RAM gets its name.
Dynamic RAM has to be dynamically refreshed all of the time or it

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forgets what it is holding. The downside of all of this refreshing is
that it takes time and slows down the memory.
Static RAM uses a completely different technology. In static RAM, a
form of flip-flop holds each bit of memory (see How Boolean Gates
Work for detail on flip-flops). A flip-flop for a memory cell takes 4 or
6 transistors along with some wiring, but never has to be refreshed.
This makes static RAM significantly faster than dynamic RAM.
However, because it has more parts, a static memory cell takes a
lot more space on a chip than a dynamic memory cell. Therefore
you get less memory per chip, and that makes static RAM a lot more
expensive.
So static RAM is fast and expensive, and dynamic RAM is less
expensive and slower. Therefore static RAM is used to create the
CPU's speed-sensitive cache, while dynamic RAM forms the larger
system RAM space.

SPEED OF RAM:
Speed of ram is also important. Speed is measured in Mega Hertz
(MHz). Sometime its in Giga Hertz (GHz).
Speed of RAM ranges from 400MHz to 1000MHz. It is also necesory
for processor processing speed.
Another measurement of speed is CAS Speed which is measured in
nanosecond or ns. It comes in 3 to 5ns.

TYPE OF RAM ACCORDING TO

SPEED:
There are three types of Rams used now a day

DDR (used in computers lasting 4 years)

DDR2 (used in computers lasting 2 years)
DDR3 (used in computers Now a day)

The difference in the RAMs is their bus speed and bandwidth.

Manufacturers sale the rams according to Band Width and Bus
speed
For example. PC3200 is bandwidth and 400MHz is Bus speed

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RAM BANDWIDTH AND SPEED
ANYLYSIS:

DDR3-RAM
DDR-RAM DDR2-RAM SPEED
Speed SPEED PC3-6400
PC1600 PC2-3200 800MHz
200MHz 400MHz PC3-8500
PC2100 PC2-4200 533 1062 MHz
MHz PC3-10600
266MHz
PC2-5300 667 1325 MHz
PC2400
PC3-12800
300MHz MHz
1600 MHz
PC2700 333 PC2-6400 800
MHz MHz .
PC3000 375 PC2-8000 1000
MHz MHz
PC3200 400
MHz
PC3500 433 MEMORY MODULES:
MHz
PC3700 466 The type of board and connector used for RAM
MHz in desktop
PC4000 500 computers has
MHz evolved over the
PC4300 533 past few years.
MHz The first types
PC4500 566 were proprietary,
MHz meaning that
PC4800 600 different
MHz computer
manufacturers
developed memory boards that would
only work with their specific systems.
Then came SIMM, which stands for single in-line memory module.
This memory board used a 30-pin connector and was about 3.5 x .
75 inches in size (about 9 x 2 cm). In most computers, you had to
install SIMMs in pairs of equal capacity and speed. This is because
the width of the bus is more than a single SIMM. For example, you
would install two 8-megabyte (MB) SIMMs to get 16 megabytes total
RAM. Each SIMM could send 8 bits of data at one time, while the
system bus could handle 16 bits at a time. Later SIMM boards,
slightly larger at 4.25 x 1 inch (about 11 x 2.5 cm), used a 72-pin

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connector for increased bandwidth and allowed for up to 256 MB of
RAM.

SIMM Memory Module

DIMM Memory Module

SODIMM Memory Module

As processors grew in speed and bandwidth capability, the industry

adopted a new standard in dual in-line memory module (DIMM).
With a whopping 168-pin or 184-pin connector and a size of 5.4 x 1
inch (about 14 x 2.5 cm), DIMMs range in capacity from 8 MB to 1
GB per module and can be installed singly instead of in pairs. Most
PC memory modules and the modules for the Mac G5 systems
operate at 2.5 volts, while older Mac G4 systems typically use 3.3
volts. Another standard, Rambus in-line memory module (RIMM), is
comparable in size and pin configuration to DIMM but uses a special
memory bus to greatly increase speed.
Many brands of notebook computers use proprietary memory
modules, but several manufacturers use RAM based on the small
outline dual in-line memory module (SODIMM) configuration.
SODIMM cards are small, about 2 x 1 inch (5 x 2.5 cm), and have
144 or 200 pins. Capacity ranges from 16 MB to 1 GB per module.
To conserve space, the Apple iMac desktop computer uses SODIMMs
instead of the traditional DIMMs. Sub-notebook computers use even

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smaller DIMMs, known as MicroDIMMs, which have either 144 pins
or 172 pins.
Most memory available today is highly reliable. Most systems simply
have the memory controller check for errors at start-up and rely on
that. Memory chips with built-in error-checking typically use a
method known as parity to check for errors. Parity chips have an
extra bit for every 8 bits of data. The way parity works is simple.
Let's look at even parity first.
When the 8 bits in a byte receive data, the chip adds up the total
number of 1s. If the total number of 1s is odd, the parity bit is set to
1. If the total is even, the parity bit is set to 0. When the data is read
back out of the bits, the total is added up again and compared to
the parity bit. If the total is odd and the parity bit is 1, then the data
is assumed to be valid and is sent to the CPU. But if the total is odd
and the parity bit is 0, the chip knows that there is an error
somewhere in the 8 bits and dumps the data. Odd parity works the
same way, but the parity bit is set to 1 when the total number of 1s
in the byte are even

OPPOSITE OF RAM:
The opposite of RAM is serial access memory (SAM). SAM stores
data as a series of memory cells that can only be accessed
sequentially (like a cassette tape). If the data is not in the current
location, each memory cell is checked until the needed data is
found. SAM works very well for memory buffers, where the data is
normally stored in the order in which it will be used (a good
example is the texture buffer memory on a video card). RAM data,
on the other hand, can be accessed in any order.

STRUCTURE OF RAM:
The invention is an integrated circuit data
storage array with storage cells disposed in
an array of rows and columns with each cell
having a number of sub cells. The physical
location of the sub cells substantially
reduces the space taken by horizontal data
line used for accessing columns. This is
accomplished by locating sub cells of the
same row number, the same bit number,
and different column number adjacent to
each other in the horizontal direction. So, a
horizontal data line only extends between

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adjacent sub cells and significantly reduces the wasted layout of
multibit horizontal data lines.

How Much RAM Do You Need?

It's been said that you can never have enough money, and the
same holds true for RAM, especially if you do a lot of graphics-
intensive work or gaming. Next to the CPU itself, RAM is the most
important factor in computer performance. If you don't have
enough, adding RAM can make more of a difference than getting a
new CPU!
If your system responds slowly or accesses the hard drive
constantly, then you need to add more RAM. If you are running
Windows XP, Microsoft recommends 128MB as the minimum RAM
requirement. At 64MB, you may experience frequent application
problems. For optimal performance with standard desktop
applications, 256MB is recommended. If you are running Windows
95/98, you need a bare minimum of 32 MB, and your computer will
work much better with 64 MB. Windows NT/2000 needs at least 64
MB, and it will take everything you can throw at it, so you'll probably
want 128 MB or more.
Linux works happily on a system with only 4 MB of RAM. If you plan
to add X-Windows or do much serious work, however, you'll
probably want 64 MB. Mac OS X systems should have a minimum of
128 MB, or for optimal performance, 512 MB.
The amount of RAM listed for each system above is estimated for
normal usage -- accessing the Internet, word processing, standard
home/office applications and light entertainment. If you do
computer-aided design (CAD), 3-D modeling/animation or heavy
data processing, or if you are a serious gamer, then you will most
likely need more RAM. You may also need more RAM if your
computer acts as a server of some sort (Web pages, database,
application, FTP or network).
Another question is how much VRAM you want on your video card.
Almost all cards that you can buy today have at least 16 MB of RAM.
This is normally enough to operate in a typical office environment.
You should probably invest in a 32-MB or better graphics card if you
want to do any of the following:
• Play realistic games
• Capture and edit video
• Create 3-D graphics
• Work in a high-resolution, full-color environment
• Design full-color illustrations
When shopping for video cards, remember that your monitor and
computer must be capable of supporting the card you choose.

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