Gas is one of the four fundamental states of matter (the others beingsolid, liquid, and plasma).

A pure gas may be made up of individual atoms (e.g. a noble

gas like neon), elemental molecules made from one type of atom (e.g. oxygen), or compound molecules made from a variety of atoms (e.g. carbon dioxide). A gas mixture would
contain a variety of pure gases much like the air. What distinguishes a gas from liquids and solids is the vast separation of the individual gas particles. This separation usually
makes a colorless gas invisible to the human observer. The interaction of gas particles in the presence of electric and gravitational fields are considered negligible as indicated
by the constant velocity vectors in the image. One type of commonly known gas is steam.
The gaseous state of matter is found between the liquid and plasma states, [1] the latter of which provides the upper temperature boundary for gases. Bounding the lower end of
the temperaturescale lie degenerative quantum gases[2] which are gaining increasing attention.[3] High-density atomic gases super cooled to incredibly low temperatures are
classified by their statistical behavior as either a Bose gas or a Fermi gas. For a comprehensive listing of these exotic states of matter see list of states of matter.
Contents
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1Elemental gases

2Etymology

3Physical characteristics

4Macroscopic

4.1Pressure

4.2Temperature

4.3Specific volume

4.4Density

5Microscopic

5.1Kinetic theory

5.2Brownian motion

5.3Intermolecular forces

6Simplified models

6.1Ideal and perfect gas models

6.2Real gas

7Historical synthesis

7.1Boyle's law

7.2Charles's Law

7.3Gay-Lussac's Law

7.4Avogadro's law

7.5Dalton's law

8Special topics

8.1Compressibility

8.2Reynolds number

8.3Viscosity

8.4Turbulence

8.5Boundary layer

8.6Maximum entropy principle

8.7Thermodynamic equilibrium

9See also

10Notes

11References

12Further reading

Elemental gases[edit]
The only chemical elements which are stable multi atom homonuclear molecules at standard temperature and pressure (STP), are hydrogen (H2), nitrogen (N2) and oxygen (O2);
plus two halogens, fluorine (F2) and chlorine(Cl2). These gases, when grouped together with the monatomic noble gases; which
are helium (He), neon (Ne),argon (Ar), krypton (Kr), xenon (Xe) and radon (Rn) ; are called "elemental gases". Alternatively they are sometimes known as "molecular gases" to
distinguish them from molecules that are also chemical compounds.

Etymology[edit]
The word gas is a neologism first used by the early 17th-century Flemish chemist J.B. van Helmont.[4] Van Helmont's word appears to have been simply a phonetic transcription
of the Greek word Chaos the g in Dutch being pronounced like ch in "loch" in which case Van Helmont was simply following the establishedalchemical usage first
attested in the works of Paracelsus. According to Paracelsus's terminology, chaos meant something like "ultra-rarefied water".[5]
An alternative story[6] is that Van Helmont's word is corrupted from gahst (or geist), signifying a ghost or spirit. This was because certain gases suggested a supernatural origin,
such as from their ability to cause death, extinguish flames, and to occur in "mines, bottom of wells, churchyards and other lonely places".

Physical characteristics[edit]

Drifting smoke particles provide clues to the movement of the surrounding gas.

Because most gases are difficult to observe directly, they are described through the use of four physical properties or macroscopiccharacteristics: pressure, volume, number of
particles (chemists group them by moles) and temperature. These four characteristics were repeatedly observed by scientists such as Robert Boyle, Jacques Charles, John
Dalton, Joseph Gay-Lussac and Amedeo Avogadro for a variety of gases in various settings. Their detailed studies ultimately led to a mathematical relationship among these
properties expressed by the ideal gas law (see simplified models section below).
Gas particles are widely separated from one another, and consequently have weaker intermolecular bonds than liquids or solids. These intermolecular forces result from
electrostatic interactions between gas particles. Like-charged areas of different gas particles repel, while oppositely charged regions of different gas particles attract one
another; gases that contain permanently charged ions are known as plasmas. Gaseous compounds with polar covalent bonds contain permanent charge imbalances and so
experience relatively strong intermolecular forces, although the molecule while the compound's net charge remains neutral. Transient, randomly induced charges exist across
non-polar covalent bonds of molecules and electrostatic interactions caused by them are referred to as Van der Waals forces. The interaction of these intermolecular forces

varies within a substance which determines many of the physical properties unique to each gas. [7][8] A comparison of boiling points for compounds formed by ionic and covalent
bonds leads us to this conclusion.[9] The drifting smoke particles in the image provides some insight into low pressure gas behavior.
Compared to the other states of matter, gases have low density and viscosity. Pressure and temperature influence the particles within a certain volume. This variation in particle
separation and speed is referred to ascompressibility. This particle separation and size influences optical properties of gases as can be found in the following list of refractive
indices. Finally, gas particles spread apart or diffuse in order to homogeneously distribute themselves throughout any container.

Macroscopic[edit]

Shuttle imagery of re-entry phase.

When observing a gas, it is typical to specify a frame of reference orlength scale. A larger length scale corresponds to a macroscopic or global point of view of the gas. This
region (referred to as a volume) must be sufficient in size to contain a large sampling of gas particles. The resulting statistical analysis of this sample size produces
the "average"behavior (i.e. velocity, temperature or pressure) of all the gas particles within the region. In contrast, a smaller length scale corresponds to amicroscopic or particle
point of view.
Macroscopically, the gas characteristics measured are either in terms of the gas particles themselves (velocity, pressure, or temperature) or their surroundings (volume). For
example, Robert Boyle studied pneumatic chemistry for a small portion of his career. One of his experiments related the macroscopic properties of pressure and volume of a
gas. His experiment used a J-tube manometer which looks like a test tube in the shape of the letter J. Boyle trapped an inert gas in the closed end of the test tube with a column
of mercury, thereby making the number of particles and the temperature constant. He observed that when the pressure was increased in the gas, by adding more mercury to the
column, the trapped gas' volume decreased (this is known as an inverse relationship). Furthermore, when Boyle multiplied the pressure and volume of each observation,
the product was constant. This relationship held for every gas that Boyle observed leading to the law, (PV=k), named to honor his work in this field.
There are many mathematical tools available for analyzing gas properties. As gases are subjected to extreme conditions, these tools become a bit more complex, from the Euler
equations for inviscid flow to the NavierStokes equations[10] that fully account for viscous effects. These equations are adapted to the conditions of the gas system in question.
Boyle's lab equipment allowed the use of algebra to obtain his analytical results. His results were possible because he was studying gases in relatively low pressure situations
where they behaved in an "ideal" manner. These ideal relationships apply to safety calculations for a variety of flight conditions on the materials in use. The high technology
equipment in use today was designed to help us safely explore the more exotic operating environments where the gases no longer behave in an "ideal" manner. This advanced
math, including statistics and multivariable calculus, makes possible the solution to such complex dynamic situations as space vehicle reentry. An example is the analysis of the
space shuttle reentry pictured to ensure the material properties under this loading condition are appropriate. In this flight regime, the gas is no longer behaving ideally.

Pressure[edit]
Main article: Pressure
The symbol used to represent pressure in equations is "p" or "P" with SI units of pascals.
When describing a container of gas, the term pressure (or absolute pressure) refers to the average force per unit area that the gas exerts on the surface of the container. Within
this volume, it is sometimes easier to visualize the gas particles moving in straight lines until they collide with the container (see diagram at top of the article). The force imparted
by a gas particle into the container during this collision is the change in momentum of the particle.[11] During a collision only the normal component of velocity changes. A particle
traveling parallel to the wall does not change its momentum. Therefore, the average force on a surface must be the average change inlinear momentum from all of these gas
particle collisions.
Pressure is the sum of all the normal components of force exerted by the particles impacting the walls of the container divided by the surface area of the wall.

Temperature[edit]

Air balloon shrinks after submersion in liquid nitrogen

Main article: Thermodynamic temperature

The symbol used to represent temperature in equations is T with SI units of kelvins.
The speed of a gas particle is proportional to its absolute temperature. The volume of the balloon in the video shrinks when the trapped gas particles slow down with the addition
of extremely cold nitrogen. The temperature of any physical system is related to the motions of the particles (molecules and atoms) which make up the [gas] system.
[12]

Instatistical mechanics, temperature is the measure of the average kinetic energy stored in a particle. The methods of storing this energy are dictated by the degrees of

freedom of the particle itself (energy modes). Kinetic energy added (endothermic process) to gas particles by way of collisions produces linear, rotational, and vibrational motion.
In contrast, a molecule in a solid can only increase its vibrational modes with the addition of heat as the lattice crystal structure prevents both linear and rotational motions.
These heated gas molecules have a greater speed range which constantly varies due to constant collisions with other particles. The speed range can be described by
the MaxwellBoltzmann distribution. Use of this distribution implies ideal gases nearthermodynamic equilibrium for the system of particles being considered.

Specific volume[edit]
Main article: Specific volume
The symbol used to represent specific volume in equations is "v" with SI units of cubic meters per kilogram.
See also: Gas volume
The symbol used to represent volume in equations is "V" with SI units of cubic meters.
When performing a thermodynamic analysis, it is typical to speak of intensive and extensive properties. Properties which depend on the amount of gas (either by mass or
volume) are called extensive properties, while properties that do not depend on the amount of gas are called intensive properties. Specific volume is an example of
anintensive property because it is the ratio of volume occupied by a unit of mass of a gas that is identical throughout a system at equilibrium.[13] 1000 atoms a gas occupy the
same space as any other 1000 atoms for any given temperature and pressure. This concept is easier to visualize for solids such as iron which are incompressiblecompared to
gases. Since a gas fills any container in which it is placed, volume is an extensive property.

Density[edit]
Main article: Density
The symbol used to represent density in equations is (rho) with SI units of kilograms per cubic meter. This term is the reciprocal of specific volume.
Since gas molecules can move freely within a container, their mass is normally characterized by density. Density is the amount of mass per unit volume of a substance, or the
inverse of specific volume. For gases, the density can vary over a wide range because the particles are free to move closer together when constrained by pressure or volume.
This variation of density is referred to as compressibility. Like pressure and temperature, density is astate variable of a gas and the change in density during any process is
governed by the laws of thermodynamics. For a static gas, the density is the same throughout the entire container. Density is therefore a scalar quantity. It can be shown
by kinetic theory that the density is inversely proportional to the size of the container in which a fixed mass of gas is confined. In this case of a fixed mass, the density
decreases as the volume increases.

Microscopic[edit]
If one could observe a gas under a powerful microscope, one would see a collection of particles (molecules, atoms, ions, electrons, etc.) without any definite shape or volume
that are in more or less random motion. These neutral gas particles only change direction when they collide with another particle or with the sides of the container. In an ideal
gas, these collisions are perfectly elastic. This particle or microscopic view of a gas is described by the Kinetic-molecular theory. The assumptions behind this theory can be
found in the postulates section of Kinetic Theory.

Kinetic theory[edit]
Main article: Kinetic theory of gases
Kinetic theory provides insight into the macroscopic properties of gases by considering their molecular composition and motion. Starting with the definitions
of momentum and kinetic energy,[14] one can use theconservation of momentum and geometric relationships of a cube to relate macroscopic system properties of temperature
and pressure to the microscopic property of kinetic energy per molecule. The theory provides averaged values for these two properties.

The theory also explains how the gas system responds to change. For example, as a gas is heated from absolute zero, when it is (in theory) perfectly still, its internal
energy (temperature) is increased. As a gas is heated, the particles speed up and its temperature rises. This results in greater numbers of collisions with the container per unit
time due to the higher particle speeds associated with elevated temperatures. The pressure increases in proportion to the number of collisions per unit time.

Brownian motion[edit]

Random motion of gas particles results in diffusion.

Main article: Brownian motion

Brownian motion is the mathematical model used to describe the random movement of particles suspended in a fluid. The gas particle animation, using pink and green particles,
illustrates how this behavior results in the spreading out of gases (entropy). These events are also described byparticle theory.
Since it is at the limit of (or beyond) current technology to observe individual gas particles (atoms or molecules), only theoretical calculations give suggestions about how they
move, but their motion is different from Brownian motion because Brownian motion involves a smooth drag due to the frictional force of many gas molecules, punctuated by
violent collisions of an individual (or several) gas molecule(s) with the particle. The particle (generally consisting of millions or billions of atoms) thus moves in a jagged course,
yet not so jagged as would be expected if an individual gas molecule were examined.

Intermolecular forces[edit]

When gases are compressed, intermolecular forces like those shown here start to play a more active role.

Main articles: van der Waals force and Intermolecular force

As discussed earlier, momentary attractions (or repulsions) between particles have an effect on gas dynamics. In physical chemistry, the name given to these intermolecular
forces is van der Waals force. These forces play a key role in determining physical properties of a gas such as viscosity and flow rate (see physical characteristics section).
Ignoring these forces in certain conditions (seeKinetic-molecular theory) allows a real gas to be treated like an ideal gas. This assumption allows the use of ideal gas laws which
greatly simplifies calculations.
Proper use of these gas relationships requires the Kinetic-molecular theory(KMT). When gas particles possess a magnetic charge or Intermolecular forcethey gradually
influence one another as the spacing between them is reduced (the hydrogen bond model illustrates one example). In the absence of any charge, at some point when the
spacing between gas particles is greatly reduced they can no longer avoid collisions between themselves at normal gas temperatures. Another case for increased collisions
among gas particles would include a fixed volume of gas, which upon heating would contain very fast particles. This means that these ideal equations provide reasonable
results except for extremely high pressure (compressible) or high temperature (ionized) conditions. Notice that all of these excepted conditions allow energy transfer to take
place within the gas system. The absence of these internal transfers is what is referred to as ideal conditions in which the energy exchange occurs only at the boundaries of the
system. Real gases experience some of these collisions and intermolecular forces. When these collisions are statistically negligible (incompressible), results from these ideal
equations are still meaningful. If the gas particles are compressed into close proximity they behave more like a liquid (see fluid dynamics).

Simplified models[edit]
Main article: Equation of state
An equation of state (for gases) is a mathematical model used to roughly describe or predict the state properties of a gas. At present, there is no single equation of state that
accurately predicts the properties of all gases under all conditions. Therefore, a number of much more accurate equations of state have been developed for gases in specific
temperature and pressure ranges. The "gas models" that are most widely discussed are "perfect gas", "ideal gas" and "real gas". Each of these models has its own set of
assumptions to facilitate the analysis of a given thermodynamic system. [15] Each successive model expands the temperature range of coverage to which it applies.

Ideal and perfect gas models[edit]

Main article: Perfect gas
The equation of state for an ideal or perfect gas is the ideal gas law and reads
where P is the pressure, V is the volume, n is amount of gas (in mol units), R is the universal gas constant, 8.314 J/(mol K), and T is the temperature. Written this way, it
is sometimes called the "chemist's version", since it emphasizes the number of molecules n. It can also be written as
where is the specific gas constant for a particular gas, in units J/(kg K), and = m/V is density. This notation is the "gas dynamicist's" version, which is more
practical in modeling of gas flows involving acceleration without chemical reactions.
The ideal gas law does not make an assumption about the specific heat of a gas. In the most general case, the specific heat is a function of both temperature and
pressure. If the pressure-dependence is neglected (and possibly the temperature-dependence as well) in a particular application, sometimes the gas is said to be
aperfect gas, although the exact assumptions may vary depending on the author and/or field of science.
For an ideal gas, the ideal gas law applies without restrictions on the specific heat. An ideal gas is a simplified "real gas" with the assumption that
the compressibility factor Z is set to 1 meaning that this pneumatic ratio remains constant. A compressibility factor of one also requires the four state variables to
follow the ideal gas law.
This approximation is more suitable for applications in engineering although simpler models can be used to produce a "ball-park" range as to where the real
solution should lie. An example where the "ideal gas approximation" would be suitable would be inside a combustion chamber of a jet engine.[16] It may also be
useful to keep the elementary reactions and chemical dissociations for calculating emissions.

Real gas[edit]

21 April 1990 eruption of Mount Redoubt, Alaska, illustrating real gases not in thermodynamic equilibrium.

Main article: Real gas

Each one of the assumptions listed below adds to the complexity of the problem's solution. As the density of a gas increases with rising pressure, the
intermolecular forces play a more substantial role in gas behavior which results in the ideal gas law no longer providing "reasonable" results. At the upper end of
the engine temperature ranges (e.g. combustor sections 1300 K), the complex fuel particles absorb internal energy by means of rotations and vibrations that
cause their specific heats to vary from those of diatomic molecules and noble gases. At more than double that temperature, electronic excitation and dissociation
of the gas particles begins to occur causing the pressure to adjust to a greater number of particles (transition from gas to plasma).[17] Finally, all of the
thermodynamic processes were presumed to describe uniform gases whose velocities varied according to a fixed distribution. Using a non-equilibrium situation
implies the flow field must be characterized in some manner to enable a solution. One of the first attempts to expand the boundaries of the ideal gas law was to
include coverage for different thermodynamic processes by adjusting the equation to read pVn = constant and then varying the n through different values such as
the specific heat ratio, .
Real gas effects include those adjustments made to account for a greater range of gas behavior:

Compressibility effects (Z allowed to vary from 1.0)

Variable heat capacity (specific heats vary with temperature)

Van der Waals forces (related to compressibility, can substitute other equations of state)

Non-equilibrium thermodynamic effects

Issues with molecular dissociation and elementary reactions with variable composition.

For most applications, such a detailed analysis is excessive. Examples where "Real Gas effects" would have a significant impact would be on the Space
Shuttle re-entry where extremely high temperatures and pressures are present or the gases produced during geological events as in the image of the 1990
eruption of Mount Redoubt.

Historical synthesis[edit]
See also: Gas laws

Boyle's law[edit]

Boyle's equipment.

Main article: Boyle's law

Boyle's Law was perhaps the first expression of an equation of state. In 1662Robert Boyle performed a series of experiments employing a J-shaped glass tube,
which was sealed on one end. Mercury was added to the tube, trapping a fixed quantity of air in the short, sealed end of the tube. Then the volume of gas was
carefully measured as additional mercury was added to the tube. The pressure of the gas could be determined by the difference between the mercury level in the
short end of the tube and that in the long, open end. The image of Boyle's Equipment shows some of the exotic tools used by Boyle during his study of gases.
Through these experiments, Boyle noted that the pressure exerted by a gas held at a constant temperature varies inversely with the volume of the gas. [18] For
example, if the volume is halved, the pressure is doubled; and if the volume is doubled, the pressure is halved. Given the inverse relationship between pressure
and volume, the product of pressure (P) and volume (V) is a constant (k) for a given mass of confined gas as long as the temperature is constant. Stated as a
formula, thus is:
Because the before and after volumes and pressures of the fixed amount of gas, where the before and after temperatures are the same both equal the
constant k, they can be related by the equation:

Charles's Law[edit]
Main article: Charles's law
In 1787, the French physicist and balloon pioneer, Jacques Charles, found that oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, carbon dioxide, and air expand to the same
extent over the same 80 kelvin interval. He noted that, for an ideal gas at constant pressure, the volume is directly proportional to its temperature:

Gay-Lussac's Law[edit]
Main article: Gay-Lussac's Law

In 1802, Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac published results of similar, though more extensive experiments.[19] Gay-Lussac credited Charle's earlier work by
naming the law in his honor. Gay-Lussac himself is credited with the law describing pressure, which he found in 1809. It states that the pressure exerted
on a container's sides by an ideal gas is proportional to its temperature.

Avogadro's law[edit]
Main article: Avogadro's law
In 1811, Amedeo Avogadro verified that equal volumes of pure gases contain the same number of particles. His theory was not generally accepted
until 1858 when another Italian chemist Stanislao Cannizzaro was able to explain non-ideal exceptions. For his work with gases a century prior, the
number that bears his name Avogadro's constant represents the number of atoms found in 12 grams of elemental carbon-12 (6.0221023 mol1).
This specific number of gas particles, at standard temperature and pressure (ideal gas law) occupies 22.40 liters, which is referred to as the molar
volume.
Avogadro's law states that the volume occupied by an ideal gas is proportional to the number of moles (or molecules) present in the container. This
gives rise to the molar volume of a gas, which at STP is 22.4 dm3 (orlitres). The relation is given by
where n is equal to the number of moles of gas (the number of molecules divided by Avogadro's Number).

Dalton's law[edit]

Dalton's notation.

Main article: Dalton's law

In 1801, John Dalton published the Law of Partial Pressures from his work with ideal gas law relationship: The pressure of a mixture of
non reactive gases is equal to the sum of the pressures of all of the constituent gases alone. Mathematically, this can be represented
for nspecies as:
Pressuretotal = Pressure1 + Pressure2 + ... + Pressuren
The image of Dalton's journal depicts symbology he used as shorthand to record the path he followed. Among his key journal observations
upon mixing unreactive "elastic fluids" (gases) were the following:[20]

Unlike liquids, heavier gases did not drift to the bottom upon mixing.

Gas particle identity played no role in determining final pressure (they behaved as if their size was negligible).