DEBRIS FLOW

CARLOS SEBASTIN ECHEVARRA ZIGA

FLOWS
Clasification of Flows
The flow type of landslide movement is classified according to
whether the materials involved are rock or engineering soils.

Shows the predominantly fine materials deposited by an Earth Flow at one of the events on the A9 Trunk
Road north of Dunkeld (August 2004).

Shows the predominantly coarse debris deposited by Debris Flows on the A887 Trunk Road at
Invermoriston (August 1997).

DEBRIS FLOWS
Debris Flow Materials
Debris flows usually comprise a mixture of fine (clay, silt and sand)
and coarse (gravel, cobbles and boulders) materials with a variable
quantity of water. The resulting mixtures often behave like viscous
slurries as they flow down slope. They are often of high density,
60% to 80% by weight solids.

DEBRIS FLOWS
Debris Flow Materials
Debris flows are potentially very destructive as they cause significant
erosion of the substrates over which they flow, thereby increasing
their sediment charge and further increasing their erosive capabilities.
The density and rapid movement of debris flow materials yield a
mass with significant energy.

Landslide rates of movement (WP/WLI, 1995).

Superficial deposits prone to debris flows. Descriptions based on McMillan and Powell (1999).

DEBRIS FLOWS
Superficial Deposit
Superficial deposits dominated by a fine-grained soil matrix, and
exhibiting apparent cohesion, are much less prone to debris flows.
Due to their apparent cohesion and lower permeability these
materials tend to be less prone to erosion than coarser grained
frictional materials. The lower permeability will reduce infiltration into
these soils.

DEBRIS FLOW FORMS

Two forms of Debris Flows are distinguishable, based on the
topographic and geological characteristics of their locations.
Hillslope (Open-Slope) Debris Flows
These form their own path down valley slopes as tracks or sheets,
before depositing material on lower areas with lower slope gradients
or where flow rates are reduced: e.g. obstructions, changes in
topography. The deposition area may contain channels and levees.

DEBRIS FLOW FORMS

Channelised Debris Flows
These follow existing channel type features: e.g. valleys, gullies,
depressions, hollows and so on. The flows are often of high density,
80% solids by weight, and have a consistency equivalent to that of
wet concrete.

Hillslope (a) and channelised (b) debris flow.

PRINCIPLES OF RAPID LANDSLIDE DEVELOPMENT

Fundamentally, all landslides are the result of gravitational force
causing the ground to fail. Once the failure starts, the debris will travel
downhill, sometimes in a highly mobile state due to mixing with water.
There is potential for failure in any sloping ground but, all things being
equal, the steeper the ground the more prone it is to land sliding.

PRINCIPLES OF RAPID LANDSLIDE DEVELOPMENT

The susceptibility of a particular hillside to failure is expressed as a
Factor of Safety. For any potential failure surface, there is a balance
between the weight of the potential landslide (driving force or shear
force) and the inherent strength of the soil or rock within the hillside
(shear resistance). Provided the available shear resistance is greater
than the shear force then the Factor of Safety will be greater than 1.0
and the slope will remain stable. If the Factor of Safety reduces to
less than 1.0 through some change in conditions, the model predicts
failure.

Landslide development

CAUSES OF DEBRIS FLOW

Hillside debris flows typically start as a sliding detachment of
material (upland debris slide, peat slide, rock slide etc.), usually
initiated during heavy rainfall, which subsequently breaks down into a
disaggregated mass in which shear surfaces are short-lived and
usually not preserved. The failure mass usually combines with
surface water flow, which typically results in high mobility and run-out.

CAUSES OF DEBRIS FLOW

Channelised debris flows may develop as a result of the
mobilisation and entrainment of sediments by extreme flows confined
within stream valleys, which may include the collapse of natural
landslide dams that may have partly or completely blocked channels
and stream valleys for some period prior to the event. For this reason,
it is particularly important to investigate entire catchments in respect
of channelised debris flow hazard and risk assessment.

CAUSES OF DEBRIS FLOW

From the above, it may be concluded there are two principal causes
of debris flows:
The initiation of a source upland landslide that develops into a
hillside debris flow.
The mobilization and entrainment of sediments by extreme
flows within stream valleys.

CAUSES OF DEBRIS FLOW

Ultimately, landslides occur when the force of gravity exceeds the
strength of soils and rocks forming slopes. In such circumstances,
slope failure occurs to restore the balance between the destabilising
forces (stresses) and the resisting forces (shear strength) along the
surface of rupture or shear surface. Therefore, a landslide may be
regarded as a dynamic process that changes a slope from an
unstable to a more stable state.

CAUSES OF DEBRIS FLOW

The causes of landslides are generally separated into two types:
Preparatory factors which work to make the slope increasingly
susceptible to failure without actually initiating it, and
Triggering factors which initiate movement.
As for all landslides, debris flows are caused by a combination of
preparatory and triggering factors. The interrelationship of these
factors controls the likelihood and timing of events at different sites.

CAUSES OF DEBRIS FLOW

When considering the actual causes of upland landslides this relative
simplicity gives way to complexity, as there is a great diversity of
causal factors. In broad terms, however, they may be divided into
internal causes that lead to a reduction in shear strength and external
causes which lead to an increase in shear stress. In summary, the
main causes of upland landslides are likely to include:

CAUSES OF DEBRIS FLOW

Reduction of soil and rock strength over time due to weathering and
slope ripening,
Historical land use changes, including deforestation, road
construction, disturbance of natural drainage, etc,
Increased rainfall and storm intensity due to climate change, and
High transient pore water pressures arising from intense rainstorms.

Causes of Landslides

PREPARATORY FACTORS
Certain conditions are needed for the initiation of upland landslides
including some or all of the following:
Steep hillsides promoting gravity induced slope failure,
Weak jointed rocks exposed in rock slopes and cliffs,
Weak soils, colluvium or peat overlying weathered rock,
Low vegetation exposing soils to weathering processes,
Poor drainage, surface water flow and soil piping, and
Extreme climatic conditions.

PREPARATORY FACTORS
In upland environments, winter weather conditions involve freezing
and thawing processes which act to weaken the soil and rock
structure. Dry summer conditions may cause desiccation of soils
(particularly peat), opening large cracks and providing routes for the
ingress of surface water. These weathering processes result in
weakened soil structures and loss of material strength.
The long term weathering of soils and rocks make upland slopes
increasingly susceptible to failure. Such processes are often
described as the preconditioning or ripening of slopes.

Mechanisms of long term

hillslope deterioration.

PREPARATORY FACTORS
Road cuts may be particularly susceptible to triggering events.
Fundamentally, if the cutting had not been made, the natural slope
would have gradually deteriorated in geological time (100s or 1,000s
of years probably). However the process of cutting the slope leads to
a rapid reduction in the Factor of Safety because of increased shear
stress (over-steepening) and probable changes in the groundwater
conditions. Such deleterious effects can be mitigated against by the
construction of engineering works such as retaining walls or in some
other way strengthening the soil /rock.

Mechanism model for cutting a new

slope.

TRIGGERING FACTORS
Triggering events result in the initiation and mobilization of upland
landslides. In upland environments, the most significant triggering factor
is likely to be the development of transient high pore water pressures
along pre-existing or potential rupture surfaces. High pore water
pressures are typically generated as a result of extreme antecedent
(long-duration) rainfall conditions and intense rainstorms, both of which
can result in high groundwater levels and perched groundwater
conditions. If the soil becomes fully saturated surface water flow may
occur which can result in erosion and triggering of hillside debris flows.

TRIGGERING FACTORS
The permeability of soils and the speed by which surface water can be
transmitted to potential rupture surfaces is a key factor in the initiation of
upland landslides. The interface between permeable soils and relatively
impermeable substrate can lead to the development of cleft water
pressures along soil and rock discontinuities and artesian pore water
pressures along potential rupture surfaces. Certain geological situations
are particularly prone to the effects of water infiltration, for example
where permeable soil overlies less permeable bedrock. In such
circumstances rapid increases in pore water pressures can trigger slope
failure and mobilization of landslides.

DEBRIS FLOW PROPAGATING FACTORS

Many debris flows are of a size that would not lead to any significant
events. However, whilst flowing down slope or channel some these
debris flows may encounter particular features that can exacerbate
them. This may lead to even quite modest debris flows escalating into
large ones with potentially significant destructive effects, which are
out of proportion to the initial event.
Usually combinations of these propagating factors that lead to the
large debris flows that have a significant impact upon the road
network.

Relict rockhead cliff surviving from, in this case, glacial times (a) and convex slope break (b).

MECHANISMS OF DEBRIS FLOW

Source Area
Slides in Soils and Peat: Steep upland slopes which are mantled by a
cover of unconsolidated soils or peat are particularly susceptible to
debris slides and hillside debris flows. Debris slides and peat slides
involve shear failure of the unconsolidated material or peat at the
interface with the underlying weathered rock, which typically varies
between 1m and 5m below ground surface. Rapid increases in pore
water pressure along the interface result in significant reductions in
effective shear strength, leading to rupture or shear failure along the soilrock interface.

MECHANISMS OF DEBRIS FLOW

Falls and Slides in Rocks: Upland mountain slopes or rock exposures
where slope angles are close to, or parallel, to the dip of the rock are
particularly susceptible to rock falls or rock slides. They are often
characterised by pronounced headscarps and flanks which are relatively
free of debris, and a pronounced scree slope or debris fan at the base of
the slope. Detachment surfaces usually correspond to faults, joints and
other structural discontinuities where rock strengths are considerably less
than those of the parent rock due to the effects of long term weathering and
transient pore water pressures. Rapid increases in pore water pressures
along rock discontinuities are a major cause of rock falls and rock slides.
Icewedging along joints may also be important.

MECHANISMS OF DEBRIS FLOW

Debris Flow
Once the fall or slide is in motion and depending on the coherency of the
displaced mass, the failure breaks up on impact and as the slide
avalanches downslope. The failure may develop into a debris flow when
the debris comes into contact with surface water and stream flow,
dramatically decreasing the viscosity of the debris-water mix. As a general
rule, where the constituent particles of the slide debris cease to be in
contact and become supported by fluids, a change in mechanism from
debris slide to debris flow takes place. This transition may be very rapid
once the slide debris makes contact with surface water or stream flow.

Upland debris slide and flow development along at Cairndow on the A83 in 2004.

MECHANISMS OF DEBRIS FLOW

Debris flows consist of a mixture of fine and coarse material, with a
variable quantity of water, which forms a muddy slurry that flows
downslope, often in gravity induced surges.
Debris flows generally mobilize as a result of soil saturation, surface
water flow, and high pore water pressures developed within
unconsolidated surface soils. Debris moves as a combination of
viscous flow and mass movement under gravity.

Mechanism models for open hillside

failure caused by water.

PROPAGATION AND RUN-OUT FACTORS AFFECTING

DEBRIS FLOW
Rapid upland landslides and debris flows can develop into large run-out flows.
Whether or not upland landslides develop into hillside debris flows and
channelized debris flows depends to a large extent on a number of conditions
or run-out factors, these being:
The supply and mixing of surface water with the landslide mass in motion.
The erosive capacity of flooded upland streams (channelized debris flows).
An available source of sediment for entrainment in channelized debris flows.
Slope steepness and length of slope for gravity induced slides and falls.
The connectivity between hillslopes and upland stream channels.

PROPAGATION AND RUN-OUT FACTORS AFFECTING

DEBRIS FLOW
Water plays a major role not only in the initiation of failure but also in
the way that the debris then flows or slides and the distance that it
travels. The next picture illustrates many of the important factors
culminating in the exposure of society to safety and economic
consequence.

Debris flow characteristics.

PROPAGATION AND RUN-OUT FACTORS AFFECTING

DEBRIS FLOW
The connectivity between upland landslides and stream channels is a
very significant factor in the propagation and run-out potential of
debris flows. For relatively high frequency, shallow, open hillside
landslides, debris typically remains on the hillslopes or is deposited
on the lower valley slopes rather than being directly mobilised as
channelised debris flow.

PROPAGATION AND RUN-OUT FACTORS AFFECTING

DEBRIS FLOW
However, for low frequency high magnitude events, debris stored
upon hillslopes and within valley floors provides a source of generally
unconsolidated sediment that can be entrained and mobilized by
channelized debris flows. It follows that the accumulation of
unconsolidated debris from numerous hillside landslides over time
can provide a large volume of sediment capable of being mobilized in
a single episodic channelized debris flow event.

PROPAGATION AND RUN-OUT FACTORS AFFECTING

DEBRIS FLOW
Debris flows have high erosive energy and are capable of entraining
material as they propagate downslope or downstream. The
entrainment of slope and valley deposits often contributes a
significant proportion of the volume of debris flows. This is especially
significant in channelized debris flows where colluvial and alluvial
deposits occur as ribbon-like stores along stream channel banks and
beds (often as angular and sub-rounded boulders within a sandy
matrix) or broader accumulations in valley floors (valley floor stores).

PROPAGATION AND RUN-OUT FACTORS AFFECTING

DEBRIS FLOW
Five main stages of debris flow propagation were recognised within
the catchment: initiation and detachment of material from hillslopes;
transport and delivery of this material into the channel system;
storage of material within the channel system (and also, in the shortterm, on hillslopes before delivery to the channels); entrainment and
run-out from the catchment; and deposition on the debris fan. The
linkages between these stages are critical.

Entrainment processes increasing the size and nature of run-out characteristics, Channerwick,
Shetland Islands.

Connectivity of Hillslopes and upland streams and their implications on the run-out
characteristics of debris flows, Channerwick, Shetland Islands.