Certificate

This is to certify that Mr. yash Patel

Student of Xll science Roll
no__________ Worked on project
titled-Polymer held in Bhagwati
international public school during
the academic year 2016-2017.
He worked sincerely under the
guidance of faculties and prepared
this dissertation.

External Teacher
Teacher

Subject

Principal

acknowledgement
First of all, I am immensely indebted to almighty god for
his blessing and grace without which I could not have
been a success.
I humbly consider a privilege and honor to
express my heartiest and profound gratitude to Mr.
Rajendra.S.Malwal, principal BIPS, Patan. For his
appropriate direction, valuable suggestion, under judging
assistance so generously extended to me.
I wish to express my deepest feelings of
gratitude to Mr. Nabakishor sorokhaibam, chemistry
department, BIPS Patan. For his erudite involvement and
sustained guidance which has been pivotal in my project
work. His minute observation, precious insights, critical
comments have indeed greatly helped to shape my ideas.
This guidance and support received form my entire
classmates who contributed and who are contributing to
this project, is vital for the success of this project. I am
grateful for their constant support and help. I also owe
sense of gratitude to my parents for encouragement and
support throughout the project.

- Yash Patel

CONTENTS
1. Polymer
2. Polymer science
3. Historical development
4. Laboratory synthesis
5. Mechanical properties

Introduction

While the term polymer in popular usage suggests "plastic",

polymers comprise a large class of natural and synthetic
materials with a variety of properties and purposes. Natural
polymer materials such as shellac and amber have been in use
for centuries. Paper is manufactured from cellulose, a naturally
occurring polysaccharide found in plants. Biopolymers such as
proteins and nucleic acids play important roles in biological
processes.
Henri Braconnot's pioneering work in derivative cellulose
compounds is perhaps the earliest important work in modern
polymer science. The development of vulcanization later in the
nineteenth century improved the durability of the natural
polymer rubber, signifying the first popularized semi-synthetic
polymer. The first wholly synthetic polymer, Bakelite, was
discovered in 1907.
Until the 1920s, most scientists believed that polymers were
clusters of small molecules (called colloids), without definite
molecular weights, held together by an unknown force, a
concept known as association theory. In 1922, German chemist
Hermann Staudinger proposed that polymers were comprised
of "macromolecules" consisted of long chains of atoms held
together by covalent bonds. Though poorly received at first,
experimental work by Wallace Carothers,Herman Mark, and
others provided further evidence for Staudinger's theory. By
the mid-1930s, the macromolecular theory of polymer
structure was widely accepted. For this and other work in the
field, Staudinger was ultimately awarded the Nobel Prize. In
the intervening century, synthetic polymer materials such as
Nylon, polyethylene, Teflon, andsilicone have formed the basis
for a burgeoning polymer industry.
Synthetic polymers today find application in nearly every
industry and area of life. Polymers are used in the fabrication
of microprocessors,

Polymer
Appearance of real linear polymer chains as recorded using an atomic
force microscope on surface under liquid medium. Chain contour
length for this polymer is ~204 nm; thickness is ~0.4 nm.
A polymer is a large molecule (macromolecule) composed of
repeating structural units. These subunits are typically connected by
covalentchemical bonds. Although the term polymer is sometimes
taken to refer to plastics, it actually encompasses a large class of
natural and synthetic materials with a wide variety of properties.
Because of the extraordinary range of properties of polymeric
materials, they play an essential and ubiquitous role in everyday life.
This role ranges from familiar synthetic plastics and elastomers to
natural biopolymers such as nucleic acids and proteins that are
essential for life.
Natural polymeric materials such as shellac, amber, and natural rubber
have been used for centuries. A variety of other natural polymers exist,
such as cellulose, which is the main constituent of wood and paper.
The list of synthetic polymers includes synthetic rubber, Bakelite,
neoprene, nylon, PVC, polystyrene, polyethylene, polypropylene,
polyacrylonitrile, PVB, silicone, and many more.
Most commonly, the continuously linked backbone of a polymer used
for the preparation of plastics consists mainly of carbon atoms. A
simple example is polyethylene, whose repeating unit is based on
ethylenemonomer. However, other structures do exist; for example,
elements such as silicon form familiar materials such as silicones

Polymer science
Most polymer research may be categorized as polymer
science, a sub-discipline of materials science which

includes researchers in chemistry (especially organic

chemistry), physics, and engineering. The field of polymer
science includes both experimental and theoretical
research. The IUPAC recommends that polymer science
be roughly divided into two subdisciplines: polymer
chemistry (or macromolecular chemistry) and polymer
physics. In practice the distinction between the two is
rarely clearcut.
The study of biological polymers, their structure, function,
and method of synthesis is generally the purview of
biology, biochemistry, and biophysics. These disciplines
share some of the terminology familiar to polymer
science, especially when describing the synthesis of
biopolymers such as DNA or polysaccharides. However,
usage differences persist, such as the practice of using
the term macromolecule to describe large non-polymer
molecules and complexes of multiple molecular
components, such as hemoglobin. Substances with
distinct biological function are rarely described in the
terminology of polymer science. For example, a protein is
rarely referred to as a copolymer

Historical development
Starting in 1811, Henri Braconnot did pioneering work in
derivative cellulose compounds, perhaps the earliest important
work in polymer science. The development of vulcanization later
in the nineteenth century improved the durability of the natural
polymer rubber, signifying the first popularized semi-synthetic
polymer. In 1907, Leo Baekeland created the first completely
synthetic polymer, Bakelite, by reacting phenol and formaldehyde
at precisely controlled temperature and pressure. Bakelite was
then publicly introduced in 1909.

Despite significant advances in synthesis and characterization of

polymers, a correct understanding of polymer molecular structure
did not emerge until the 1920s. Before then, scientists believed
that polymers were clusters of small molecules (called colloids),
without definite molecular weights, held together by an unknown
force, a concept known as association theory. In 1922, Hermann
Staudinger proposed that polymers consisted of long chains of
atoms held together by covalent bonds, an idea which did not
gain wide acceptance for over a decade and for which Staudinger
was ultimately awarded the Nobel Prize. Work by Wallace
Carothers in the 1920s also demonstrated that polymers could be
synthesized rationally from their constituent monomers. An
important contribution to synthetic polymer science was made by
the Italian chemist Giulio Natta and the German chemist Karl
Ziegler, who won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1963 for the
development of the Ziegler-Natta catalyst.

Laboratory synthesis
Laboratory synthetic methods are generally divided into two categories,
step-growth polymerization and chain-growth polymerization. The essential
difference between the two is that in chain growth polymerization,
monomers are added to the chain one at a time only, whereas in step-growth
polymerization chains of monomers may combine with one another directly.
However, some newer methods such as plasma polymerization do not fit
neatly into either category. Synthetic polymerization reactions may be
carried out with or without a catalyst. Laboratory synthesis of biopolymers,
especially of proteins, is an area of intensive research.
Biological synthesis

Microstructure of part of a DNA double helixbiopolymer

Main article: Biopolymer
There are three main classes of biopolymers: polysaccharides, polypeptides,
and polynucleotides. In living cells, they may be synthesized by enzymemediated processes, such as the formation of DNA catalyzed by DNA
polymerase.

Monomer arrangement in copolymers

Monomers within a copolymer may be organized along the

backbone in a variety of ways.

 Alternating copolymers possess

monomer residues: [AB...]n (2).

regularly

alternating

Periodic copolymers have monomer residue types

arranged in a repeating sequence: [A nBm...] m being different
from n .
Statistical copolymers have monomer residues arranged
according to a known statistical rule. A statistical copolymer
in which the probability of finding a particular type of
monomer residue at an particular point in the chain is
independent of the types of surrounding monomer residue
may be referred to as a truly random copolymer (3).
Block copolymers have two or more homopolymer
subunits linked by covalent bonds (4). Polymers with two or
three blocks of two distinct chemical species (e.g., A and B)
are called diblock copolymers and triblock copolymers,
respectively. Polymers with three blocks, each of a different
chemical species (e.g., A, B, and C) are termed triblock
terpolymers.

Mechanical properties

A polyethylene sample necking under tension.

The bulk properties of a polymer are those most often of end-use
interest. These are the properties that dictate how the polymer
actually behaves on a macroscopic scale.

 Tensile strength
The tensile strength of a material quantifies how much stress the
material will endure before suffering permanent deformation. This is
very important in applications that rely upon a polymer's physical
strength or durability. For example, a rubber band with a higher
tensile strength will hold a greater weight before snapping. In
general, tensile strength increases with polymer chain length and
crosslinking of polymer chains.
Young's modulus of elasticity
Young's Modulus quantifies the elasticity of the polymer. It is
defined, for small strains, as the ratio of rate of change of stress to
strain. Like tensile strength, this is highly relevant in polymer
applications involving the physical properties of polymers, such as
rubber bands. The modulus is strongly dependent on temperature.

NYLON, A Condensation Polymer

Nylon was the result of research directed by Wallace Hume
Carothers at du Pont. The research team was interestedin
duplicating the characteristics of silk. Nylon gained rapid
acceptance for use in stockings and in making parachutes.
Carothers, however, was subject to bouts of depression and in
1937, shortly before du Pont placed nylon stockings on the
market; Carothers committed suicide by drinking cyanide.
Safety Precautions
Wear safety goggles at all times in the laboratory.
The materials in this experiment are considered toxic. They are
irritants to the eyes and mucous membranes. Wear gloves and work in
a well ventilated area.
Materials needed

Hexamethylenediamine (1,6-hexanediamine), 5% aqueous

solutionSebacoyl chloride (or adipyl chloride), 5% solution in
cyclohexane Sodium hydroxide, NaOH, 20% aqueous
solution
Beaker, 50 mL

 Forceps
Stirring rod.
Procedure
Pour 10 mL of Hexamethylenediamine solution into a 50 mL
beaker.
Add 10 drops of 20% sodium hydroxide solution. Stir.
Carefully add 10 mL of sebacoyl chloride solution by
pouring it down the wall of the tilted beaker. Two layers
should be evident in the beaker and there should be an
immediate.

SODIUM POLYACRYLATE, A Copolymer

Superabsorbants were originally developed by the United States

Department of Agriculture in 1966. This material consisted of a
grafted copolymer of hydrolyzed starch-polyacrylonitrile
(polyacrylonitrile is commonly known asAcrilan, Orion, or
Creslan). The intended use was for additives for drilling fluid in
off-shore secondary oil recovery operations and as agricultural
thickeners. These materials were followed by synthetic
Superabsorbants that arepolyacrylic and polyacrylonitrile based.
Some of these materials are capable of absorbing up to 2000
times their weight of distilled water.

When a starch-hydrolyzed polyacrylonitrile superabsorbent is

mixed with glycerin or ethylene glycol, the resulting firm gel has
a rubbery texture and is very strong and resilient. This material
can absorb about 300 to 400 times its weight in distilled water
and can grow many times its original size. This material was
formed into various shapes and sold under names such as
"Grow Creatures". The process is reversible and, on standing in
air, the grow creature will shrink almost to its original size on
drying. It can be grown and dried many times.

A useful application of "Super Slurper" is in the liners of

Pampers and other disposable diapers. Under this application,
the polymer gel can absorb up to 90 times its weight in liquid.
Super-absorbent material, sold under the name "Water Grabber"
or "Water Lock" is available from garden supply stores.

Polymer degradation

A plastic item with thirty years of exposure to heat and cold,

brake fluid, and sunlight. Notice the discoloration, swollen
dimensions, and tiny splits running through the material
Polymer degradation is a change in the propertiestensile
strength, color, shape, molecular weight, etc.of a polymer or
polymer-based product under the influence of one or more
environmental factors, such as heat, light, chemicals and, in some
cases, galvanic action. It is often due to the scission of polymer
chain bonds via hydrolysis, leading to a decrease in the molecular
mass of the polymer.
Although such changes are frequently undesirable, in some cases,
such as biodegradation and recycling, they may be intended to
prevent environmental pollution. Degradation can also be useful
in biomedical settings. For example, a copolymer of Polylactic acid
and polyglycolic acid is employed in hydrolysable stitches that
slowly degrade after they are applied to a wound.

Product failure

Chlorine attack of acetyl resin plumbing joint

In a finished product, such a change is to be prevented or
delayed. Failure of safety-critical polymer components
can cause serious accidents, such as fire in the case of
cracked and degraded polymer fuel lines. Chlorineinduced cracking of acetyl resin plumbing joints and
polybutylene pipes has caused many serious floods in
domestic properties, especially in the USA in the 1990s.
Traces of chlorine in the water supply attacked vulnerable
polymers in the plastic plumbing, a problem which occurs
faster if any of the parts have been poorly extruded or
injection molded. Attack of the acetyl joint occurred
because of faulty molding, leading to cracking along the
threads of the fitting which is a serious stress
concentration.

Ozone-induced cracking in natural rubber

tubing

Polymer oxidation has caused accidents involving medical

devices. One of the oldest known failure modes is ozone
cracking caused by chain scission when ozone gas
attacks susceptible elastomers, such as natural rubber
and nitrile rubber. They possess double bonds in their
repeat units which are cleaved during ozonolysis. Cracks
in fuel lines can penetrate the bore of the tube and cause
fuel leakage. If cracking occurs in the engine
compartment, electric sparks can ignite the gasoline and
can cause a serious fire.
Fuel lines can also be attacked by another form of
degradation: hydrolysis. Nylon 6,6 is susceptible to acid
hydrolysis, and in one accident, a fractured fuel line led to
a spillage of diesel into the road. If diesel fuel leaks onto
the road, accidents to following cars can be caused by the
slippery nature of the deposit, which is like black ice.