Research Design

Magister of Electrical Engineering

Udayana University
September 2011

Source:
C.R. Kothari, Research Methodology; Methods and Techniques, second edition,
New Age International Publisher, 2004

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 Decisions regarding what, where, when,

how much
A research design
the arrangement of conditions for collection
and analysis of data in a manner that aims to
combine relevance to the research purpose
with economy in procedure.

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 The designing decisions happen to be in respect

of:

(i) What is the study about?

(ii) Why is the study being made?
(iii) Where will the study be carried out?
(iv) What type of data is required?
(v) Where can the required data be found?
(vi) What periods of time will the study include?
(vii) What will be the sample design?
(viii) What techniques of data collection will be used?
(ix) How will the data be analyzed?
(x) In what style will the report be prepared?
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 Split the overall research design into the following parts:

(a) sampling design
the method of selecting items to be observed;
(b) observational design
the conditions under which the observations are to be
made;
(c) statistical design
the question of how many items are to be observed and
how the information and data gathered are to be
analysed;
(d) operational design
the techniques by which the procedures specified in the
sampling, statistical and observational designs can be
carried out.
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 The important features of a research

design
(i) a plan
specifies the sources & types of information
relevant to the research problem

(ii) a strategy
which approach will be used for gathering and
analyzing the data.

(iii) the time and cost budgets

most studies are done under these two constraints

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 Research design must, at least, contain

(a) a clear statement of the research

problem;
(b) procedures and techniques to be
used for gathering information;
(c) the population to be studied;
(d) methods to be used in processing
and analyzing data
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 The various concepts relating to designs

1. Dependent and independent variables
A concept which can take on different
quantitative values (a variable)
Qualitative phenomena (or the attributes) are
also quantified
If one variable depends upon or is a
consequence of the other variable --- a
dependent variable,
the variable that is antecedent to the dependent
variable --- an independent variable.
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 2. Extraneous variable:
Independent variables that are not related to the purpose of
the study, but may affect the dependent variable
the researcher wants to test the hypothesis: a
relationship between childrens gains in social studies
achievement and their self-concepts
self-concept is an independent variable, social
studies achievement is a dependent variable.
Intelligence may as well affect the social studies
achievement, but since it is not related to the
purpose of the study undertaken by the researcher, it
will be termed as an extraneous variable.
Whatever effect is noticed on dependent variable as a
result of extraneous variable(s) is technically described as
an experimental error.
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 3. Control
One important characteristic of a good
research design is to minimize the influence
or effect of extraneous variable(s).
4. Confounded relationship
When the dependent variable is not free
from the influence of extraneous variable(s)
the relationship between the dependent and
independent variables is said to be
confounded/confused by an extraneous
variable(s).

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 5. Research hypothesis
When a prediction or a hypothesized
relationship is to be tested by
scientific methods, it is termed as
research hypothesis.
The research hypothesis is a
predictive statement that relates an
independent variable to a dependent
variable.
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 6. Experimental and non-experimental

hypothesis-testing research:
When the purpose of research is to test a
research hypothesis, it is termed as
hypothesis-testing research.
It can be of the experimental design or of
the non-experimental design.
For instance, a researcher wants to study whether
intelligence affects reading ability for a group of
students and for this purpose he randomly selects
50 students and tests their intelligence and reading
ability by calculating the coefficient of correlation
between the two sets of scores.
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 7. Experimental and control groups

An experimental hypothesis-testing research when
a group is exposed to usual conditions, it is termed
a control group, but when the group is exposed to
some novel or special condition, it is termed an
experimental group.

8. Treatments
The two treatments are the usual studies
programme and the special studies programme
For example, if we want to determine through an
experiment the comparative impact of three varieties of
fertilizers on the yield of wheat, in that case the three
varieties of fertilizers will be treated as three treatments.
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 9. Experiment
Examining the truth of a statistical hypothesis, relating to
some research problem, is known as an experiment.
For example, an experiment to examine the
usefulness of a certain newly developed drug
Experiments can be of two types viz., absolute
experiment and comparative experiment.
If we want to determine the impact of a fertilizer on the
yield of a crop, it is a case of absolute experiment;
but if we want to determine the impact of one fertilizer
as compared to the impact of some other fertilizer, our
experiment then will be termed as a comparative
experiment.

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 10. Experimental unit(s)

The pre-determined plots or the
blocks, where different
treatments are used, are known
as experimental units.
Such experimental units must be
selected (defined) very carefully.

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 DIFFERENT RESEARCH DESIGNS

1. Exploratory research studies
also termed as formulative research studies
The main purpose
formulating a problem for more precise
investigation
of developing the working hypotheses from an
operational point of view
The major emphasis is on the discovery of ideas
and insights

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 Generally, three methods in the context of

research design for such studies
(a) the survey of concerning literature;
(b) the experience survey; and
(c) the analysis of insight-stimulating
examples.

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 The survey of concerning literature

to be the most simple and fruitful method of
formulating precisely the research problem
or developing hypothesis.
Hypotheses stated by earlier workers
may be reviewed and their usefulness be
evaluated as a basis for further research.
It may also be considered whether the
already stated hypotheses suggest new
hypothesis.
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 Experience survey
To obtain insight into the relationships
between variables and new ideas relating to
the research problem

2. Descriptive and diagnostic research

studies
Descriptive research studies
describing the characteristics of a particular
individual, or of a group

Diagnostic research studies

determine the frequency with which something
occurs
or its association with something else
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 3. hypothesis-testing research studies

known as experimental studies or design
of experiments
tests the hypotheses of causal
relationships between variables
Usually experiments meet this
requirement
Three basic principles of experimental
designs
(1) the Principle of Replication;
(2) the Principle of Randomization;
(3) Principle of Local Control.
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 The Principle of Replication

the experiment should be repeated more
than once
The statistical accuracy of the experiments
is increased
For example, if an experiment requiring a
two-way analysis of variance is
replicated, it will then require a three-way
analysis of variance since replication
itself may be a source of variation in the
data
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 The Principle of Randomization

Design or plan the experiment that the variations caused by
extraneous factors
For instance, if we grow one variety of rice, say, in the first
half of the parts of a field and the other variety is grown in
the other half, then it is just possible that the soil fertility
may be different in the first half in comparison to the other
half. If this is so, our results would not be realistic.
In such a situation, we may assign the variety of rice to be
grown in different parts of the field on the basis of some
random sampling technique i.e., we may apply
randomization principle and protect ourselves against the
effects of the extraneous factors.
The principle of randomization, have a better estimate of the
experimental error.
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 The Principle of Local Control

Plan the experiment for performing a two-way
analysis of variance
In other words,
first divide the field into several homogeneous
parts, known as blocks,
then each such block is divided into parts equal to
the number of treatments.
Then the treatments are randomly assigned to
these parts of a block.

the principle of local control can eliminate

the variability due to extraneous factor(s)
from the experimental error

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 Important experiment designs

(a) Informal experimental designs
(i) Before-and-after without control design.
(ii) After-only with control design.
(iii) Before-and-after with control design.

(b) Formal experimental designs

(i) Completely randomized design (C.R. Design).

(ii) Randomized block design (R.B. Design).
(iii) Latin square design (L.S. Design).
(iv) Factorial designs.

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 1. Before-and-after without control

design
A single test group or area is selected, and
the dependent variable is measured
The treatment is then introduced and then the
dependent variable is measured again
The effect of the treatment
the level of the phenomenon after the treatment the level of the phenomenon before the treatment

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 The design can be represented thus:

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 2. After-only with control design

Two groups or areas (test area and control area) are
selected and the treatment is introduced into the test
area only

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 3. Before-and-after with control design

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 4. Completely randomized design (C.R.

design)
(i) Two-group simple randomized design

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 (ii) Random replications design

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5. Randomized block design (R.B. design)

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 6. Latin square design (L.S. design)

An experimental design very frequently used
in agricultural research

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 7. Factorial designs
where the effects of varying more than one
factor are to be determined.
important in several economic and social
phenomena
Factorial designs can be of two types:
(i) simple factorial designs
(ii) complex factorial designs

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 Illustration 1: (2 2 simple factorial design). A

2 2 simple factorial design can graphically be
depicted as follows:

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The graph relating to Study I indicates that there is an interaction between the
treatment and the level which, in other words, means that the treatment and the
level are not independent of each other.
The graph relating to Study II shows that there is no interaction effect which
means that treatment and level in this study are relatively independent of each
other.
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 Factorial designs are used mainly

because of the two advantages
(i) provide equivalent accuracy
determine the main effects of two (in simple
factorial design) or more (in case of complex
factorial design) factors (or variables) in one single
experiment.

(ii) permit various other comparisons of

interest

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