Preface

This textbook represents the Finite Element Analysis lecture course given
to students in the third year at the Department of Engineering Sciences (now
F.I.L.S.), English Stream, University Politehnica of Bucharest, since 1992.
It grew in time along with a course taught in Romanian to students in the
Faculty of Transports, helped by the emergence of microcomputer networks and
integration of the object into mechanical engineering curricula. The syllabus of the
28-hour course, supplemented by 28-hour tutorial and lab. classes, was structured
along the NAFEMS recommendations published in the October 1988 issue of
BENCHmark. The course represents only an introduction to the finite element
analysis, for which we wrote simple stand-alone single-element programs to assist
students in solving problems as homework. It is followed by an advanced course in
the fourth year at F.I.L.S., called Computational Structural Mechanics, where
students are supposed to use commercial programs.
In designing the course, our aim was to produce students capable of: (a)
understanding the theoretical background, (b) appreciating the structure of finite
element programs for potential amendment and development, (c) running packages
and assessing their limitations, (d) taking a detached view in checking output, and
(e) understanding failure messages and finding ways of rectifying the errors.
The course syllabus was restricted to 2D linear elastic structural problems.
It has been found advantageous to divide the finite element analysis into two parts.
Firstly, the assembly process without any approximations (illustrated by
frameworks) followed by the true finite element process which involves
approximations. This is achieved starting with trusses, then with beams and plane
frames, and progressively dealing with membrane and plate-bending elements.
Solid elements and shells are not treated. Our objective was to ensure that students
have achieved: (a) a familiarity in working with matrix methods and developing
stiffness matrices, (b) an understanding of global versus local coordinate systems,
(c) the abilty to use the minimum potential energy theorem and virtual work
equations, (d) the mapping from isoparametric space to real geometrics and the
need for numerical integration, (e) an insight in numerical techniques for linear
equation solving (Gauss elimination, frontal solvers etc), and (f) the use of
equilibrium, compatibility, stress/strain relations and boundary conditions.
As a course taught for non-native speakers, it has been considered useful to
reproduce as language patterns some sentences from English texts.
November 2006

Mircea Rade

Prefa
Lucrarea reprezint cursul Analiza cu elemente finite predat studenilor
anului III al Facultii de Inginerie n Limbi Strine, Filiera Englez, la
Universitatea Politehnica Bucureti, ncepnd cu anul 1992.
Coninutul cursului s-a lrgit n timp, fiind predat din 1992 i studenilor de
la facultatea de Transporturi, favorizat de apariia reelelor de calculatoare i de
includerea sa n planul de nvmnt al facultilor cu profil mecanic. Programa
cursului, care prevede 28 ore de curs i 28 ore de seminar/laborator, a fost
structurat n conformiatate cu recomandrile NAFEMS publicate n numrul din
Octombrie 1988 al revistei BENCHmark. Cursul reprezint doar o introducere n
analiza cu elemente finite, pentru care am scris programe simple, cu un singur tip
de element finit, care s fie utilizate de studeni la rezolvarea unor teme de cas. Nu
se trateaz nveliuri i elemente tridimensionale. n anul IV, planul de nvmnt
de la F.I.L.S. conine cursul Computational Structural Mechanics, la care studenii
aprofundeaz modelarea cu elemente finite i utilizeaz un program de firm.
La structurarea cursului am avut n vedere necesitatea formrii unor
studeni capabili: (a) s neleag baza teoretic, (b) s deslueasc structura
programelor cu elemente finite pentru eventuale corecii i dezvoltri, (c) s ruleze
programe i s recunoasc limitele acestora, (d) s poat verifica rezultatele i (e)
s neleag mesajele de eroare i s gseasc modaliti de corectare a erorilor.
Programa cursului a fost limitat la structuri elastice liniare
bidimensionale. S-a considerat potrivit s se prezinte analiza cu elemente finite n
dou etape: nti procesul de asamblare fr nici o aproximare (aplicat la grinzi cu
zbrele), apoi modelarea cu elemente finite, care presupune aproximarea cmpului
de deplasri, de la triunghiul cu deformaii specifice constante la elemente
patrulatere izoparametrice, incluznd integrarea numeric. S-a urmrit ca studenii
s dobndeasc: (a) familiaritate cu metodele matriciale i calculul matricelor de
rigiditate; (b) nelegerea utilitii coordonatelor locale i globale; (c) abilitatea
folosirii principiului energiei poteniale minime i a principiului lucrului mecanic
virtual; (d) trecerea de la coordonate naturale la coordonate fizice i necesitatea
integrrii numerice; (e) o vedere de ansamblu asupra rezolvrii sistemelor algebrice
liniare (eliminarea Gauss, metoda frontal etc.) i (f) utilizarea celor patru tipuri de
ecuaii echilibru, compatibilitate, constitutive i condiii la limit.
Fiind un curs predat unor studeni a cror limb matern nu este limba
englez, au fost reproduse expresii i fraze din cri scrise de vorbitori nativi ai
acestei limbi.
Noiembrie 2006

Mircea Rade

Contents
Preface

Contents

iii

1. Introduction

1.1 Object of FEA

1.2 Finite element displacement method

1.3 Historical view

1.4 Stages of FEA

2. Displacement Method

2.1 Equilibrium equations

2.2 Conditions for geometric compatibility

10

2.3 Force/elongation relations

11

2.4 Boundary conditions

12

2.5 Solving for displacements

12

2.6 Comparison of the force method and displacement method

13

3. Direct Stiffness Method

17

3.1 Stiffness matrix for a bar element

17

3.2 Transformation from local to global coordinates

19

3.2.1 Coordinate transformation

19

3.2.2 Force transformation

20

3.2.3 Element stiffness matrix in global coordinates

21

3.2.4 Properties of the element stiffness matrix

22

3.3 Links truss

25

3.4 Direct method

26

3.5 Compatibility of nodal displacements

28

3.6 Expanded element stiffness matrix

29

3.7 Unreduced global stiffness matrix

30

iv

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

3.8 Joint force equilibrium equations

31

3.9 Reduced global stiffness matrix

33

3.10 Reactions and internal forces

35

3.11 Thermal loads and stresses

36

3.12 Node numbering

37

Exercises

41

4. Bars and shafts

47

4.1 Plane bar elements

47

4.1.1 Differential equation of equilibrium

47

4.1.2 Coordinates and shape functions

48

4.1.3 Bar not loaded between ends

49

4.1.4 Element stiffness matrix in local coordinates

51

4.1.5 Bar loaded between ends

52

4.1.6 Vector of element nodal forces

55

4.1.7 Assembly of the global stiffness matrix and load vector

56

4.1.8 Initial strain effects

59

4.2 Plane shaft elements

60

Exercises

63

5. Beams, frames and grids

79

5.1 Finite element discretization

79

5.2 Static analysis of a uniform beam

81

5.3 Uniform beam not loaded between ends

83

5.3.1 Shape functions

84

5.3.2 Stiffness matrix

86

5.3.3 Physical significance of the stiffness matrix

88

5.4 Uniform beam loaded between ends

89

5.4.1 Consistent vector of nodal forces

89

5.4.2 Higher degree interpolation functions

92

5.4.3 Bending moment and shear force

95

5.5 Basic convergence requirements

96

5.6 Frame element

97

5.6.1 Axial effects

97

5.6.2 Stiffness matrix and load vector in local coordinates

98

CONTENTS
5.6.3 Coordinate transformation

98

5.6.4 Stiffness matrix and load vector in global coordinates

100

5.7 Assembly of the global stiffness matrix

100

5.8 Grids

111

5.9 Deep beam bending element

116

5.9.1 Static analysis of a uniform beam

117

5.9.2 Shape functions

118

5.9.3 Stiffness matrix

121

6. Linear elasticity

123

6.1 Matrix notation for loads, stresses and strain

123

6.2 Equations of equilibrium inside V

125

6.3 Equations of equilibrium on the surface S

126

6.4 Strain-displacement relations

127

6.5 Stress-strain relations

128

6.6 Temperature effects

130

6.7 Strain energy

130

7. Energy methods

131

7.1 Principle of virtual work

131

7.1.1 Virtual displacements

131

7.1.2 Virtual work of external forces

133

7.1.3 Virtual work of internal forces

133

7.1.4 Principle of virtual displacements

134

7.1.5 Proof that PDV is equivalent to equilibrium equations

137

7.2 Principle of minimum total potential energy

139

7.2.1 Strain energy

139

7.2.2 External potential energy

140

7.2.3 Total potential energy

140

7.3 The Rayleigh-Ritz method

143

7.4 FEM a localized version of the Rayleigh-Ritz method

148

7.4.1 FEM in Structural Mechanics

148

7.4.2 Discretization

149

7.4.3 Principle of virtual displacements

149

vi

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

7.4.4 Approximating functions for the element

149

7.4.5 Compatibility between strains and nodal displacements

150

7.4.6 Element stiffness matrix and load vector

151

7.4.7 Assembly of the global stiffness matrix and load vector

151

7.4.8 Solution and back-substitution

152

8 Two-dimensional elements
8.1 The plane constant-strain triangle (CST)

153
153

8.1.1. Discretization of structure

153

8.1.2 Polynomial approximation of the displacement field

154

8.1.3 Nodal approximation of the displacement field

155

8.1.4 The matrix [ B ]

158

8.1.5 Element stiffness matrix and load vector

159

8.1.6 Remarks

160

8.2 Rectangular elements

176

8.2.1 The four-node rectangle (linear)

176

8.2.2 The eight-node rectangle (quadratic)

178

8.3 Triangular elements

180

8.3.1 Area coordinates

180

8.3.2 Linear strain triangle (LST)

182

8.3.3 Quadratic strain triangle

185

8.4 Equilibrium, convergence and compatibility

187

8.4.1 Equilibrium vs. compatibility

187

8.4.2 Convergence and compatibility

188

9 Isoparametric elements

191

9.1 Linear quadrilateral element

191

9.1.1 Natural coordinates

192

9.1.2 Shape functions

193

9.1.3 The displacement field

194

9.1.4 Mapping from natural to Cartesian coordinates

195

9.1.5 Element stiffness matrix

198

9.1.6 Element load vectors

199

9.2 Numerical integration

9.2.1 One dimensional Gauss quadrature

200
200

vii

CONTENTS
9.2.2 Two dimensional Gauss quadrature

203

9.2.3 Stiffness integration

204

9.2.4 Stress calculations

207

9.3 Eight-node quadrilateral

208

9.3.1 Shape functions

209

9.3.2 Shape function derivatives

210

9.3.3 Determinant of the Jacobian matrix

211

9.3.4 Element stiffness matrix

211

9.3.5 Stress calculation

213

9.3.6 Consistent nodal forces

214

9.4 Nine-node quadrilateral

219

9.5 Six-node triangle

221

9.6 Jacobian positiveness

223

10 Plate bending

225

10.1 Thin plate theory (Kirchhoff)

225

10.2 Thick plate theory (Reissner-Mindlin)

229

10.3 Rectangular plate-bending elements

232

10.3.1 ACM element (non-conforming)

232

10.3.2 BFS element (conforming)

238

10.3.3 HTK thick rectangular element

239

10.4 Triangular plate-bending elements

244

10.4.1 Thin triangular element (non-conforming)

245

10.4.2 Thick triangular element (conforming)

248

10.4.3 Discrete Kirchhoff triangles (DKT)

250

References

257

Index

265

1.
INTRODUCTION

Finite Element Analysis (FEA) as applied to structures is a

multidisciplinary technique, based on knowledge from three fields: (1) Structural
Mechanics, encompassing elasticity, strength of materials, dynamics, plasticity, etc,
(2) Numerical Analysis, involving approximation methods, solving linear sets of
equations, eigenproblems, etc, and (3) Applied Computer Science, dealing with the
development and maintenance of large computer codes.
FEA is used to solve large-scale analytical problems. Its task is to model
and describe the mechanical behaviour of geometrically complex structures. The
procedure is a discretized approach: the geometric shape or the internal stressstrain-displacement field are described by a series of discrete quantities (like
coordinates) distributed through the structure. This requires a matrix notation. The
tools are the computers, able to store long lists of numbers and manipulate them.

1.1 Object of FEA

The object of FEA is to replace the infinite degree of freedom system in
continuum applications by a finite system exhibiting the same basis as discrete
analysis.
The aim is finding an approximate solution to a boundary- and initialvalue problem by dividing the domain of the system into a set of interconnected
finite-sized subdomains of different size and shape, and defining the unknown state
variable approximately, within each element, by means of a linear combination of
trial functions. The subdomains are called finite elements, the set of finite elements
is known as the mesh and the trial functions are referred to as interpolation
functions. With the individually defined functions matching each other at certain
points called nodes, the unknown function is approximated over the entire domain.
The primary difference between the FEA and other approximate methods
for the solution of boundary-value problems (finite-difference, weighted-residual,

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

Rayleigh-Ritz, Galerkin) is that in the FEA the approximation is confined to

relatively small subdomains.
FEA is a localized version of the Rayleigh-Ritz method. Instead of finding
an admissible function satisfying the boundary conditions for the entire domain,
which is often difficult, in the FEA the admissible functions (called shape
functions) are defined over element domains with simple geometry and pay no
attention to complications at the boundaries.
Since the entire domain is divided into numerous elements and the function
is approximated in terms of its values at the element nodes, the evaluation of such a
function will require the solution of simultaneous equations. This was possible only
at the time the computers became available. The outstanding success of the finite
element method can be attributed to a large extent to timing. While the finite
element method was being developed, so were increasingly powerful digital
computers, which led to automation. The computer is not only able to solve the
discretized equations of equilibrium, but also to carry out such diverse tasks as the
formulation of equations, by making decisions concerning the finite element mesh
and the assembly of stiffness matrices.
Perhaps more important is the fact that the finite element method can
accommodate systems with complicated geometries and parameter distributions.
The wide use of the classical Rayleigh-Ritz method has been limited by the
inability to generate suitable admissible functions for a large number of practical
problems. Indeed, systems with complex boundary conditions or complex
geometry cannot be described easily by global admissible functions, which tend to
have complicated expressions, difficult to handle on a routine basis. In turn, in the
FEA an approximate solution is constructed using local admissible functions,
defined over small subdomains of the structure. In order to match a given irregular
boundary, or to handle parameter non-uniformities, the FEA can change not only
the size of the finite elements but also their shape. This extreme versatility, coupled
with the development of powerful computer codes based on the method, some of
them made available as open source free software, has made the FEA the method
of choice for the analysis of structures.
In FEA, the equations of equilibrium are obtained from variational
principles implying the stationarity of the functional defined by the total potential
energy. While solving differential equations with complicated boundary conditions
may be difficult, integrating known polynomial functions, even approximately,
should be easier. Mathematically, solving [ A ] { x } = { b } is equivalent to
1
minimizing P (x ) = { x }T [ A ]{ x } { x }T { b }. This is the heart of the FEA when
2
applied to structures.

1. INTRODUCTION

1.2 Finite element displacement method

In the finite element modeling, a structure is discretized (hypothetically)
into finite elements and points named nodes are selected on the inter-element
boundaries or in the interior of the elements. Displacements at the nodes are taken
as the primary discrete variables. Displacements within the elements are expressed
in terms of these nodal displacements using interpolation functions referred to as
shape functions. Finite elements are so small that the shape of the displacement
field can be approximated without too much error, leaving only the magnitude to
be found. The shapes are polynomials, but may be trigonometric functions as
well.
All individual elements are assembled together in such a way that the
displacements are continuous in some fashion across element interfaces, the
internal stresses are in equilibrium with the applied loads, and the prescribed
boundary conditions are satisfied. Finally, the governing discrete equations are
generated by a variational approach.
The first part of the finite element modeling process involves choosing the
correct and appropriate types of elements, understanding the pedigree of elements
and spotting wrong answers due to the use of inadequate elements. The second part
of the process is the assembly of the elements and the solution of the complete
structural equations. This involves recognizing error messages when this process
breaks down or when it simply becomes inefficient because the structure has been
modeled inconveniently.
The six basic steps of FEA are the following: (1) discretize the continuum,
(2) select interpolation functions, (3) find the element properties, (4) assemble the
element properties, (5) solve the system of equations, and (6) make additional
computations if desired.
The three main sources of approximation are: (1) the definition of the
domain (physically or geometrically), (2) the discretization of the domain (cutting
the corners, making curved lines straight, and curved elements flat), and (3) the
solution algorithms. Modeling the joints and the contact between structural parts as
well as the damping in dynamic problems are the most difficult tasks. Mesh
refinements (and automatic mesh generation) do not bring necessarily increased
accuracy. Finer mesh yields also larger stiffness matrices, a larger number of
equations to be solved, hence larger computer storage space and running time.
Among the reasons why the FEA has gained such universal acceptance are:
(1) the routine choice of shape functions, (2) the easiness of producing stiffness
matrices (and load vectors), by just assembling predetermined element matrices,
and (3) the versatility. Developed originally as a method for analyzing stresses in
complex aircraft structures, FEA has evolved into a technique that can be applied

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

to a large variety of linear and nonlinear, static, stability and dynamic engineering
problems.

1.3 Historical view

The idea of representing a given domain as a collection of discrete
elements is not novel with the finite element method. Ancient mathematicians
estimated the value of approximating the circumference of a circle by the
perimeter of a polygon inscribed in the circle. In modern times, the idea found
application in aircraft structural analysis, where wings and fuselages are treated as
assemblages of stringers, panels, ribs, stiffeners and spars.
The use of piecewise continuous functions defined over a subdomain to
approximate the unknown function dates back to Courant (1943), who used an
assemblage of small triangular elements and the principle of minimum potential
energy to study Saint Venants torsion problem. The reason why Courants paper
did not attract more attention can be attributed to poor timing. In the early 1940s,
computers capable of solving large sets of equations of equilibrium did not exist, so
that the method was not practical then.
The theoretical background of FEA laids on the energy approach of
Structural Mechanics and on the approximation techniques. The first energy
theorems have been established by Maxwell (1864) and Castigliano (1875). The
approximation methods have been developed by Ritz (1908) and Galerkin (1915).
Ostenfeld (1926) is credited with the first book on the deformation method.
After the Second World War, the Force Method (Flexibility Method) was
sustained by Levy (1947) and Garvey (1951) and the matrix Displacement Method
(Stiffness Method) was used by Levy (1953) in the sweptback wing analysis.
Turner formulated and perfected the Direct Stiffness Method at Boeing (1959). The
development of the Force Method ended in 1969.
The development of delta wing structures revived the interest in stiffness
methods. Modeling delta wings required two-dimensional panel elements of
arbitrary geometry. After a first attempt by Levy (1953) with triangular elements,
the article series by Argyris in four issues of Aircraft Engineering (1954, 1955),
collected later in a book by Argyris and Kelsey (1960), contains the derivation of
the stiffness matrix of a flat rectangular panel using bilinear displacement
interpolation. But that geometry was inadequate to model delta wings.
The formal presentation of the finite element method is attributed to
Turner, Clough, Martin, and Topp (1956), who during 1952-1953 succeeded to
directly derive the stiffness of a triangular panel at Boeing. The term finite
element was first used by Clough (1960).

1. INTRODUCTION

The first book devoted to FEA was written by Zienkiewicz and Cheung
(1967), followed by books by Przemieniecki (1968) and Gallagher (1964).
Influential papers have been written by Argyris (1965), Fraeijs de Veubeke (1964)
and Irons and coworkers (1964, 1966, 1970). Research developed in the Civil
Engineering Department at Berkeley, directed by Clough, at Washington
University, under Martin, and at Swansea University, lead by Zienkiewicz. Since
1963, finite element computer programs were freely disseminated into the nonaerospace community.
Major contributions are due to B. M. Irons, the inventor of isoparametric
models, shape functions, frontal solvers and the patch test (1964-1980), R. J.
Melosh, who systematized the variational derivation of stiffness matrices and
recognized that FEA is a Rayleigh-Ritz method applied on small size elements
(1963), J. S. Archer, who introduced the consistent mass matrix concept (1963),
and E. L. Wilson, who studied the sparse matrix assembly and solution techniques
(1963), developed the static condensation algorithm (1974) and three SAP
computer programs (the first open source FEA software). He was joined later by
K.-J. Bathe to develop the finite element codes SAP4 (1973), SAP5 and NONSAP.
Starting with 1965 the NASTRAN finite element system was developed by
COSMIC, MacNeal Schwendler, Martin Baltimore and Bell Aero Systems under
contract to NASA, completed in 1968 and first revised in 1972. Other known finite
element codes are ANSYS, developed by Swanson Analysis Systems (1970),
STRUDL - by the Civil Engineering Department at Massachusetts Institute of
Technology and McDonnell Douglas Automation Company (1967), STARDYNE by Mechanics Research Inc, ADINA developed by K.-J. Bathe at M.I.T. (1975),
SESAM by Det Norske Veritas, NISA by Engineering Mechanics Research
Corporation, MARC by Marc Analysis Research Corporation, ABAQUS - by
Hibbitt, Karlsson @ Sorensen, Inc. (1978), COSMOS-M by Structural Research
& Analysis Corp. (1985), SAMCEF - by SAMTECH (1965), IDEAS-MS, PATRAN,
ALGOR etc.
General purpose programs have capabilities of linear dynamic response,
including computation of natural frequencies, nonlinear static and dynamic
response, crashworthiness, static and dynamic stability, and thermal loading. After
1967 the FEA has been applied to non-structural field problems (thermal, fluids,
electromagnetics etc).

1.4 Stages of FEA

FEA involves three stages of activity: (1) preprocessing, (2) processing,
and (3) postprocessing.
Preprocessing involves the input and preparation of data, such as nodal
coordinates, element connectivity, boundary conditions, material properties and

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

loading. Data input can be carried out either in an interactive way, through a userfriendly interface, or reading from a data file. Alternatively, some input data can be
imported from other F.E.A. or C.A.D. programs.
Automatic mesh generation can be used to produce nodal coordinate data
and optimal node numbering, as well as element connectivity data. Mesh plotting is
a convenient and useful way of checking the input data. Badly placed nodes or
improper blocking of boundary nodes can be easily traced.

Fig. 1.1
Three-dimensional finite element meshes, represented with hidden line
removal, are presented for a connecting rod (Fig. 1.1) and a car engine piston (Fig.
1.2), as obtained using the program SIMPAT developed by I.T.I. Italia.

Fig. 1.2

1. INTRODUCTION

The finite element model of a vehicle cabin frame obtained with

MSC/NASTRAN is shown in Fig. 1.3.

Fig. 1.3
In the processing stage, the finite element program processes the input data
and calculates the nodal variable quantities such as displacements and temperatures
(equation solving), and element quantities such as stresses and gradients (backcalculation).

Fig. 1.4
In dynamic analyses, processing involves solving an eigenproblem or
determining the transient response by incremental techniques. The cost in terms of
computer resource increases with the cube of the problem size. In static analyses,
the cost of the solution of the linear set of equations increases linearly with the
problem size. It would be obviously convenient to use in dynamic analyses the
same finite element model that was built for the static analysis. Often this contains
much more detail than the dynamic analysis requires, so that condensation and
dynamic substructuring are used to reduce the size of the dynamic problem before
the processing stage.

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

Postprocessing deals with the presentation of results. Early programs used

tabular presentations. Most programs produce displays of the deformed
configuration, vibration mode shapes and stress distributions. Fig. 1.4 shows the
initial mesh and the deformed shape of a cooling tower under the wind action, as
obtained using ALGOR SUPERSAP.

Fig. 1.5
Scalar nodal variables such as temperatures or pressures are presented in
the form of contour plots of isotherms or isobars.
More recent finite element programs show animated displays of the
deformed configuration, as in Fig. 1.5 for a crankshaft.

b
Fig. 1.6

Fig. 1.6, a shows the two-dimensional initial mesh for the analysis of a
gear tooth, with 1174 triangular 6-node elements. Fig. 1.6, b shows the optimized
mesh obtained with the postprocessor ESTEREF, containing only 814 elements and
a four times reduced global discretization error.

2.
DISPLACEMENT METHOD

In solving any structural problem, there are four types of equations that
should be used: equilibrium equations, geometric compatibility conditions,
constitutive relationships and boundary conditions. In order to illustrate the usual
longhand analytical procedure, a relatively simple pin-jointed framework will be
used. Variables include reaction forces at the supports and internal forces,
displacements of the bar ends and bar extensions (elongations). If forces and
elongations are eliminated and the displacements are the variables which are solved
first, the procedure is referred to as the displacement method. It works whether the
structure is statically determinate or not. Once the displacements are determined,
they are back-substituted into the compatibility equations to obtain bar extensions,
and hence strains, then stresses from the constitutive relationship.

2.1 Equilibrium equations

Consider the truss shown in Fig. 2.1 [74], assume that all members are in
tension and write the equilibrium of each node in turn. T1 , T2 , T3 are the tensions
in members and F1 , F2 , F4 , F5 are the reaction forces at the supports.

Fig. 2.1

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

10

At Node 1 (Fig. 2.2, a), resolving forces horizontally and vertically leads to

T1 + T2 2 2 + F1 = 0,

(2.1)

T2 2 / 2 + F2 = 0.
At Node 2 (Fig. 2.2, b), equilibrium gives
6 F T1 T3 2 /2 = 0,

(2.2)

T3 2 / 2 + F4 = 0.
At Node 3 (Fig. 2.2, c)
T3 2 /2 + F5 T2 2 /2 = 0,

(2.3)

9 F T2 2 / 2 T3 2 /2 = 0.

The six equations (2.1) to (2.3) have seven unknowns. The system is
statically indeterminate. The solution is not possible by using only equilibrium, and
consideration must be given to the geometry of deformation.

b
Fig. 2.2

2.2 Conditions for geometric compatibility

The compatibility equations relate a bar extension l to the displacements
of the ends of the bar.
Consider a typical pin-jointed element 1-2 of a frame, Fig. 2.3, inclined an
angle with respect to the X axis of the global coordinate system.
The displacements in the local coordinate frame xOy can be expressed in
terms of the displacements in the global coordinate frame as

u 1 = U 1 cos + V 1 sin ,
u 2 = U 2 cos + V 2 sin .
The change in length of the member is

(2.4)

2. DISPLACEMENT METHOD

11

l = u 2 u1 = U 2 U1 cos + V 2 V1 sin .

(2.5)

Fig. 2.3
Applying equation (2.5) to each member in turn leads to

l12 = U 2 - U1 ,

(2.6)

l13 = (U 3 U1 )

2
2
+ (V3 V1 )
,
2
2

2
l 23 = (U 3 U 2 )
+ (V3 V2 )

(2.7)
2
.
2

(2.8)

The three equations (2.6) to (2.8) have nine unknowns, six displacements
and three elongations.

2.3 Force/elongation relations

Truss members are in either simple tension or compression. Starting from
the Hookes law for uniaxial stress-strain conditions, the force/elongation relations
can be written

l12

T l
= 1 ,
EA

l 13 =

T2

2
l
2 ,
2E A

l 23 =

T3

2
l
2
2E A

or
T l
T1 l
T l
, l13 = 2 , l 23 = 3 .
(2.9)
EA
2E A
2E A
Three more equations have been added and so there are now 12 equations
for 16 unknowns.

l12 =

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

12

2.4 Boundary conditions

The discrepancy of 4 equations is made up by adding the boundary
conditions

U1 = V1 = V2 = U 3 = 0

(2.10)

which complete the set of 16 linear algebraic equations.

2.5 Solving for displacements

Equations (2.9) can be used to convert the compatibility equations (2.6)(2.8) to force/displacement equations as follows
EA
EA
( U 2 U1 ) ,
l 12 =
l
l
2E A
EA
T2 =
l 13 =
2 ( U 3 U1 + V3 V1 ) ,
l
l
2E A
EA
T3 =
l 23 =
2 ( U 3 + U 2 + V3 V2 ) .
l
l

T1 =

Substitution of the expressions for T1 to T3 into the equilibrium equations

(2.1) - (2.3) yields 6 equations
2 U1 + V1 U 2 U 3 V3 =
U1 + V1 U 3 V3 =

F1 l
,
EA

F2 l
,
EA

U1 + 2 U 2 V2 U 3 + V3 =
U 2 + V2 + U 3 V3 =

6F l
,
EA

F4 l
,
EA

U1 V1 U 2 + V2 + 2 U 3 =

F5 l
,
EA

U1 V1 + U 2 V2 + 2 V3 =

9 Fl
.
EA

Taking into account the boundary conditions (2.10), this set of six
equations can be written in matrix form as

2. DISPLACEMENT METHOD

2
1

EA 1

l 0
1

13

1
1
0
0

1
0
2
1

0
0
1
1

1
1

1
1

1
1

1 1 0 F1
1 1 0 F2
1 1 U 2 6 F
= . (2.11)
1 1 0 F4
2
0 0 F5

0
2 V3 9 F

The third and the sixth equation can be decoupled

EA
l

2 1 U 2 6 F
1 2 V = 9 F

and solved to give

U2 =

Fl
,
EA

V3 = 4

Fl
.
EA

(2.12)

Substituting U 2 and V3 into the remaining equations yields the reaction

forces

F1 = 5F , F2 = 4 F , F4 = 5 F , F5 = F .

(2.13)

Substituting these forces into the equilibrium equations (2.1)-(2.3) yields

the tensions in the members, which are equal and opposite to the forces acting on
the joints. Divided by the corresponding area they give the stresses.

2.6 Comparison of the force method and displacement method

Naviers Problem. Consider the 7-bar pin-jointed framework shown in
Figure 2.4. The joint 8 is subjected to a force of components Fx and Fy .
Determine the internal bar forces and the displacement of joint 8.
Force Method

Denoting Ti ( i = 1,...,7 ) the forces applied by each bar to the end nodes,
the equilibrium equations of joint 8 can be written

Fx
Fy

Ti cosi = 0,
i =1
7

Ti sini = 0.
i =1

(2.14)

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

14

This is a set of two equations with seven unknowns, so the framework is

statically indeterminate. We choose X1 = T3 , X 2 = T4 , X 3 = T5 , X 4 = T6 , and
X 5 = T7 as redundant forces.

Fig. 2.4
The strain energy is

U=

1 2
T1 l 1 + T22l 2 +
X i2l i

2 EA
i =1

(2.15)

where T1 and T2 are functions of X 1 to X 5 , according to (2.14).

Using Menabreas theorem, the five deformation conditions can be written
U
= 0,
X i

( i = 1,...,5 )

(2.16)

since we are assuming no support movement. They are of the form

l1 T1

T1
T
+ l 2 T2 2 + l i X i = 0 .
X i
X i

( i = 1,...,5 )

(2.17)

This is a set of five linear equations wherefrom the five redundant forces
X 1 to X 5 are determined.
The components of the displacement of joint 8 are given by Castiglianos
second theorem
u8 =

U
,
Fx

v8 =

U
.
Fy

(2.18)

2. DISPLACEMENT METHOD

15

In the force method, the larger the number of bars, the larger the number of
statically indeterminate forces, hence the number of equations (2.16).
Displacement Method

The elongation-displacement (compatibility) equations (2.5) are

l i = u 8 cosi + v 8 sin i .

( i = 1,...,7 )

(2.19)

( i = 1,...,7 )

(2.20)

The bar length is

li =

a
.
sin i

Substituting (2.19) into the force-elongation equations

Ti = EA

l i
li

( i = 1,...,7 )

(2.21)

( i = 1,...,7 )

(2.22)

gives the force-displacement relations

Ti =

EA
u 8 cos i + v 8 sin i sin i .
a

Inserting (2.22) into the equilibrium equations (2.14) of joint 8 yields

a
Fx u8
EA

a
Fy u8
EA

i =1
7

cos 2 i sin i v 8
2

i =1
7

cos i sin i v 8

i =1

sin 2 i cos i = 0 ,
(2.23)
3

sin i = 0 ,

i =1

which is solved for u8 and v 8 .

Regardless the number of concurrent bars, only two equations are obtained
for the two joint displacements. In matrix form they can be written
Fx K11
=
Fy K 21

where the stiffness coefficients are

K12 u8

K 22 v 8

(2.24)

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

16

K11 =

EA
a

cos2i sini = 1.409

i =1

K12 = K 21 =
K 22 =

EA
a

EA
a

EA
,
a

cosi sin 2i = 0,

(2.25)

i =1

sin 3 i = 4.567

i =1

EA
.
a

Solving (2.24) gives

u 8 = 0.7097

Fx a
,
EA

v 8 = 0.219

Fy a
EA

(2.26)

The approach used in the displacement method is the same whether the
structure is statically determinate or not.

3.
DIRECT STIFFNESS METHOD

The Finite Element Method (FEM) started as an extension of the stiffness

method or displacement method. In the stiffness method for skeletal structures, the
elements of the actual structure are connected together at discrete joints. The
relationship between the end forces and end displacements of each member is
represented by an element stiffness matrix.
We may imagine that the structure is built by adding elements one by one,
with each element being placed in a preassigned location. As elements are added to
the structure, contributions are made to the structure load carrying capacity, hence
to the structure stiffness matrix, which relates all joint displacements to all joint
forces. If the members are pin-ended bars they are real distinct elements requiring
no approximation. They are natural finite elements. Assembly and solution for
displacements are of main concern.
Starting with simple planar frameworks it is possible to explain the
assembly process and to make an introduction into the matrix stiffness method. In
the following, the basic steps of the Direct Stiffness Method (DSM) are shown
using a pin-jointed plane truss.

3.1 Stiffness matrix for a bar element

In the FEM, the names joint and member are replaced by node and
element, respectively. Consider a two-noded pin-jointed element in the own local
coordinate system (Fig. 3.1). It has length l e , cross section area Ae and Youngs
modulus Ee . Nodes are conveniently numbered 1 and 2. It is acted upon by the
nodal forces f1 , f 2 . The nodal displacements are q 1 , q 2 .
Generally, bar elements are assumed to be uniform (EAe = const.) , pinconnected at the ends, linearly elastic, axially loaded (no bending) and with no
forces between ends.

18

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

Fig. 3.1
Both the nodal displacements q 1 , q 2 and the nodal forces f1 , f 2 are
positive in the positive x direction.
The equilibrium equation for the bar element is

f1 + f 2 = 0.

(3.1)

Next, the force/elongation relations are used, which incorporate

compatibility and stress/strain relations. If end 1 is fixed and end 2 is allowed to
f l
move, then for q 1 = 0 , q 2 = 2 e and
Ee Ae
E A
f1 = f 2 = e e q 2 .
(3.2)
le

Similarly, if end 2 is now fixed but end 1 allowed to move,

f l
q 2 = 0 , q 1 = 1 e and
Ee Ae
Ee Ae
q1 .
le

f1 = f 2 =

(3.3)

Combining equations (3.2) and (3.3), the complete stiffness relationship is

obtained as

f 1
Ee Ae 1 1
=
l e 1 1
f 2 e
123 1442443
element
stiffness
matrix

nodal
forces

or

q1
q
2 e
12
3

nodal
displacements

{ f }= [ k ] { q }
e

(3.4)

(3.5)

where the element stiffness matrix in local coordinates is

[ k ] = El A
e

e e
e

1 1
1 1 .

(3.6)

19

3. DIRECT STIFFNESS METHOD

3.2 Transformation from local to global coordinates

Bar elements in a truss have different orientations in space and it is
necessary to define their stiffness properties with respect to a single global
coordinate system attached to the whole structure. End forces and displacements
have two components at each node, so that nodal forces and nodal displacements
can be arranged into 4-element column vectors related by a 4 4 stiffness matrix.

3.2.1 Coordinate transformation

A typical bar element 1-2 is shown in Figure 3.2, where both the local
coordinate system xOy and the global coordinate system XOY are drawn. Nodal
displacements are denoted by lower case letters in the local coordinate system and
by upper case letters in the global coordinate system.

Fig. 3.2
Let the bar be inclined an angle e with respect to the X-axis of the global
coordinate system. In fact, the angle e is the angle between the positive X-axis
and the positive direction of the beam (defined as 1 to 2).
Displacements in the local coordinate frame xOy can be expressed in
terms of the displacements in the global coordinate frame as (2.4)

q 1 = Q x1 cos e + Q y1 sin e ,
q 2 = Q x 2 cos e + Q y 2 sin e .
In matrix form

(3.7)

20

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

Qx1
Q
y1

Qx 2
Qy2
1
e
424
3

q 1
0
0
cos e sin e
=
q
0
0
cos

sin
e
2
e

e
1
424
3
1444444
424444444
3

local
displacements

transformation
matrix

or

global
displacements

{ q }= [T ] { Q },
e

where

[T ] = cos0
e

(3.9)

sin e
0

(3.8)

0
cos e

0
sin e

is a coordinate transformation matrix.

From nodal coordinate data, denoting

( X 1 ,Y1 )

(3.10)

and

( X 2 ,Y 2 )

the

coordinates of nodes 1 and 2, respectively, we obtain

cos e =

X 2 X1
le

sin e =

Y 2 Y1
le

le =

(X 2 X 1 ) 2 + (Y 2 Y1 ) 2 .

The entries in the matrix (3.10) are calculated based on the above equations.

3.2.2 Force transformation

Consider the pin-jointed member (Fig. 3.3) subjected to forces f1 and f2
applied at the ends 1 and 2.

Fig. 3.3
The force components in the global coordinate system are

21

3. DIRECT STIFFNESS METHOD

In matrix form

Fx1 = f1 cos e ,

Fx 2 = f 2 cos e ,

Fy1 = f1 sin e ,

Fy 2 = f 2 sin e .

(3.11)

Fx1
0
cos e
F
sin
0 f1
y1
e

=
F
,
0
cos e f 2 e
x2

Fy
sin e
0
2 e
1
424
3 144
42444
3 123

global
force
components

or

(3.12)

local
forces

transformation
matrix

{ F } = [ T ] { f }.
e T

(3.13)

Equation (3.13) can be directly obtained from consideration of mechanical

work. Work is a scalar quantity, having the same value regardless the coordinate
system

{ f } { q }= {F } { Q } .
e T

e T

(3.14)

Substituting (3.9) for the local displacements, equation (3.14) becomes

{ f } { q } = { f } [T ] { Q } = {F } { Q } ,
e T

hence

e T

e T

{ f } [T ] = { F }
e T

e T

which by transposition becomes (3.13).

3.2.3 Element stiffness matrix in global coordinates

Inserting equation (3.5) into (3.13), then equation (3.9) into the resulting
matrix product, and comparing with (3.13)

{F }= [T ] { f }= [T ] [ k ] { q }= [1T 4]44[2k 4][4T43] { Q }

e

we find

e T

e T

{F } = [ K ] { Q }

(3.15)

[ K ] = [T ] [ k ] [T ]. .

(3.16)

where

e T

e T

22

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

Carrying out the matrix multiplications and using (3.10) we find the
element stiffness matrix in global coordinates

[K ]
e

c2
cs c2 cs

E A cs
s2 cs s2
= e e 2
,
l e c
cs c2
cs

2
cs
s 2
c s s

(3.17)

where c = cos e and s = sin e .

Remember that the element stiffness matrix is a proportionality factor
between the components of forces applied by the nodes to the element and the
components of nodal displacements in global coordinates
Fx1
F
Ee Ae
y1

=
F
le
x2
Fy 2

c2
c s c 2 c s Qx1

s 2 c s s 2 Qy1

c2
c s Q x 2

s 2 Q y 2 e
SYM

(3.17, a)

3.2.4 Properties of the element stiffness matrix

The element stiffness matrix is symmetric, with positive diagonal
elements, singular (order 4, rank 1) and each column (row) sums to zero.
3.2.4.1 Symmetric matrix

Stiffness matrices are symmetrical

[ K ]= [K ]

e T

Expressing displacements in terms of forces gives

{ Q }= [ K ] { F }= [ ] { F }
e

so that the inverse of the stiffness matrix is the flexibility matrix

[K ]
e

[ ]

= e .

(3.18)

[ ]

According to Maxwells reciprocity theorem, the flexibility matrix e

must be symmetrical about the leading diagonal. And so must be its inverse, the
stiffness matrix.

23

3. DIRECT STIFFNESS METHOD

The same result can be obtained following strain energy arguments. For
linear structures, displacements are proportional to the applied loads. As forces are
increased from zero to their final values, the total work done by these forces is

{ }{ }

T
1
Qe
Fe .
(3.19)
2
In the absence of dynamic effects, this work is absorbed by the structure as
strain energy. Substituting (3.15) into (3.19) we obtain the strain energy which is a
scalar
T
1
Ue =
Qe
K e Qe .
(3.20)
2

We =

{ } [ ]{ }

It is equal to its transpose

Ue =

so that

1
2

{ Q } [K ] { Q }
e T

[ K ]= [K ]
e

which defines the symmetry.

e T

(3.20, a)

3.2.4.2 Singular matrix

The element stiffness matrix is of order 4 and rank 1. The rank deficiency
is 3 and this corresponds to the three possible and independent forms of rigid body
motion in plane for the unsupported bar: two translations and one rotation.
A single ungrounded bar can be moved in space as a rigid body without
straining it and hence with zero strain energy. This means that there exist a set of

{ } [ K ] { Q }= 0
wherefrom [ K ] { Q } = { 0 } . This can only be true if the determinant of [ K ]
vanishes. The matrix [ K ] is said to be singular. The rigid body modes are defined

rigid body displacements

e

{Q }
e

for which

2U e = Q e

by the eigenvectors corresponding to its zero eigenvalues.

The zero determinant implies that there are linear relationships between its
columns (rows). The rank of a matrix is the size of the largest sub-matrix with a
non-zero determinant. One can verify that the determinants of the 3 3 and 2 2
reduced sets are still zero, so that the stiffness matrix has rank 1 (or its rank
deficiency is 3).
3.2.4.3 Positive diagonal elements

[ ]

Each diagonal entry of the matrix K e is positive. If this were not so, a
force and its corresponding displacement would be oppositely directed, which is

24

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

[ ]

physically unsound. Moreover, the matrix K e is positive semidefinite. That is,

the quadratic form that represents strain energy (3.20) is either positive or zero.
3.2.4.4 Each column (row) sums to zero

Consider a bar element with end 2 fixed Qx 2 = Q y 2 = 0 and end 1 having

a unit displacement along the global X-axis Qx1 = 1, Q y1 = 0 as in Fig. 3.4.

Fig. 3.4
Equation (3.17, a) can be written

. . . Qx1 = 1

. . . Q y1 = 0

. . . Qx 2 = 0

. . . Q y 2 = 0

(3.21)

Fx1 = k11 , Fy1 = k21 , Fx 2 = k31 , Fy 2 = k 41 .

(3.22)

Fx1 k11
F
y1 k 21

=
Fx 2 k31
Fy 2 k 41

which yields

This shows that the first column of the stiffness matrix represents the
forces that must be applied to the element to preserve static equilibrium when
Qx1 = 1 and all other displacements are zero.
The displacement Qx1 = 1 produces an axial shortening Qx1 cos e = cos e ,
E A
which corresponds to a compressive force e e cos e , whose components must
le
be equilibrated by the external forces k11 , k 21 , k31 and k 41 . Equilibrium of
horizontal and vertical forces yields

k11 + k31 = 0 ,

k21 + k41 = 0 ,

25

3. DIRECT STIFFNESS METHOD

so that the first column sums to zero. The same applies for the other columns.
In the element stiffness matrix, each column represents an equilibrium set
of nodal forces produced by a unit displacement of one nodal degree of freedom.

3.3 Links truss

In order to illustrate the assembly of the global stiffness matrix from the
elemental stiffness matrices, consider Links truss [74] shown in Fig. 3.5, already
analyzed in Chapter 2, Fig. 2.1.

Fig. 3.5
The truss comprises 3 elements and 3 nodes. It is simply supported in 2 and
3, firmly located in 1, and acted upon by forces 6F and 9F. The global
displacements and nodal forces are shown in Fig. 3.6. A node whose global index
is i has associated with it the global displacements and forces (2 i 1) and 2 i .

26

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

Fig. 3.6
Element data are given in Table 3.1 together with information useful for
the computation. The first three columns define the element connectivities, i.e.
their localization within the structure. Element numbering can be arbitrary.
Table 3.1
Nodes

Member

cos e

sin e

c2

s2

cs

le

EAe

EAe
le

EA

EA
l

45

2
2

2
2

1
2

1
2

1
2

2
l
2

2 EA 2

EA
l

135

2
2

1
2

1
2

2
l
2

2 EA 2

EA
l

2
2

1
2

3.4 Direct method

Using the data from Table 3.1, the element stiffness matrices (3.17) are
calculates as
1

[K ]
1

EA 0
=
l 1

3 4

0 1 0 1
0 0 0 2
0 1 0 3

0 0 0 4

1 1 1 1 1

E A 1 1 1 1 2 T
K2 =
1 5
l 1 1 1

1 6
1 1 1

[ ]

K
K

K
K K K K K

K K K K K

K
K
K
,
K
K

K K
K K

K K K K K K

,
K K K K K K
K K

K K

27

3. DIRECT STIFFNESS METHOD

and
3

1 1 1 1 3

1 1 4 T
E A 1 1
K3 =
1 1 5
l 1 1

1 1 1 1 6

[ ]

K
K

K
K

K K K K K
K K K K K
K
.
K
K

At the top and on the right of the element stiffness matrices, the numbering
of coordinates in the global stiffness matrix is shown, according to Table 3.2.

Table 3.2
Node

Element
1
2
3

2
Direction
X
Y
X
Y
Local nodal coordinate
1
2
3
4
Global nodal coordinate
1
2
3
4
1
2
5
6
3
4
5
6

The assembly of the unreduced global stiffness matrix (3.28) is done

systematically, locating each coefficient of the element stiffness matrices into the
appropriate place in the global 6 6 matrix (for this example), as indicated by dots
above, eventually adding it to the coefficients already accumulated at that location.
This is referred to as the direct matrix method.
For instance, element 2 is located in the truss between the left end node
i = 1 and the right end node j = 3 (nodal labels i and j may be assigned arbitrarily).
In the global matrix, the two displacement and force components (along X and Y)
for node i = 1 are numbered 2 i 1 = 1 and 2 i = 2 , and those for the node j = 3 are
numbered 2 j 1 = 5 and 2 j = 6 .
The simple addition of different stiffness coefficients in a location is based
on the fact that finite element equations are in fact nodal equilibrium equations, so
that if a node is common to several elements, each member will contribute with a
force component to maintain equilibrium under an arbitrary set of nodal
displacements. An alternative algebraic explanation of the assembly of system
stiffness matrices is presented in the following.

28

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

3.5 Compatibility of nodal displacements

The compatibility of nodal displacements at element level, with the nodal
displacements at the whole truss structure level, can be expressed by equations of
the form
~
(3.23)
Q e = T e { Q },

{ } [ ]

{ Q } is the element displacement vector in global coordinates, {Q } is the

~
displacement vector of the truss structure and [T ] is referred to as a

where

e
full
connectivity or localization matrix, containing ones at the nodal displacements of
element nodes and zeros elsewhere.

yields

For the truss from Fig. 3.5, equation (3.23) applied to the three elements

{Q }
1

Q1 1

Q 0
= 2 =
Q3 0
Q4 0

Q1 1
Q 0

2
Q = 2 =
Q5 0
Q6 0

{ }

Q3 0
Q
0
Q3 = 4 =
Q5 0
Q6 0

{ }

0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0

0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0
0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0

0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0

Q1

0 Q2
0 Q3
~
= T1
0 Q4

0 Q5

Q6

[ ] [Q ] ,

Q1

0 Q2

0 Q3
~
= T 2
0 Q4

1 Q5

Q6

[ ] [ Q ],

Q1

0 Q2
0 Q3
~
= T 3
0 Q4

1 Q5

Q6

[ ] [ Q ].

29

3. DIRECT STIFFNESS METHOD

3.6 Expanded element stiffness matrix

The element strain energy in global coordinates can be written in terms of
the global displacement vector, substituting (3.23) into (3.20, a)
Ue =

or

1
2

{ Q }T [T~ e ] T [ K e ][T~ e ]{ Q }
Ue =

1
2

{ Q }T [ K~ e ]{ Q },

where the expanded element stiffness matrix

[ K~ ] = [T~ ] [ K ] [T~ ]
e

(3.24)

has the size of the system matrix.

For the truss from Fig. 3.5, equation (3.24) yields

[K~ ] = [T~ ] [ K ][T~ ]

1

1 T

1
0

0
=
0
0

0 0 0
1 0 0
1

0 1 0 EA 0

0 0 1 l 1

0 0 0
0

0 0 0

0 1 0 1
0 0 0 0

0 1 0 0

0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 0 0
,
0 1 0 0 0

0 0 1 0 0

or
1
0

~ 1 EA 1
K =

l 0
0

[ ]

[K~ ] = [T~ ] [K ][T~ ]

2

2 T

1
0

0
=
0
0

0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0
.
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0
1 0 0
1 1 1 1 0 0
1

0 0 0 EA 1
1 1 1 0 1 0

0 0 0 l 1 1 1
1 0 0 0

0 1 0
1 0 0 0
1 1 1

0 0 1

0 0 0
0 0 0
,
0 1 0

0 0 1

30

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

or

[K~ ]
2

and

1
1
1
1

0
EA 0
=

0
l 0
1 1

1 1

[K~ ] = [T~ ] [ K ][T~ ]

3 T

or

[K~ ]
3

0
0

1
=
0
0

0
0

EA 0
=

l 0
0

0 0 1 1
0 0 1 1
0 0 0
0

0 0 0
0
0 0 1
1

0 0 1
1

0 0 0
0 0 0
1 1 1 1 0
0 0 0 EA 1 1
1 1 0

1 0 0 l 1 1 1 1 0

0 1 0
1 1 1 1 0

0 0 1
0
0

0
0

0
0

0 1 0 0 0

0 0 1 0 0
,
0 0 0 1 0

0 0 0 0 1

0
0

0
0
0 1 1 1 1
.
0 1 1
1 1
0 1 1
1 1

0 1 1 1 1

3.7 Unreduced global stiffness matrix

The strain energy for the complete truss structure
1
T
{
Q } [ K ] { Q },
2
can be calculated by simply adding the element strain energies

U=

U=

1
1
~
~
U = 2 { Q } [ K ]{ Q } = 2 { Q } [ K ] { Q }.
T

(3.25)

(3.26)

Comparing (3.25) and (3.26) we get

[ K ] = [ K~ e ]

(3.27)

The global stiffness matrix is equal to the sum of the expanded element
stiffness matrices.

31

3. DIRECT STIFFNESS METHOD

[ ]

The unreduced stiffness matrix K is symmetric, singular (for a plane

truss, the deficiency is 3), has positive elements along the main diagonal and each
column (row) sums to zero. It corresponds to the free-free system. For a grounded
system, this matrix is condensed using the boundary conditions.
The effect of elastic supports modelled as lumped springs can be accounted
for by adding their stiffnesses along the main diagonal at the appropriate locations
in the stiffness matrix.
For the truss from Fig. 3.5, equation (3.27) yields

[ K ] = [ K~ 1 ]+ [ K~ 2 ]+ [ K~ 3 ]

2 1 1 0 1 1
1 1
0
0 1 1

2 1 1 1
EA 1 0
=
.

0 1 1 1 1
l 0
1 1 1 1 2
0

2
1 1 1 1 0

(3.28)

The expanded element stiffness matrices have been used above only to
show algebraically how to assemble a global stiffness matrix; they are never used
in practice. The expensive product (3.24) is never formed. The global stiffness
assembly is a simple book-keeping exercise and is done by directly placing the
nonzero coefficients of element stiffness matrices in the right locations of the
global stiffness matrix based on element connectivity.

3.8 Joint force equilibrium equations

The assembly of the global stiffness matrix has been based on strain energy
considerations. An alternative presentation is given below, based on joint
equilibrium equations, using for convenience the truss from Fig. 3.5.
Note that element equilibrium equations (3.1) used so far involved only
forces applied by nodes to the elements. The joint equilibrium equations, involving
forces applied by elements to nodes, are used in the following.
An exploded layout of the truss is shown in Fig. 3.7. Apart from external
forces and support reactions, nodes are acted upon by forces equal and in opposite
direction to those applied to elements. Equal forces are labelled only once for
clarity.
Resolving nodal forces horizontally and vertically, we obtain 6 equilibrium
equations

32

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

F1 = Fx11 + Fx21 ,

F3 = Fx12 + Fx31 ,

F2 = Fy11 + Fy21 ,

F4 = Fy12 + Fy31 ,

F5 = Fx22 + Fx32 ,
F6 = Fy22 + Fy32 .

Fig. 3.7
In matrix form

F1 1 0 0 0
F
2 0 1 0 0
F3 0 0 1 0
=
F4 0 0 0 1
F5 0 0 0 0

F6 0 0 0 0
14
4244
3

[ T~ ]

1 T

Fx11
1
Fy1
1
Fx 2
Fy12
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 Fx21
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 Fy21

0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 Fx22
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 Fy22

0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
144244
3 14
4244
3 F3
x1
~2 T
~3 T
T
T
F3
y1
Fx32
3
Fy 2

[ ]

[ ]

whose partitioned form can be written in scalar product form as

{ F } = [ T~1 ] T {F 1 }+ [ T~ 2 ] T {F 2 }+ [ T~ 3 ] T {F 3 }
or generally

{ F } = [ T~ e ] T {F e }.
e

(3.29)

33

3. DIRECT STIFFNESS METHOD

Substituting (3.15) and (3.23), equation (3.29) becomes

{ F } = [ T~ e ] T [ K e ]{Q e }=
e

[1T~4]44[ K24][4T~43] {Q },
e T

(3.30)

then, using equations (3.24) and (3.27), it can be written

{ F } = [ K~ e ] {Q } = [ K ] {Q }.
e

(3.31)

[ ]

The unreduced global stiffness matrix K relates the unreduced vector of

nodal forces

{ F } to the unreduced vector of nodal displacements { Q }.

3.9 Reduced global stiffness matrix

The global truss should be supported adequately and there should be no
internal mechanism. Boundary conditions eliminate the possibility of the structure
to move as a rigid body.
A general type of boundary conditions include specified displacements of
the support nodes, of the type Qi = ai ( i = 1 to ns ), where ns is the number of
supports. Most often the support nodal displacements are zero, Qi = 0 . Another
type are the multipoint constraints, encountered in inclined roller supports and rigid
connections, of the type bi Qi + b j Q j = b0 , where bi , b j and b0 are known
constants.
For an N-degree-of-freedom structure, the finite element equations (3.31)
are of the form
K11 K12 L K1N Q1 F1
K

21 K 22 L K 2 N Q2 = F2 .
L
L L L L L

K N 1 K N 2 L K NN QN FN
Consider a single boundary condition, Q1 = a1 . As Q1 is known, the finite
element equations in the remaining N 1 unknowns are
K 22
K
32
L

K N 2

K 23
K 33
L
KN3

L K 2 N Q2 F2 K 21 a1
L K 3 N Q3 F3 K 31 a1
=
.
L L L
L

L K NN QN FN K N 1 a1

(3.32)

34

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

The ( N 1 ) (N 1) stiffness matrix above is obtained simply by deleting

or eliminating the first row and column from the original ( N N ) stiffness matrix.
Equation (3.32) may be written in condensed form

[ K ] { Q } = { F },

(3.33)

where [K ] is a reduced stiffness matrix, obtained by eliminating the row and

column corresponding to the specified or support degrees of freedom, { Q } and
{ F } are the reduced vectors of global displacements and forces, respectively.
For a truss supported on many supports, the reduced global stiffness matrix
is obtained deleting as many rows and columns as the number of specified
displacements. The final equations (3.33) can be solved for the displacement vector
{ Q } using Gauss elimination. The matrix [ K ] is not singular.
It is instructive now to consider the truss from Fig. 3.5. Having assembled
the unreduced global stiffness matrix, after substitution of the boundary conditions
Q1 = Q2 = Q4 = Q5 = 0 and the values of the applied forces F3 = 6 F and F6 = 9 F ,
the following set of linear equations is obtained
1 1
0 1 1 0 F1
2

1
1
0
0 1 1 0 F2

0
2 1 1
1 Q3 6 F
EA 1

= .
0 1 1
1 1 0 F4
l 0
1 1 1 1
2
0 0 F5

0
2 Q6 9 F
1 1 1 1

(3.34)

It can be seen that where the displacements are specified, the nodal forces
are unknown, and where the forces are specified, the nodal displacements are
unknown. Equations (3.34) can be rearranged as follows
2
1

2
1

EA 1 1
l 0 1

1 1

1 0

0 1 1 Q3 6 F

1 1 1 0 Q6 9 F

2
1
0 1 0 = F1 .

1
1
0 1 0 F2

0
0
1
1 0 F4

1 1
1
2 0 F5
1

The first two equations can be written

EA 2 1 Q3 6 F
=
l 1 2 Q6 9 F

(3.35)

35

3. DIRECT STIFFNESS METHOD

and solved to give

Fl
Fl
Q6 = 4
,
.
EA
EA
In general, for non-zero boundary conditions, equations (3.33) can be
written in partitioned form
Q3 =

[ K aa ]
[K ]
ba

where

{ Fa }

[ K ab ] { Qa } { Fa }

=
,
[ K bb ] { Qb } { Fb }

is the vector of known forces,

displacements and [ K ba ] = [ K ab ] .

{ Qb }

(3.36)
is the vector of known

The first set of equations can be written

{ Fa } = [ K aa ] { Qa }+ [ K ab ] { Qb } ,

(3.37)

then multiplied to the left by [ K aa ] 1 to yield the unknown displacements

{ Qa } = [ K aa ] 1 ( { Fa } [ K ab ] { Qb } ) ,

(3.38)

3.10 Reactions and internal forces

The unknown forces, which in this case are the external reactions, are
given by
{ Fb } = [ K ab ] T { Qa }+ [ K bb ] { Qb } .
(3.39)
For the truss from Fig. 3.5, the support displacements are zero, so that
F1
5F
1 1
F
0 1 Q

3 4 F
2 EA

=
=


.
l 1 1 Q6 5 F
F4

F5
F
1 0
The elongation of an element (2.5) is

l e = q2 q1 = ( Qx 2 Qx1 ) cos e + ( Q y 2 Q y1 ) sin e

which can be computed when all displacements have been determined.

The axial force in a truss element is

(3.40)

36

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

Qx1
Q
E A
E A
y1
Te = e e l e = e e b c s c s c
.
le
le
Q x 2
Q y 2
e

For the truss from Fig. 3.5, the member forces are

(3.41)

Q1
Q
EA

EA
T1 =
b1 0 1 0c 2 =
Q3 = F ,
Q
l
l
3
Q4
Q1
Q
2 EA 2
2
T2 =
b 1 1 1 1c
=
l 2
Q5
Q6
Q3
Q
2 EA 2
4
T3 =
b1 1 1 1 c
=
l 2
Q5
Q6

2 EA
Q6 = 4 2 F ,
l

2 EA
( Q3 + Q6 ) = 5 2 F .
l

Stresses can be determined dividing these forces by the element crosssection areas.

3.11 Thermal loads and stresses

Thermal stresses are calculated using the restraining method suggested
by J. M. C. Duhamel (1838).
Suppose the node displacements are completely restrained (blocked). This
produces thermal strains T = T , where is the coefficient of thermal
expansion and T is the amount of uniform heating (temperature difference). The
restrained state is equivalent to a pre-stressing with compressive stresses
T = ET , where E is Youngs modulus.
Restraining produces a compressive axial force EAT in the element,
where A is the cross-section area. Accordingly, the element acts upon its nodes
with equal and opposite forces

{ FT } = EAT b c

s c s cT ,

(3.42)

37

3. DIRECT STIFFNESS METHOD

or, in local coordinates,

{ fT } = EAT b 1

1cT .

(3.42, a)

These forces should be included in the vector of nodal forces (added to the
external forces, if the case). After determining the displacements produced by these
forces, the element elongations are determined from (3.37) and the stresses are
calculated as
l

(3.43)
e = Ee e T ,
le

i.e. adding to the stresses produced by the thermal (and external) loads, the initial
stresses produced by restraining. It is as if unrestraining forces are applied at the
ends of the element to free it from the initial restraining.

3.12 Node numbering

Stiffness matrices are symmetric and sparse. They are also banded, i.e.
with the nonzero elements clustered in a band along the main diagonal. This is
obvious for one-directional structures and can be achieved by rational node
numbering in other structures.
Consider the 12 12 unreduced global stiffness matrix of the truss from
Fig. 3.8, a, with nonzero elements in the upper triangle identified by the symbol X

K =

s y m m

[ ]

(3.44)

Because of symmetry, only the diagonal elements and those from one side
of the main diagonal are retained. Even so, due to the sparseness, there are many
zero elements in the upper triangle. The half-bandwidth is denoted B.

38

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

Since only nonzero elements need to be stored, the information in the

above matrix can be compactly stored in the 12 6 matrix below
1 2

[ Kb ]

The first column contains the diagonal elements of the full matrix (3.44).
The second column contains the elements from the second diagonal. In general, the
mth diagonal of the original matrix is stored as the mth column. The number of
columns in the banded-form storage is equal to B - the half-bandwidth of the
original matrix. The efficiency of band-storage increases with the order of the
matrix.

Fig. 3.8

For plane trusses, B is equal to 2 plus twice the maximum node number
difference in an element. For the numbering scheme of Fig. 3.8, a , B = 6 .
However, for the numbering from Fig. 3.8, b, B = 12 , i.e. equal to the size of the
original matrix.
As a general rule, a small bandwidth can be obtained by numbering nodes
along the shorter dimension of a structure, then progressing along the longer
dimension.

39

3. DIRECT STIFFNESS METHOD

The half-bandwidth is automatically determined within the finite element

program from the node numbering. Apart from storage savings, Gaussian
elimination algorithms are used for symmetric banded matrices which enable also
the reduction of computer time.
For large sparse stiffness matrices, efficient reduction of both storage and
computing time can be achieved using the skyline storage and a skyline equation
solver. In this case, the columns of the matrix upper triangle are stored serially and
concatenated in a column vector { K s } . If there are zeros at the top of a column,
only the elements between the diagonal term and the first nonzero term need be
stored. The line separating the top zeroes from the first nonzero element is called
the skyline.
Consider the following matrix
Column
height

k11 k12

k 22

0
k 23

k14
k 24

0
0

0
0

0
0

k33

k34
k 44

k35
0
k55

0
0
0

0
0

k 48
0

0
k 78

k88

k 47
0

k 66

k67
k77

Skyline

The active columns are stored in the column vector { K s } and a diagonal
pointer vector { ID } is built up with the indices of diagonal elements in { K s }
k11
k 1
12
k22

3
k23
k33

5
k14
{Ks } =
k24
k34

k44
L 9

L
k
88

1
3

5

9
{ ID } = .
12
13

17
22

40

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

The height of the jth column is given by ID ( j ) ID ( j 1) . For the

solution of the finite element equations, Gaussian elimination can be applied using
a skyline solver program.
A generic flow chart of the Matrix Displacement Method is given in the
following.
Matrix Displacement Method
Input Data
Geometric data of truss (Nodal coordinates)
Material properties + Cross-section area of members
Connectivity table of elements
Boundary conditions

Element stiffness matrix in local coordinates

Transformation to global coordinates

Assembly of the global stiffness matrix

Introduction of boundary conditions

Solving the linear set of equations

Back-calculation
External reactions
Member forces (and stresses)

41

3. DIRECT STIFFNESS METHOD

Exercises
E3.1. For the truss in Fig. E3.1, a, determine: a) the maximum nodal
displacement and its location b) the maximum stress and its location, and c) the
support reactions. Plot the deformed shape.

Fig. E3.1, a
Answer. a) The finite element model consists of 8 nodes and 13 elements.
Taking l = 1 , A = 1 , E = 1 and F = 1 , we obtain the following:
Nodal data
Node
nr
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Restr
X
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

Restr
Y
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1

Coord
X
0
4
4
8
8
12
12
16

Coord
Y
0
0
3
0
6
0
3
0

Axial
stress
16
-10
0
16
-9.16
-10.83
8

Element
nr
8
9
10
11
12
13

Displ
X
0
64
208.3
128
127.6
176
62.9
224

Displ
Y
0
-361.1
-361.1
-391.8
-343.7
-339.7
-339.7
0

Element data
Element
nr
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Nodes
1, 2
1, 3
2, 3
2, 4
3, 4
3, 6
4, 5

Nodes
4, 6
4, 7
5, 7
6, 7
6, 8
7, 8

Axial
stress
12
-4.16
-10.83
0
12
-15

42

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

The support reactions are R1 = 8 , R2 = 6 , and R3 = 9 . The deformed

shape is shown in Fig. E3.1, b.

Fig. E3.1, b
E3.2. Consider the pin-jointed framework shown in Fig. E3.2, a.
Determine: a) the maximum nodal displacement, b) the maximum stress, and c) the
support reactions. Plot the deformed shape.

Fig. E3.2, a
Answer. The finite element model consists of 7 nodes and 11 elements. a)
Fl
. b) The axial stress in
The vertical displacement of point 7 is v7 = 219.787
EA
element 7 is N 7 = 6 F A . c) The support reactions are R1 = R3 = 5.4 F , and
R2 = 6 F .
The deformed shape is presented in Fig. E3.2, b.

43

3. DIRECT STIFFNESS METHOD

Fig. E3.2, b
E3.3. Consider the truss shown in Fig. E3.3, a. Determine the location and
the value of: a) the maximum nodal displacement, b) the maximum stress.
Calculate c) the support reactions. Plot the deformed shape.

Fig. E3.3, a
Answer. The finite element model consists of 6 nodes and 9 elements. a)
Fl
. b) The axial stress in
The vertical displacement of point 3 is v3 = 137.83
EA
element 1 is N1 = 7.25 F A . c) The support reactions are R1 = 0 , R2 = 3.4 F and
R3 = 2.6 F .
The deformed shape is presented in Fig. E3.3, b.

44

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

Fig. E3.3, b
E3.4. Consider the truss shown in Fig. E3.4, a. Determine: a) the
maximum nodal displacement, b) the maximum stress, and c) the support reactions.
Plot the deformed shape.

Fig. E3.4, a
Answer. The finite element model consists of 4 nodes and 5 elements.
Taking l = 1 , A = 1 , E = 1 and F = 1 , we obtain the following:
Nodal data
Node
nr
1
2
3
4

Restr
X
1
1
0
0

Restr
Y
1
1
0
0

Coord
X
0
0
1
2

Coord
Y
0
1
0
1

Displ
X
0
0
-1.3294
2.6705

Displ
Y
0
0
-3.2095
-9.0896

45

3. DIRECT STIFFNESS METHOD

Element data
Element
nr
1
2
3
4
5

Nodes
3, 4
1, 3
2, 3
2, 4
1, 4

Axial
stress
- 0.940
- 1.329
0.940
1.335
- 0.749

a) The vertical displacement of point 4 is v4 = 9.09 F l E A . b) The axial

stress in element 4 is N 4 = 1.335 F A . c) The support reactions are
R1 = R3 = 2 F , R2 = 0.335F and R4 = 0.665F . The deformed shape is presented
in Fig. E3.4, b.

Fig. E3.4, b
E3.5. Consider the pin-jointed framework shown in Fig. E3.5, a where
point 6 is displaced v6 = 5 . Determine the location and the value of: a) the
maximum nodal displacement; b) the maximum stress. Plot the deformed shape.

Fig. E3.5, a

46

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

Answer. The finite element model consists of 14 nodes and 25 elements.

Taking l = 1 , A = 1 and E = 1 , the vertical displacements of points 7 and 8 are
v7 = v8 = 4.538 , and the axial stress in element 15 is N15 = 0.366 . The deformed
shape is presented in Fig. E3.5, b.

Fig. E3.5, b

4.
BARS AND SHAFTS
This chapter deals with simple one-dimensional structural elements, having
one degree of freedom per node. The displacement within the element is expressed
in terms of the nodal displacements using shape functions. The unknown
displacement field within an element is usually interpolated by a linear distribution.
This approximation becomes increasingly accurate as more elements are
considered in the model. For a bar without loads between ends the linear
interpolation is exact. The compatibility of adjacent elements requires only C 0
continuity. Displacements must be continuous across the element boundary.
For bars with distributed loads, true displacements are described by higher
order polynomials. It is shown that their use is tantamount to adding internal
nodes. However, it is common practice to use linear shape functions and two-node
elements without loads between ends. This implies replacement of the distributed
loads by equivalent forces applied to nodes. These kinematically equivalent forces
are determined using the appropriate shape functions from the condition to perform
the same mechanical work as the actual loading. In this section, the corresponding
element stiffness matrix and load vectors will be derived.

4.1 Plane bar elements

Bars are structural elements used to model truss elements, cables, chains
and ropes. Their longitudinal dimension is much larger than the transverse
dimensions. Bars are loaded only by axial forces. They are modeled by elements
having one-degree-of-freedom per node.

4.1.1 Differential equation of equilibrium

In a thin uniform rod of cross-section area A and Youngs modulus E, there
are axial displacements u = u (x ) due to axial loads p(x ) . The dimensions of p are
force/length. The displacement at x + d x will be u + du .

48

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

The axial strain is given by the strain-displacement relation

x = du d x .

(4.1)

The normal stresses result from Hookes law

x = E du d x .

(4.2)

Fig. 4.1
The internal axial force N is
du
.
(4.3)
dx
The equation of equilibrium of an infinitesimal element of length dx of the
rod (Fig. 4.1) is d N + p d x = 0 ,
N = A x = E A

dN
+ p (x ) = 0 ,
dx
or, using (4.3),

EA

d2 u
= p (x ) .
d x2

(4.4)

4.1.2 Coordinates and shape functions

Consider a two-node pin-jointed element in the own or local coordinate
system. Nodes are conveniently numbered 1 and 2, their coordinates in the physical
(Cartesian) reference system being x 1 and x 2 respectively (Fig. 4.2, a).
We define a natural or intrinsic reference system which permits the
specification of a point within the element by a dimensionless number

r=

x + x2
2
x 1

x 2 x 1
2

so that r = 1 at node 1 and r = +1 at node 2 (Fig. 4.2, b).

(4.5)

49

4. BARS AND SHAFTS

Fig. 4.2
Expressing the physical coordinate in terms of the natural coordinate yields

x = N1 (r ) x 1 + N 2 (r ) x 2 ,

(4.6)

where
1
( 1 r ) and N 2 (r ) = 1 ( 1 + r )
(4.7)
2
2
can be considered as geometric interpolation functions. The graphs of these
functions are shown in Figs. 4.3, a,b. They have a unit value at the node of the
same index and zero at the other node.
N1 (r ) =

Fig. 4.3

4.1.3 Bar not loaded between ends

For a prismatic bar not loaded between ends, p = 0 , d 2u d x 2 = 0 ,
d u d x = const . , so that the displacement field within the element may be expressed
as a linear polynomial

50

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

u (x ) = a + b x .

(4.8)

The two integration constants above may be determined from the nodal
displacements and the geometry of the element. With q1 = a + b x1 at node 1 and
q2 = a + b x2 at node 2, equation (4.8) becomes
u=

q2 q1
q x q2 x1
x+ 1 2
.
x2 x1
x2 x1

(4.9)

Equation (4.9) can also be written

u=

x x1
x + x2
q1 +
q2 ,
x2 x1
x2 x1

u=

1 r
1+ r
q1 +
q2 .
2
2

or, using (4.5),

The displacement of an arbitrary point within the element can be expressed

in terms of the nodal displacements q 1 and q 2 as

u = N1 (r ) q1 + N 2 (r ) q2 ,
where N1 (r ) =

(4.10)

1
( 1 r ) and N 2 (r ) = 1 ( 1 + r ) are the shape functions of the
2
2

element.
The polynomial form (4.6) is simpler, but the integration constants, a and
b, have no simple physical meaning. The nodal expansion (4.10) is more
complicated, but the integration constants, q 1 and q 2 , are the nodal
displacements.
In matrix form
2

u=

N q = N { q },
e

(4.11)

i =1

where

N = N1 N 2 and

{q }= { q
e

q2

}T .

(4.12)

Thus, the displacement at any point within an element can be found by

multiplying the matrix of shape functions by the vector of nodal displacements.

{ }

In (4.11), q e is the column vector of element nodal displacements and

is the row vector of displacement interpolation functions also named shape

51

4. BARS AND SHAFTS

functions. It is easy to check that u = q 1 at node 1 and u = q 2 at node 2, and that u

varies linearly (Fig. 4.3, c).
Equations (4.6) and (4.10) show that both the element geometry and the
displacement field are interpolated using the same shape functions, which is
referred to as the isoparametric formulation.

4.1.4 Element stiffness matrix in local coordinates

Strains can be expressed in terms of the shape functions as

x =

{ }

{ }

du d
e
e
=
N q = B q
dx dx

(4.13)

where
d

B = d x N

(4.14)

is the row vector of the derivatives of shape functions, generally called the element
strain-displacement matrix. It gives the strain at any point due to unit nodal
displacement.
The transformation from x to r in equation (4.5) yields
dx =

x 2 x1
2

dr =

le
dr ,
2

(4.15)

where 1 r +1 and the length of the element is l e = x 2 x 1 .

The element strain energy U e is

Ue =

1
2

x x

dV =

1
2

E
e

2
x

dV .

(4.16)

Substituting (4.13) in (4.16) we obtain

Ue =

1
2

{ q } B
e T

Ee B dV

{ q }.
e

(4.17)

Ve

144
42444
3

The above equation is of the form

Ue =

1
2

{ q } [ k ] { q },
e T

[ ]

where the element stiffness matrix k e is given by

(4.18)

52

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

[ k ] = B
e

[ ]

Ee B dV .

(4.19)

Ve

This form guarantees that k e will be a symmetric matrix.

In terms of the shape functions

[k ]= E A
e

e e

le

Because

(4.20)

dN dN d r 2 dN
=
=
, we can write
dx
dr d x l e dr

[ ke ] = 2 Ee Ae
le
Substituting

+1

dN dN

dr .
dr dr

(4.21)

d N2
1
d N1
1
= and
= + , equation (4.21) yields
dr
2
dr
2

[k ]
e

or

dN dN

dx .
dx dx

2E A
= e e
le

+1

[ k ] = El A 11
e

e e
e

1 2 1

1 2 2
1
.
1

1
dr
2

(4.22)

which is the same as equation (3.6).

4.1.5 Bar loaded between ends

For a prismatic bar acted upon by a uniformly distributed axial load,
p = const. , d 2u d x 2 = const . , so that the displacement field within the element
may be expressed as a quadratic polynomial
u (x ) = a + b x + c x 2 .

(4.23)

The three integration constants, a, b and c, have to be determined from

three boundary conditions. This can be done if we use a three-node onedimensional element. An internal node is added at the midpoint to comply with the
requirement of a quadratic fit (Fig. 4.4, a).

53

4. BARS AND SHAFTS

For a linearly distributed axial load (as in a bar rotating at constant angular
speed around an end, acted upon by a distributed centrifugal load proportional to
the distance to the rotation centre), the true displacement field is given by a cubic
polynomial, involving four integration constants (see Example 4.8).
For an exact solution, this implies using a four-node element (adding two
internal nodes). The usual practice is to assume an approximate lower order linear
displacement field, i.e. a two-node element and to replace the actual linearly
distributed load by equivalent nodal forces, having thus an element not loaded
between ends describable by linear shape functions.

Fig. 4.4
Consider the three-node quadratic element from Fig. 4.4, a, with node 3 at
the midpoint. Nodal coordinates are x1 , x2 , x3 , and the vector of element nodal

{ }

displacements is q e = { q1 q2 q3 }T . The x-coordinate system is mapped

onto an intrinsic r-coordinate system, given by the transformation
T

2 ( x x3 )
.
x2 x1
It comes out that r = 1 , 0, and + 1 at nodes 1, 3, and 2 (Fig. 4.4, b).
r=

(4.24)

The displacements within the element can be written in terms of the three
nodal displacements q 1 , q2 , and q 3 as

u = N1 (r ) q 1 + N 2 (r ) q 2 + N 3 (r ) q 3 ,
where the quadratic shape functions N i
N1 (r ) =

(4.25)

( i = 1, 2, 3 ) are

1
1
r ( 1 r ) , N 2 (r ) = r ( 1 + r ) ,
2
2
N 3 (r ) = ( 1 + r )( 1 r ) .

(4.26)

The graphs of the shape functions (4.26) are shown in Fig. 4.5. They have a
unit value at the node with the same index and zero at the other nodes. This is a
general property of the shape functions.

54

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

The expressions for these shape functions can be written down by

inspection. For example, since N1 = 0 at r = 0 and r = 1 , we know that N1 has to
contain the product r ( 1 r ) , i. e. the left hand part of the equations of the vertical
lines passing through nodes 3 and 2. That is, N1 is of the form N1 = C r ( 1 r ) .
The constant C is obtained from the condition N1 = 1 at r = 1 , which yields
C = 1 2 , resulting in the expression given in (4.26).

Fig. 4.5
The displacement field within the element is written in matrix form as
3

u=

N q = N { q } ,
e

(4.27)

i =1

where

N = N1 N 2 N3 and

{ q }= { q
e

q2

q3

}T .

(4.28)

At any point within an element the axial displacement can be found by

multiplying the matrix of shape functions by the vector of nodal displacements, as
in (4.27). It is easy to check that u = q 1 at node 1, because N1 = 1 and

N 2 = N3 = 0 . Similarly, u = q 2 at node 2, and u = q 3 at node 3. Thus, u is a

quadratic polynomial passing through q1 , q2 , and q3 (Fig. 4.6). It is obtained by
interpolation, using quadratic shape functions.

55

4. BARS AND SHAFTS

The element strain-displacement row vector B in (4.14) is given by

1 2r

B = d x N = d r N d x = l 2
e
d

dr

1+ 2r
2

2 r .

(4.29)

Fig. 4.6
The element stiffness matrix (4.19) is

[k ]
e

+1

Al
= e e
2

Ee B d r

or, substituting (4.29),

[k ]
e

1 8
7
Ee Ae
=
1
7 8 .

3l e
8 8 16

(4.30)

4.1.6 Vector of element nodal forces

Consider an axial load p (x ) , having the units of force per unit length,
distributed along the bar element. The mechanical work of such a force is
W=

u p dx = u

le

p dx .

(4.31)

le

Substituting (4.11), equation (4.31) becomes

{ } N

W = qe

le

It has the form

p dx .

(4.32)

56

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

{ } {f }

W = qe

(4.33)

where the element equivalent load vector is

{ f }= N
e

p dx =

le

le
2

+1

1 N

p dr .

(4.34)

For the linear two-node element, if the axial force is uniformly distributed,
p = const . , then

{f }
e

+1

l
= e p
2

T
N d r

(4.35)

or, substituting (4.7),

{ f }= p2l
e

A force

1
.
1

(4.36)

p le
, equal to half the total force on the element, is applied at each node.
2

For the quadratic three-node element, if p = const. , substituting the shape

functions (4.26) into (4.35), gives

{ f }= p l
e

T
1 6 1 6 2 3 .

(4.37)

4.1.7 Assembly of the global stiffness matrix and load vector

Assembly of the system stiffness matrix for one-dimensional structures
modelled as bars is carried out as shown in sections 3.4 to 3.7 for trusses.
Consider the five-node finite element model in Fig. 4.7, a. Each node has
only one degree of freedom in the x-direction. The nodal displacements are Q1 ,
Q2 ,, Q5 (Fig. 4.7, b). The global vector of nodal displacements is denoted by

{Q } = Q1

Q2

Q3

Q4

Q5 T .

The nodal forces are F1 , F2 ,, F5 . The global load vector is denoted by

{ F } = F1

F2

F3

F4

F5 T .

The unreduced global stiffness matrix [ K ]

proportionality factor between the two global vectors

plays the role of a

57

4. BARS AND SHAFTS

{ F } = [ K ] {Q }.

Fig. 4.7
The assembly of [ K ] from the element stiffness matrices can be explained
by an energy approach. Consider the strain energy in, say, element 3. We have
U3 =

1
2

{ q } [k ] { q }
3 T

or
U3 =

EA3 1 1 Q3
1
Q3 Q4

1 Q4
l 3 1
2

We can write U 3 as

U3 =

1
Q1 Q2
2

Q3 Q4

0
0

0
Q5

0
0

0
0
EA3
0
l3
EA
0 3
l3
0
0

or
U3 =

1
2

{ Q }T [ K~ 3 ] { Q },

0
0
EA
3
l3
EA3
l3
0

0
0

Q1
Q2

Q3
Q4

Q5

58

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

[ ]

~
where K 3 is the expanded stiffness matrix of element 3. It has the size of the

[ ]

global stiffness matrix, but the elements of the matrix k 3 occupy the third and

fourth rows and columns of the [ K ] matrix.

The strain energy of the entire structure is equal to the sum of the element
strain energies
U=

1
1
~
T ~
T
e U e = e 2 { Q } [ K e ]{ Q }= 2 { Q } e [ K e ] { Q }

so that, as in (3.27), the global stiffness matrix is equal to the sum of the expanded
element stiffness matrices
[ K ] = K~ e .

This is a convenient algebraic explanation of the assembly process, which

is never done in practice. The entries of the element matrices k e are placed in

[ ]

the appropriate locations of the global [ K ] matrix by the so-called direct method,
based on element connectivity. Overlapping elements are simply added as already
shown in section 3.4 for truss elements. This is based on the simple addition of
element strain energies.
The element matrices can be written

[ k ] = ElA 11
1

[ k ] = ElA
3

[ k ] = ElA

1 1
,
1 2

1 1 2
1 1 3 ,

[ k ] = ElA

1 1 3
,
1
1 4

1 1 4
.
1
1 5

At the top and on the right of the element stiffness matrices, the numbering
of coordinates in the global stiffness matrix is shown, according to the connectivity
Table 4.1.
Table 4.1
Element
1
2
3
4

Node
i
1
2
3
4

j
2
3
4
5

59

4. BARS AND SHAFTS

The result is the following unreduced global stiffness matrix

A1
l
1
A1
l1

[ K ]= E 0

A1
l1
A1 A2
+
l1 l 2
A
2
l2

A2
l2
A2 A3
+
l2 l3
A
3
l3

0
0

0 .

A4

l4
A4
l 4

A3
l3
A3 A4
+
l3 l4
A
4
l4

The global load vector is assembled as

{F }= R1

F2

0 0 F5 T .

The final finite element equations are obtained, as shown in section 3.5,
using the boundary condition, Q 1 = 0 . The reduced (non-singular) stiffness matrix
is obtained deleting the first row and column of the unreduced matrix, and the
reduced load vector - by deleting the first element. In fact, this information is
stored for the subsequent calculation of the reaction R 1 . Stresses are then
calculated from the axial forces obtained using equation (3.41).

4.1.8 Initial strain effects

Let an initial strain 0 be induced in a bar element. It may arise from
thermal action or by forcing members into place that are either too short or too
long, due to fabrication errors.
The stress-strain law in the presence of 0 is of the form

= E ( 0 ) .

(4.38)

The mechanical work of external nodal forces applied to suppress the

initial prestressing due to 0 is
W=

Ve

0 dV

Ve

0 dV = 0 Ee Ae

le

Substituting (4.13), the expression (4.39) becomes

dx .

(4.39)

60

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

{ }
T

W = qe

0 Ee Ae

dx .

(4.40)

le

It has the form (4.33), where the element load vector due to initial
straining is

{ f }=
e

0 Ee

Ae

le

l
dx = 0 Ee Ae e
2

+1

dr

(4.41)

or

{ f }=
e

+1
0 Ee Ae

hence

{ f }=
e

dN
le

d r = 0 Ee Ae
2
dr

0 Ee

+1

1
dr ,
1

1
Ae .
1

(4.42)

After solving for nodal displacements, stresses are computed as

e = Ee

q2 q1
+ ( Ee 0 ) .
le

(4.43)

In the case of thermal loading,

0 = T ,

(4.44)

where is the coefficient of thermal expansion and T is the average change in

temperature within the element.

4.2 Plane shaft elements

From Mechanics of Materials it is known that a uniform shaft of diameter
d and length l , from a material with shear modulus of elasticity G, acted upon by a
torque M t will twist an angle =

d4
Mt l
, where I p =
is the polar second
GIp
32

moment of area of the shaft cross section. The shaft torsional stiffness is then
GIp
M
K= t =
.

l
A two-node shaft finite element, of length l and torsional rigidity G I p , is
shown in Fig. 4.8. The nodal torques M 1 and M 2 can be related to the nodal
rotation angles 1 and 2 using the equilibrium and the torque/rotation equations

61

4. BARS AND SHAFTS

M1 = M 2 = K 1

when

2 = 0,

M 1 = M 2 = K 2 when

1 = 0.

(4.45)

Equations (4.45) may be written in matrix form as

M1 K

=
M 2 K
or in shorthand form

K 1

K 2

(4.46)

{ M }= [ k ] { },
e

where

[ k ] = GlI
e

1 1
1 1

(4.47)

is the stiffness matrix of the shaft element.

Fig. 4.8
The derivation of the shaft stiffness matrix is essentially identical to the
derivation of the stiffness matrix for an axially loaded bar element. Similarity
between these two derivations occurs because the differential equations for both
problems have the same mathematical form. The differential equation for torsional
displacement is
Mt
d
,
(4.48)
=
dx GI p
while for the axial displacement is (4.3)
du
N
=
.
(4.49)
dx E A
The rotation angle of an arbitrary section within the shaft element can be
expressed in terms of the nodal rotations 1 and 2 as

= N1 (r ) 1 + N 2 (r ) 2 .

(4.50)

62

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

where
N1 (r ) =

1
( 1 r ) and N 2 (r ) = 1 ( 1 + r )
2
2

(4.51)

are the shape functions of the shaft element, the same as for the axially loaded bar
element.
Analogous to equation (4.20), the stiffness matrix for the shaft element can
be calculated from

[ k ] = G I ddNx

e pe

le

dN
dx dx

(4.52)

or

[ ke ] =
which yields

2 Ge I p e
le

[ k ] = G lI
e

+1

pe

dN dN
dr dr dr

1 1
1 1

(4.53)

(4.54)

Equation (4.54) is also used to account for torsional effects in grid finite
elements, as equation (4.22) is used to account for axial effects in inclined beam
finite elements. For non-axially-symmetric cross sections, the polar second
moment of area I p is replaced by the torsional constant I t .

Example 4.1
Consider the bar in Fig. E4.1 with d = 5 mm , l = 0.2 m , E = 200 GPa ,
loaded by an axial load F = 2 kN . Determine: a) the displacement of point 2, b) the
stresses in bar, and c) the support reactions.

Fig. E4.1
Solution. a) The bar is divided into three bar finite elements.

63

4. BARS AND SHAFTS

The areas of the cross sections are

A1 =

d2
4

= 19.62 mm 2 , A2 = A3 =

( 1,4 d

)2

= 38.47 mm 2 .

The element stiffness matrices are

[ k ] = 2 1040019.62 11
1

[ k ] = [ k ] = 2 10200 38.47 11
2

1
= 9.81 103
1

1 1 N ,
1
1 mm

1
= 38.47 103
1

1 1 N
.
1
1 mm

The global unreduced stiffness matrix is

9.81
0
0
9.81
9.81 9.81 + 38.47
38.47
0
3
[ K ] = 10 0
.
38.47
38.47 + 38.47 38.47

0
38.47
38.47
0
Including the boundary conditions (degrees of freedom 1 and 4 are fixed),
the finite element equations can be written

9.81
0
0 0
9.81
9.81 48.28 38.47
0 Q2
103

0
38.47 76.94 38.47 Q3

38.47 38.47 0
0
0

R1
0

=
3 .

2
10

R4

Retaining only the second and third equation yields

48.28 38.47 Q2 0
103
=

3
38.47 76.94 Q3 2 10
with solutions

Q2 = 34.42 mm ,

Q3 = 43.21 mm .

b) The reactions are obtained from the first and fourth equation
R1 = 9.81 Q2 = 9.81 103 34.42 = 337.8 N ,
R4 = 38.47 Q3 = 38.47 103 43.21 = 1662 .2 N .

c) Stresses are

64

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

12 = E 12 = E

Q2 Q1
Q
34.42
N
= E 2 = 2 105
= 17.2
,
l1
2l
400
mm 2

23 = E 23 = E

Q3 Q2
Q Q2
8.79
N
=E 3
= 2 105
= 8.79
,
200
l2
l
mm 2

34 = E 34 = E

Q4 Q3
Q
43.21
N
= E 3 = 2 105
= 43.2
.
l3
l
200
mm 2

Example 4.2
A support, consisting of a steel bar 1 fitted inside a cast iron tube 2, is
loaded by a 60 kN axial force, as in Fig. E4.2. Consider A1 = 200 mm 2 ,
A2 = 800 mm 2 , E1 = 210 GPa , E2 = 120 GPa , l = 0.2 m . Determine: a) the
elongation of the assembly, b) the stress in each material, and c) the internal forces
in bar and tube.

Fig. E4.2
Solution. a) Using a two-node two-element finite element model, the
element stiffness matrices are

[ k ] = 2.110200 200 11
5

[ k ] = 1.2 10200 800 11

2

1
= 2.1 105
1

1 1 N ,
1
1 mm

1
= 4.8 105
1

1 1 N
.
1
1 mm

The global unreduced stiffness matrix is

[ K ] = 105 2.2.11 + 44..88

2.1 4.8
= 6.9 105

2.1 + 4.8

1 1 N
.
1
1 mm

65

4. BARS AND SHAFTS

If point 1 is fixed, the finite element equations are

1 1 0 R1
6.9 105
=

4 ,
1 1 Q2 6 10

Q2 = 0.087 mm ,
which is equal to the beam shortening.
b) Stresses are

1 = E1 1 = E1

Q2 Q1
Q
0.087
N
= E1 2 = 2.1 105
= 91.3
,
200
l
l
mm 2

2 = E2 2 = E2

Q2 Q1
Q
0.087
N
= E2 2 = 1.2 105
= 52.14
.
l
l
200
mm 2

c) Internal forces are

N1 = 1 A1 = 91.3 200 = 18.26 kN ,
N 2 = 2 A2 = 52.14 800 = 41.74 kN .

Example 4.3
The temperature of the bar in Fig. E4.3 is raised 800 C . If E = 130 GPa
and = 17 106 , determine the thermal stresses.

Fig. E4.3
Solution. We should first determine whether contact occurs between the
bar and the wall. If the wall does not exist, the displacement of point 2 is

l = l T = 1800 17 10 6 80 = 2.448 mm > 2 mm

so that the contact does occur.
Denoting by A the cross section area, the temperature forces (4.42) are

66

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

1
1
1
6
5
= 17 10 80 1.3 10 A = 176.8 A N .
1
1
1

{ fT } = T E A

The stiffness matrix is

A 1 1 N .
1 mm
1800 1

[ k ] = 1.3 10

As point 1 is fixed, the finite element equations are

1.3 105 A 1 1 0 R 1 176.8 A
1 1 2 = R + 176.8 A
1800

wherefrom we get the reactions

R 1 = 176.8 A 144.4 A = 32.4 A ,

R 2 = 32.4 A ,

so that the normal stress is

R2
N
.
= 32.4
A
mm 2

Example 4.4
A prismatic bar is made of two different materials, as shown in Fig. E4.4.
The temperature of the central part is raised T 0C . Determine the axial stress in the
bar.

Fig. E4.4
Solution. The bar is divided into three linear finite elements. The element
stiffness matrices are

[ k ] = [ k ] = El A 11
1

1 ,
1

[ k ] = E2lA 11
2

For element 2, the vector of nodal thermal forces is

{ f }= T E A 1
2

1T .

1 .
1

67

4. BARS AND SHAFTS

Using the boundary conditions Q1 = Q4 = 0 , the finite element equations

can be written

E2

A E2

l 0

E2
E
E2 + 1
2
E1

2
0

0
E
1
2
E1
+ E2
2
E2

0
0
0 Q
2

E2 Q3
0
E2

R1

T E A

1
.
=
T E1 A

R4

The second and third equation yield

A
l

E1

E2 + 2

E
1
2

E1
2 Q2 = T E A 1

1
E
1
E2 + 1 Q3
2

with solutions
Q2 = T l

E1
,
E1 + E2

Q3 = T l

E1
.
E1 + E2

The strains in elements are

1 = 3 =

Q2
Q
E1
,
= 4 = T
l
l
E1 + E2

2 =

Q3 Q2
E1
.
=T
2l
E1 + E2

Stresses are

1 = 3 = E2 1 = T

1
,
1
1
+
E1 E2

2 = E1 2 E1 T = T

1
= 1.
1
1
+
E1 E2

Example 4.5
A steel bolt of active length l = 100 mm and diameter = 10 mm is single
threaded with a 1.6 mm pitch. It is mounted inside a copper tube with diameters
d = 12 mm and D = 18 mm (Fig. E4.5, a). After the nut has been fitted smugly, it
is tightened one-quarter of a full turn. Determine stresses in bolt and tube, if for
steel E1 = 208 GPa and for copper E2 = 100 GPa .
Solution. The assembly is modeled by two bar finite elements as in Fig.
E4.5, b. Both elements have fixed ends at points 1 and 4 so that Q1 = Q4 = 0 .
The problem has a multipoint constraint

68

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

Q3 Q2 = 0.4 mm .
Such conditions are programmed using a so-called penalty approach.
Herein a simpler straightforward solution is given.

Fig. E4.5
The cross section areas are
A1 =

2
4

= 78.54 mm 2 , A2 =

D2 d 2
4

) = 141.37 mm

The element stiffness matrices are

[ k ] = 2.08 10100 78.54 11

5

[ k ] = 10
2

1
1 1 N ,
= 1.63 105

1 mm
1
1

1 1 N
141.37 1 1
.
= 1.41 105

1 mm
100
1
1 1

The finite element equations are

0
0 0 R1
1.63 1.63
1.63 1.63
0
0 Q2 F
105

=
0
0
1.41 1.41 Q3 F

1.41 1.41 0 R4
0
0
Retaining only the second and third equation yields
1.63 0 Q2 F
105
=

0 1.41 Q3 F

with solutions

69

4. BARS AND SHAFTS

Q2 =

F
1.63 10

Q3 =

F
1.41 105

Substituting in the multipoint constraint condition gives

1
1

F
+
= 0.4 ,
5
5
1.63 10 1.41 10
or

F = 30314 N .
Stresses are given by

1 =

F 30316
N
=
= 386
,
A1 78.54
mm 2

2 =

F
30316
N
.
=
= 214.5
A2
141.37
mm 2

Example 4.6
For the bar of Fig. E4.6, with linearly variable cross-section
x

A ( x ) = A0 1 + , find the displacement at the free end under the action of force
2l
F, using two tapered bar finite elements.

Fig. E4.6
Solution. The stiffness matrix for a bar element with variable cross section
is

[ k ] = lE
e

2
e

1 1
1
1

A dx .

le

For the bar of Fig. E4.6, divided into two equal length tapered elements,
the element stiffness matrices are

70

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

[k ]
1

E 1 1
= 2
A0
l 1 1

[k ]
2

E 1 1
A0
= 2
1
l 1

2l

5 E A0 1 1
x

,
1 + dx =
4l 1 1
2l
7 E A0
x

1 + dx =
4l
2l

1 1
.
1
1

With Q1 = 0 , the finite element equations can be written

5 5 0 0 R1
EA0

5 12 7 Q2 = 0 .

4l
0 7 7 Q3 F
From the second and third equation
EA0
4l

12 7 Q2 0
7 7 Q = F ,

Q2 =

4 Fl
,
5 E A0

wherefrom
Q3 =

48 F l
.
35 E A0

The approximate assumed linear variation of the displacement field yields

constant strain elements, hence a stepwise variation of stresses along the bar.

Example 4.7
Write the stiffness matrix of the bar shown in Fig. E4.7, condensing Q3
from condition F3 = 0 . Model the bar by: a) two two-node linear elements; b) a
three-node quadratic element. Comment the results.

Fig. E4.7
Solution. a) Consider the bar divided into two linear elements. The element
stiffness matrices are

71

4. BARS AND SHAFTS

1
[ k ] = [ k ] = 2EA
l 1
1

1 .
1

The unreduced global stiffness matrix is

1 1 0
2 EA
[ K ] = l 1 2 1 .
0 1 1
The finite element equations can be written
1 0 1 Q1 F1
2 EA

0 1 1 Q2 = F2

l
1 1 2 Q3 F3

For F3 = 0 , the last equation yields

Q3 =

Q
Q1 + Q2
= 1 2 1 2 1
2
Q2

which assumes a linear displacement field within the bar.

The first two equations give
2 EA
l

F1
1 0 Q1 2 EA 1
0 1 Q + l 1 Q3 = F

2

2

and upon substitution of Q3

2 EA
l

Q1 F1
1 0 Q1 2 EA 1
0 1 Q + l 1 1 2 1 2 Q = F

2

2 2

which can be written

EA
l

1 1 Q1 F1
1 1 Q = F

2 2

where the left hand side contains the (2 2) stiffness matrix of the two-node linear
element.
b) Consider the bar modeled by a 3-node quadratic bar element. The finite
element equations can be written

72

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

1 8 Q1 F1
7
EA

1
7 8 Q2 = F2

3l
8 8 16 Q3 F3

Condensing Q3 from condition F3 = 0 yields

Q3 =

Q
Q1 + Q2
= 1 2 1 2 1 .
2
Q2

The first two equations give

F1
EA 7 1 Q1 EA 8

+
Q3 =

3l 1 7 Q2 3l 8
F2
and upon substitution of Q3
Q1 F1
EA 7 1 Q1 EA 8

+
1 2 1 2 =

3l 1 7 Q2 3l 8
Q2 F2
which can be written again
EA 1 1 Q1 F1
= ,
l 1 1 Q2 F2
where the matrix in the left hand can be recognized as the conventional bar matrix
developed from linear polynomials.
c) Comments.

Substituting
Q1

Q2
Q
3

0
1
Q

1 1
= 0
1 2 1 2 Q2

into the expression of the strain energy (4.18) gives

1
U e = Q1 Q2
2

1
U e = Q1 Q2
2

1 8 Q1
7
EA

1
7 8 Q2 ,
Q3
3l
8 8 16 Q3

1 0 1
0 1 1

0
1 8 1
7
2 EA

Q1

0
1
1
7
8

Q
2 3l
8 8 16 1 2 1 2 2

73

4. BARS AND SHAFTS

Ue =

1
Q1 Q2
2

EA 1

1 Q1

l 1 1 Q .

For p = const . , the work of nodal forces is

W = Q1 Q2
e

W = Q1 Q2
e

Q3

F1

F2
F
3

= Q1 Q2

Q3

1 6

1 6 pl e ,
2 3

1 6
1 0 1 2

0 1 1 2 1 6 pl e = Q1 Q2

2 3

1 pl

1 2 e .

We may conclude that the introduction of the quadratic term in equation

(4.23) does not bring about a change in the conventional stiffness matrix and load
vector. Whenever the assumed functions, used to describe the displacement field,
form the complete homogeneous solution of the differential equation of
equilibrium (4.4), the developed stiffness matrix and the equivalent load vector will
be exact. This is because, as it is shown in a next chapter, only the homogeneous
part of the solution contains the free parameters with respect to which the total
potential energy is minimized. The parameters in the particular part of the solution
are prescribed and do not take part in the process of minimization.
The exactness of the stiffness matrix and load vector also implies that the
computed nodal displacements will also be exact. However, displacements within
elements depend upon the general (homogeneous plus the particular) solution. The
conventional formulation based on a linear polynomial will yield exact
displacements within the elements only when p = 0 . For the case p = const. , exact
displacements within the elements may be obtained from equation (4.25).
However, before using equation (4.25), the variable Q3 must be computed from
the exact nodal displacements (computed for the conventional linear element), via a
constraint equation between Q3 and the remaining nodal variables, obtained by a
minimization of the total potential energy with respect to Q3 at element level.

Example 4.8
Consider a prismatic robot arm, rotating at constant angular velocity

= 30 rad sec (Fig. E4.8, a). Determine the axial stress distribution due to the
centrifugal force in the rod using: a) two quadratic elements, and b) three linear
elements.
Solution. The beam is acted upon by a centrifugal linearly distributed load

74

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

p ( x ) = p0

where p0 = Al 2 .

x
,
l

Fig. E4.8

75

4. BARS AND SHAFTS

a) A finite element model with two quadratic elements is shown in Fig.

E4.8, b. The model has five degrees of freedom.
The element stiffness matrices are

[k ]= [k ]
1

7 8 1
2 EA
=
8 16 8 .

3l
1 8 7

The unreduced global stiffness matrix is

1
0
0
7 8
8 16 8
0
0

1 8 7 + 7 8 1 .
[ K ] = 23EA
l

8 16 8
0
0
0
8 7
0
1
The axial load acting on the two elements can be decomposed as in Fig.
E4.8, c. The nodal forces, equivalent to a linearly distributed load, are given by
equation (4.34)

{ f }= N
e

p dx = p0 l e

le

(1 2 )(1 )
0

(1 2 ) d = p0 l e 1 6 ,
4 (1 )
1 3

where = x l e and the shape functions (4.26) are defined for convenience over an

interval [0, 1] . For a uniformly distributed load they are given by equation (4.37).

The distributed loads from Fig. E4.8, c are replaced by the kinematically
equivalent nodal forces shown in Fig. E4.8, d. The element nodal load vectors are

{ f }= p12l 0
1

1 1 2 T ,

{ f }= p12l 1 2
2

3 1T .

Using the boundary condition Q1 = 0 , the finite element equations can be

written
R1
0
0 0

7 8 1

Q
8 16 8 0

p0l 12
0 2

2 EA

1 8 14 8 1 Q3 = p0l 24 + p0l 24 .
3l

3 p0l 12
0 8 16 8 Q4
0

p0l 12
0
1 8 7 Q5

76

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

Deleting the first row and column, we obtain the reduced global stiffness
matrix and reduced global load vector which yield
Q2 =

47 p0 l 2
88 p0 l 2
117 p0 l 2
128 p0 l 2
, Q3 =
, Q4 =
, Q5 =
.
384 E A
384 E A
384 E A
384 E A

The nodal displacements can be compared with the exact solution, given
by

u( x ) =

p0 l 2
2E A

x x3

.
l 3l 3

(a)

We obtain
2
2
2
1 p0 l 2
l 47 p0 l
l 11 p0 l
3l 117 p0 l
u =
, u =
, u =
, u (l ) =
.
3 2E A
4 384 2 E A
2 48 2 E A
4 384 2 E A

The finite element values of the nodal displacements are exact. This is due
to the nodal equivalence of forces. While the nodal displacements are exact, the
displacements within the elements are approximate because the exact cubic
distribution (a) has been replaced by a quadratic law.
The element strain-displacement row vector B in (4.29) is given by
d

B = d x N = l 3 + 4 1 + 4 4 8 .
The strains are calculated as

1 =

2
(N 2 Q3 + N 3 Q2 ) = p0l ( 25 6 ) ,
48 EA
l

2 =

2
(N1 Q3 + N 2 Q5 + N 3 Q4 ) = p0l ( 19 18 ) ,
l
48 EA

which yields the following nodal values

1 =

25 p0l
22 p0 l
19 p0 l
10 p0 l
1 p0 l
, 2 =
, 3 =
, 4 =
, 5 =
.
48 EA
48 EA
48 EA
48 EA
48 EA

The corresponding axial stresses are

1 =

25 p0l
22 p0 l
19 p0 l
10 p0 l
1 p0 l
, 2 =
, 3 =
, 4 =
, 5 =
.
48 A
48 A
48 A
48 A
48 A

The stresses can be compared with the exact solution

77

4. BARS AND SHAFTS

( x )=

p0 l
2A

1 x ,

l 2

(b)

which yields the following nodal values

(0) =
l
2

24 p0 l
l 22.5 p0 l
, =
,
48 A
4 48 A

18 p0 l
3l 10.5 p0 l
, =
, (l ) = 0 .
48 A
4 48 A

A graph of the stress distribution is shown in Fig. E4.8, e.

b) A finite element model comprised of three linear elements is shown in
Fig. E4.8, f. The model has four degrees of freedom.
The element stiffness matrices are
1
[ k ] = [ k ] = [ k ] = 3EA
l 1
1

1 .
1

The axial load acting on the three elements can be decomposed as in Fig.
E4.8, g. The nodal forces, equivalent to a load per unit length, are given by
equation (4.34). If p1 and p2 are the intensities of a linearly distributed load at
nodes 1 and 2, respectively,

p ( ) = p1 + ( p2 p1 ) ,

{ f }= N
e

p dx = l e

le

1
l e 2 p1 + p2

[ p1 + ( p2 p1 ) ] d =

6 p1 + 2 p2

where = x l e and the shape functions (4.26) are defined for convenience over an
interval [ 0, 1 ] . For p1 = p2 = p , the nodal forces are given by equation (4.36).

The distributed loads from Fig. E4.8, g are replaced by the kinematically
equivalent nodal forces shown in Fig. E4.8, h. The element nodal load vectors are

{ f }= p54l 1
1

2 T ,

{ f }= p54l 4
2

5 T ,

{ f }= p54l 7
3

8 T .

Using the boundary condition Q 1 = 0 , the finite element equations can be

written

78

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

1 1 0 0 0

3EA 1 2 1 0 Q2

l 0 1 2 1 Q3

0 0 1 1 Q4

54 R1

1+ p l

0
p0 l
6
=

54 12

The last three equations yield

Q2 =

13 p0 l 2
23 p0 l 2
27 p0 l 2 1 p0 l 2
=
, Q3 =
, Q4 =
.
81 E A
81 E A
81 E A 3 E A

The element strain-displacement row vector B in (4.29) is given by

d

B = d x N = l 1 1 .
e

The strains are calculated as

3
l

1 = Q2 =

13 p0 l
3
4 p0 l
3
10 p0 l
, 2 = ( Q3 Q2 ) =
, 3 = ( Q4 Q3 ) =
,
l
27 EA
27 EA
l
27 EA

and are constant within each element.

The corresponding axial stresses are

1 =

13 p0l
,
27 A

2 =

10 p0 l
,
27 A

3 =

4 p0 l
.
27 A

In Fig. E4.8, i they are compared to those given by equation (b).

Example 4.9
Show that the shape functions of the four-node cubic bar element, in local
natural coordinates, are the following
9
( 1 r ) 1 + r 1 r ,
16
3
3

27
( 1 + r ) ( 1 r ) 1 r ,
N 2 (r ) =
16
3

N1 (r ) =

27
( 1 + r ) ( 1 r ) 1 + r ,
16
3

9 1
1

N 4 (r ) =
+ r r (1 + r ) .
16 3
3

N 3 (r ) =

5.
BEAMS, FRAMES AND GRIDS

Frames are structures with rigidly connected members called beams.

Beams are slender members used to support transverse loading. They are connected
by rigid joints that have determinate rotations and, apart from forces, transmit
bending moments from member to member.
One-dimensional mathematical models of structural beams are constructed
on two beam theories: the Bernoulli-Euler beam theory, that neglects transverse
shear deformations, and the Timoshenko beam theory, that incorporates a first order
correction for transverse shear effects. Beam behaviour is described by fourth order
differential equations and require C1 continuity. This requires that both transverse
displacements and slopes must be continuous over the entire member and, in
particular, between adjacent beam elements. The Timoshenko beam model pertains
to the class of C 0 elements. It is based on the assumption that plane sections
remain plane but not necessarily normal to the deformed neutral surface. This leads
to the introduction of a mean shear distortion, which is constant over the element.
In this section, we first present the finite element formulation for plane
Bernoulli-Euler beams, then extend it to plane frames, and for grids. An inclined
beam element will be referred to as a frame element. Grids are planar frames
subjected to loads applied normally to their plane.

5.1 Finite element discretization

A plane frame is divided into elements, as shown in Fig. 5.1. Each node
has three degrees of freedom, two linear displacements and a rotation. Typically,
the degrees of freedom of node i are Q3 i 2 , Q3 i 1 and Q3 i , defined as the
displacement along the X axis, the displacement along the Y axis and the rotation
about the Z axis, respectively.

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

80

Nodes are located by their coordinates in the global reference frame XOY
and element connectivity is defined by the indices of the end nodes. Elements are
modelled as uniform beams without shear deformations and not loaded between
ends. Their properties are the bending rigidity E I and the length l .

Fig. 5.1
In the following, the shape functions are established for the plane
Bernoulli-Euler beam element, then the element stiffness matrix is calculated first
in the local coordinate system, then in the global coordinate system. The latter are
expanded to the structure size, then simply added to get the global uncondensed
stiffness matrix. Imposing the boundary conditions, the reduced stiffness matrix
and load vector are calculated and used in the static analysis.

Fig. 5.2

5. BEAMS, FRAMES AND GRIDS

81

Consider an inclined beam element, as illustrated in Fig. 5.2, a, where the

nodal displacements are also shown. In a local physical coordinate system, the x
axis, oriented along the beam, is inclined an angle with respect to the global X
axis. Alternatively, an intrinsic (natural) coordinate system can be used.
The vector of nodal displacements in the local coordinate system is

{ q }= q
e

q2

q3

q4

q5

q6 T

(5.1)

and the corresponding vector of element nodal forces can be written

{ f }= f
e

Forces

f 2, f 3, f 5, f 6

f2

and

f3

f4

the

f6 T .

(5.2)

corresponding

displacements

f5

q 2 , q 3 , q 5 , q 6 describe the element bending (Fig. 5.2, b) while axial forces

f 1 , f 4 , and axial displacements q 1 , q 4 , describe the element stretching (Fig.
5.2, c). Their action is decoupled so that the respective stiffness matrices can be
calculated separately.

5.2 Static analysis of a uniform beam

Beams with cross sections that are symmetric with respect to the plane of
loading are considered herein (Fig. 5.3). Transverse shear deformations are
neglected, as in the Bernoulli-Euler classical beam theory. Only transverse loads
act upon the beam, axial forces are ignored.

Fig. 5.3
The axial displacement of any point on the section, at a distance y from the
neutral axis, is approximated by
dv
u = y =
y,
(5.3)
dx

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

82

where v is the deflection of the centroidal axis at x and = v is the cross section
rotation (or slope) at x . Axial strains are

x =

du
d2 v
= 2 y = y ,
dx
dx

(5.4)

where v denotes the deformed beam axis curvature.

Normal stresses on the cross section are given by Hookes law
d2 v
y,
dx2
where E is Youngs modulus of the material.

x = E x = E

section

(5.5)

The bending moment is the resultant of the stress distribution on the cross
M (x ) = x y dA = E I z

d2 v
dx2

= EIz

(5.6)

where I z is the second moment of area of the section with respect to the neutral
axis z. The negative sign above is introduced because M is considered positive if it
compresses the upper portion of the beam cross section. The product E I z is called
the bending rigidity of the beam.
The shear force is given by

T (x ) =

dM
d3 v
= E I z
= E I z v III .
dx
dx 3

(5.7)

The transverse load per unit length is

p (x ) =

dT
d4 v
= EIz
= E I z v IV .
dx
dx4

(5.8)

The differential equation of equilibrium is

EIz

d4 v
= p (x ) .
dx4

(5.9)

This is a fourth order differential equation and consequently four boundary

conditions are required, two at each end. They can be geometric or kinematic
boundary conditions, involving the transverse displacement and slope, and physical
boundary conditions, involving the shear and bending moment.

5. BEAMS, FRAMES AND GRIDS

83

5.3 Uniform beam not loaded between ends

For a uniform beam not loaded between ends, p = 0 and equation (5.9)
yields d 4 v d x 4 = 0 . Integrating four times, we obtain the deflection v described
by a third order polynomial

v (x ) = a 1 x 3 + a 2 x 2 + a 3 x + a 4 .

(5.10)

For a free-free beam element, the four integration constants a 1 , a 2 , a 3 , a 4

in (5.10) can be determined from the geometric boundary conditions at each end
(Fig. 5.4):
(5.11, a)
at x = x1 , v = v1 = q2 , and d v d x = 1 = q3 ;
at x = x 2 , v = v2 = q5 , and d v d x = 2 = q6 .

Fig. 5.4

This gives

v1

v2
2

(5.11, b)

x13
2
3 x1
= 3
x2
3 x 2
2

x12
2 x1

x 22
2 x2

x1
1
x2
1

1 a1

0 a2

1 a3

0 a 4

On inversion, the integration constants a 1 , a 2 , a 3 , a 4 can be expressed in

terms of the nodal displacements v1 , 1 , v2 , 2 , so that the beam deflection can
be expressed in terms of the nodal displacements.

5.3.1 Shape functions

The transverse displacement v can be expressed in terms of the nodal
displacements as

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

84

{ }

v (x ) = N q e ,

(5.12)

where N is a row vector containing the shape functions, called Hermitian cubic
polynomials, and

{ q }= v
e

1 v2 2 T .

(5.13)

Using natural coordinates, with r = 1 at node 1 and r = +1 at node 2,

r=

x + x2
2

x 1
2
x 2 x1

(5.14)

the beam transverse displacement can be written

dv
dv
+ N 3 (r ) v 2 + N 4 (r )
.
v (r ) = N1 (r ) v 1 + N 2 (r )
d r 1
d r 2

(5.15)

Because the coordinates transform by the relationship (5.14)

x=

x1 + x 2
2

x 2 x1
2

and since l e = x 2 x 1 is the length of the element,

dx =

le
dr .
2

(5.16)

Using the differentiation chain rule

d v le d v
=
,
dr
2 dx

(5.17)

equation (5.15) becomes

v (r ) = N1 (r ) v 1 + N 2 (r )

or
v (r ) = N1 q2 +

le
2

dv
l

+ N 3 (r ) v 2 + N 4 (r ) e
2
d x 1

dv

d x 2

le
l
N 2 q3 + N 3 q5 + e N 4 q6 .
2
2

(5.18)

(5.19)

In (5.12) the row vector of shape functions is

N = N1

le
N2
2

N3

le

N4
2

(5.20)

5. BEAMS, FRAMES AND GRIDS

85

The Hermitian shape functions are cubic polynomials which should satisfy
the boundary conditions given in Table 5.1, where primes indicate differentiation
with respect to r.
Table 5.1

r = 1
r = +1

N1

N 1

N2

N 2

N3

N 3

N4

N 4

1
0

0
0

0
0

1
0

0
1

0
0

0
0

0
1

Imposing the above conditions to cubic polynomials with four arbitrary

constants, we obtain the expressions of the beam element shape functions in terms
of r, graphically shown in Fig. 5.5

N 1(r ) =

1
( 1 r ) 2 ( 2 + r ) = 1 2 3r + r 3 ,
4
4

N 2 (r ) =

1
( 1 r ) 2 ( 1 + r ) = 1 1 r r 2 + r 3 ,
4
4

N 3(r ) =

1
( 1 + r ) 2 ( 2 r ) = 1 2 + 3r r 3 ,
4
4

N 4 (r ) =

(5.21)

1
( 1 + r ) 2 ( 1 r ) = 1 1 + r r 2 r 3 .
4
4

Fig. 5.5

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

86

It is easy to check that at node 1, v = q 2 and

v = q 5 and

d v le
= q 3 , while at node 2,
dr 2

d v le
= q6 .
dr 2

5.3.2 Stiffness matrix

The strain energy U e of a beam element is

E Ie
Ue =
2

d 2v

dx .
d x2

(5.22)

Equation (5.17) yields

dv 2 d v
=
d x le d r

d 2v 4 d 2 v
=
.
d x 2 l 2e d r 2

and

Substituting (5.12) we obtain

d 2v
dx

4 d 2 N

l 2e d r 2

{ q }.
e

(5.23)

The square of the above quantity is calculated as

2

2
d 2v
=d v

d x2
d x2

{ }

d 2v
= qe

d x2

16
l 4e

d 2 N
2
d r

{ }

d 2 N e
2 q ,
d r

which can also be written

2

{ }

d 2v
= qe

d x2

energy

{ }

16
N T N q e .
4 r r
le

(5.24)

On substituting (5.16) and (5.24) into (5.22) we get the element strain
1
Ue =
2

which has the form

{q }

e T

8E I e
l 3e

+1

T
e
N r N r d r { q }

(5.25)

5. BEAMS, FRAMES AND GRIDS

Ue =

bending

87

{ q } [ k ] { q }.

1
2

e T

e
B

(5.26)

Comparing (5.25) with (5.26) we obtain the element stiffness matrix due to
+1

[ k ] = 8lEI
e
B

3
e

[ k ] = 8lEI
e
B

3
e

(5.27)

or
+1

T
N r N r d r

(N1)2 N1N 2

2
N 2 N1 (N 2 )
N N N N
3 2
3 1

N
N
N
4 N 2
4 1

N1N 3
N 2 N 3
(N 3 )2
N 4 N 3

N1N 4

N 2 N 4
dr .
N 3N 4

(N 4 )2

(5.28)

Substituting the shape functions (5.21) and performing the integration

yields the stiffness matrix due to bending in local coordinates

[k ]
e
B

6l 12 6l
12
6l 4l 2 6l 2l 2
EI
.
= 3e
l e 12 6l 12 6l

2
6l 4l 2 e
6l 2l

(5.29)

An alternative way of deriving the matrix (5.29) is based on the general

formula (4.19)

[ k ] = B
e

Ee B dV .

(5.30)

Ve

The curvature (5.23) can be expressed in terms of the nodal

displacements as

d 2v
dx

4 d 2 N

l 2e d r 2

{ q }= B { q },
e

(5.31)

where the curvature-displacement row vector B is

1 r

B = l 6 l 3r 1 6 l 3r + 1 .
e
e
e

(5.32)

Substituting (5.32) and d V = Ae d x into (5.30) gives the matrix (5.29).

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

88

5.3.3 Physical significance of the stiffness matrix

The element stiffness matrix (5.29) relates the vector of nodal forces to the
vector of nodal displacements

f2
f 3
EI e
= 3
f5
le
f 6 e

6l 12 6l q2
12
6l 4l 2 6l 2l 2 q

3
12 6l 12 6l q5

2
6l 4l 2 e q6
6l 2 l

(5.33)

Consider a beam element with end 2 fixed ( q5 = q6 = 0 ) and end 1 having

a unit displacement along the global Y-axis ( q2 = 1, q3 = 0) and zero rotation, as
in Fig. 5.6.

Fig. 5.6
Equation (5.33) can be written

f 2 k11
f k
3 21
=
f 5 k31
f 6 k 41

which gives

f 2 = k11 ,

f 3 = k 21 ,

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

. q2 = 1
. q3 = 0

. q5 = 0

. q6 = 0

f 5 = k31 ,

f 6 = k 41 .

(5.34)

(5.35)

This shows that the first column of the stiffness matrix represents the
forces and moments that must be applied to the beam element to preserve static
equilibrium when q2 = 1 and all other displacements are zero.
For equilibrium

k11 + k31 = 0 ,

k 21 + k 41 + k31 l = 0 .

(5.36)

5. BEAMS, FRAMES AND GRIDS

89

5.4 Uniform beam loaded between ends

For a uniform beam loaded between ends, p 0 , d 4 v d x 4 0 in
equation (5.9) and the beam deflected shape is no more a cubic polynomial.
However, it is the homogeneous solution of the differential equation. Using cubic
polynomials as admissible functions, the computed nodal displacements are exact.
Within the elements, the displacements, moments and shear forces are in error.
When the transverse load is uniformly distributed, p = const . , the general
solution of equation (5.9) is a quartic polynomial. The corresponding five constants
have to be determined from five boundary conditions. An internal node added at
the centre of element will solve the problem, introducing its nodal displacement as
the fifth nodal coordinate.
For a linearly distributed transverse load, v (x ) will be a quintic with six
arbitrary constants. They can be determined, adding the transverse displacement
and slope at the element midpoint to the element nodal coordinates. As already
shown in Chapter 4, rising the power of the function describing the displacement
within a beam element is tantamount to introducing additional internal nodes.
However, the current practice is to use lower order approximate assumed
shape functions that ensure the minimal convergence requirements, as shown in the
following. The cubic shape functions do the job. But they can be used only if the
element has uniform rigidity E I z and is not loaded between nodes. For beams
with transverse forces, the solution is to replace the actual distributed load by
equivalent nodal forces.

5.4.1 Consistent vector of nodal forces

Consider a transverse load p (x ) , having the units of force per unit length,
distributed along the beam element. The mechanical work of such a force is
W=

v p dx = v

le

p dx .

(5.37)

le

Substituting (5.12), equation (5.37) becomes

{ } N

W = qe

p dx .

(5.38)

le

It has the form

{ } {f }

W = qe
where the element load vector is

(5.39)

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

90

{ f } = N
e

le

l
p ( x ) dx = e
2

+1

p (r ) d r .

(5.40)

For the Hermitian two-node element, if the transverse force is uniformly

distributed, p = const . , the vector of element consistent nodal forces is

{f }
e

l
= e p
2

or, substituting (5.18),

{f }
e

pl
= e
2

+1

(5.41)

dr

p l 2e
12

p le
2

p l 2e

.
12

(5.42)

In Fig. 5.7, a it is seen that f 2e is a shear force and f 3e is a moment. They

are called kinematically equivalent nodal forces since they replace a distributed
load p (r ) weighted with the shape functions N i (r ) so that the correct work is
simulated.

d
Fig. 5.7

The kinematically equivalent loads are those which, if applied in the

opposite direction as constraints, would keep all nodal displacements zero in the
presence of the true loading. To replace p = const . by statically equivalent forces
(Fig. 5.6, b) would be incorrect since the beam element has the ends rigidly jointed,

5. BEAMS, FRAMES AND GRIDS

91

i.e. it is rigidly built in the adjacent beam elements. In order to ensure the C1
continuity across elements, nodal forces must include moments, not only shear
forces. Equivalent nodal forces for linearly distributed loads are given in Figs. 5.6,
c and d.
Kinematically equivalent loads yield displacements which do not coincide
with those produced by actual loading, as shown in Example 5.1. Assuming
approximate deflected shapes instead of the true ones may be imagined as the
result of application of a fake loading, forcing the beam to maintain the
approximate deflection. This is equivalent to applying additional constraints to the
beam, i.e. stiffening it. The deflections of this over-stiff finite element model are
smaller in the mean than the true deflections of the actual structure.
The source of error comes from the arbitrary selection of the shape
functions. Even if these functions are built up to satisfy the geometric boundary
conditions at the ends, the equilibrium within the elements is broken, due to the
difference between the applied load p (x ) and the resistance E I z v IV which gives
rise to a sort of unbalanced residual force.
The smaller the element, the smaller the error, so we would expect to
increase the accuracy by increasing the number of elements modeling the same
structure, or refining the mesh. A correct solution will approach the true value with
monotonically increasing values of displacements. The finite element solution is
therefore referred to as a lower bound. This applies only to the strain energy and
not to the displacement or stress at a point. Local stresses may be higher than the
true ones.
Assuming cubic displacement functions implies linearly varying bending
moments (and hence stresses) in uniform beams, even if it is known that, for
uniform loading, for instance, they have a quadratic distribution.

Example 5.1
Calculate the transverse displacement at the centre of the simply supported
beam shown in Fig. E5.1.

Fig. E5.1

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

92

Solution. Using a single beam element, the distributed load is replaced by

two concentrated moments at the ends.
Using the boundary conditions and the equivalent nodal loads, the
equations of equilibrium can be written
pl
2

6l 12 6l q2 = 0
12
pl 2
6l 4l 2 6l 2l 2 q
EIz
3 = 12 .
3 12 6l
12 6l q5 = 0 pl
l

2
6l 4l 2 q6 2 2
6l 2l
pl

12
The set of equations in the unknown displacements is
2
EI
( 4q3 + 2q6 ) = pl ,
12
l

2
EI
( 2q3 + 4q6 ) = pl ,
12
l

with solutions

q6 = q3 =

pl3
.
24 E I

The displacement at the middle is

pl 4
l
l
l
v = N 2 q3 + N 4 q6 =
.
96 E I
2
2
2
The true solution is

v true =

5 pl 4
384 E I

so that the approximate finite element solution is, as expected, smaller

l 4
v = vtrue .
2 5

5.4.2 Higher-degree interpolation functions

Let explore the possibility of approximating the displacements of a fourth
order system by a quartic function of the form

5. BEAMS, FRAMES AND GRIDS

93

v (x ) = a 1 x 4 + a 2 x 3 + a 3 x 2 + a 4 x + a5 .

(5.43)

The five integration constants a 1 , a 2 , a 3 , a 4 , a5 in (5.43) can be

determined from the end displacements and slopes, and the displacement of the
internal node at the centre of the element (Fig. 5.8):
at x = x1 , v = v1 ,

and

d v d x = 1 ,

at x = x 2 , v = v2 ,

and

d v d x = 2 ,

(5.44)

at x = x3 , v = v3 .
This gives the nodal coordinates in terms of the polynomial coefficients
v1

1
v2

2
v3

1

0

1
=
0

1

0
1
l
1
l
2

0
0
l2
2l
l2
4

0
0
l3
3l 2
l3
8

0
a5
0
a4
l4
a3 .
4l 3
a2
l4
a1
16

On inversion
1

a5 0
a 11
4
2
a3 = l
a 18
2 l3
a1 8

l 4

0
1

0
0

0
0

4
l
5

5
2
l
14

1
l
3

l2
2

l3
8

3
l

4
l

2
l
2
l3

0
0 v1
16 1

l 2 v 2 .
32
3 2
l
16 v3

l 4

The beam deflection is given by an expression of the form (5.12)

{ }

v (x ) = N q e = N1

N2

where the quartic shape functions are

N3

N4

v1

1
N 5 v2

2
v3

(5.45)

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

94
1
( 1 r ) 2 r ( 3 + 2r ) ,
4
1
N 2 ( r ) = ( 1 r ) 2 r ( 1 + r )l ,
8
1
N 3 ( r ) = ( 3 2r ) r ( 1 + r ) 2 ,
4
1
N 4 (r ) = (1 r ) r (1 + r ) 2 l ,
8
N 1( r ) =

(5.46)

N 5 (r ) = (1 r ) 2 (1 + r ) 2 .
In equations (5.46), N 5 is called a bubble function, having zero
displacements and slopes at the ends.

Fig. 5.8
Substituting the shape functions (5.46) into equation (5.27) and performing
the integration, we obtain the element stiffness matrix

[k ]
e
B

316 94l e 196 34l e

36l 2e 34l e 6l 2e
EI e
= 3
316 94l e
5l e
36l 2e
SYM

512
128l e

512 .
128l e
1024

For p = const . , the element consistent load vector (5.41) is

(5.47)

5. BEAMS, FRAMES AND GRIDS

{f }
e

7 ple
=
30

95

p l 2e
60

7 p le
30

p l 2e

60

8 p le
.
15

(5.48)

5.4.3 Bending moment and shear force

Using the bending moment expression (5.6) and equation (5.12) we get
M = EIz
M=

{ }

d2 v
4 d2 v
4
=
E
I
= E I z 2 N q e ,
z 2
2
2
dx
l e dr
le

EIz
6 r
l 2e

(3r 1) l e

(3r + 1) l e { q e }.

6r

(5.49)

The shear force is given by equation (5.7)

T = E I z
T=

{ }

d3 v
8 d3 v
8
=

E
I
= E I z 3 N q e ,
z
3
3
3
dx
l e dr
le

6E I z
2 l e
l 3e

{ }

2 l e qe .

(5.50)

For elements with uniformly distributed load, the end equilibrium loads are
given by
pl e
2

R2
6l 12 6l q2
12
pl2
R
6l 4l 2 6l 2l 2 q e
EI e
3
3 + 12 . (5.51)

= 3
R

q5 p l e
12
6
12
6

l
l
le
5

2
2
R6
6l 4l e q6 e 22
6l 2l

e
pl e

12

[ ]{ q }. The second term consists of

The first term on the right is k Be

elements that are called fixed-end reactions.

The shear forces at the two ends of the beam element are T1 = R2 and
T2 = R5 . The end bending moments are M 1 = R3 and M 2 = R 6 . For p = 0 , they
are obtained substituting r = 1 and r = +1 in (5.49) and (5.50).
When p = const . , the exact moment and shear force within the element are

Mp =M

2
p l 2e p l e l e
( r + 1) + p l e ( r + 1) 2 ,
+
12
2 2
2 4

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

96
Tp = T

pl e
r,
2

where M and T are the expressions (5.49) and (5.50), respectively, valid for p = 0 .

5.5 Basic convergence requirements

As element sizes are reduced, the sequence of solutions to a problem is
expected to converge to the correct result if the assumed element displacement
fields satisfy the following criteria:
1. An element should describe rigid body modes exactly.
Although equilibrium is not satisfied exactly at every interior point or
across interfaces, an element as a whole should be in equilibrium, because the
structure as a whole should be in equilibrium. When nodal displacements are given
values corresponding to a state of rigid body motion, the element must exhibit zero
strain and therefore zero nodal forces, and the interior points should correspond to
the assumed rigid body displacement.
a. Vertical translation. If the nodes are given unit vertical displacements
(Fig. 5.9, a), equation (5.12) gives

v (x ) = N

1
0
1
1
3
3
= N1 + N 3 = 2 3 r + r + 2 + 3 r r = 1 = const .
1
4
4

) (

which shows that the element has indeed a vertical displacement as a rigid body.
b. Rotation. If the nodes are given unit rotations, with node 1 fixed and
node 2 having a vertical displacement l e (Fig. 5.9, b), equation (5.12) gives

v (x ) = N

0
1 l e
l
l
N 2 + l e N 3 + e N 4 = e ( 1 + r ) = linear ,
=
l 2
2
2
1

which shows that the element has indeed an anticlockwise rotation as a rigid body.

5. BEAMS, FRAMES AND GRIDS

97

Fig. 5.9
2. An element should simulate constant strain states.
In the case of beams, when element sizes shrink to zero, they must have at
least constant curvature. Assuming zero nodal vertical displacements and unit
rotations in opposite directions (Fig. 5.9, c)

0
1
l
l

le
v (x ) = N
N2 e N4 = e 1 r 2 ,
=
2
4
0 2
1
so that the second derivative (curvature) is constant

v = - l 2 = const .

5.6 Frame element

As shown in Fig. 5.2, an inclined beam element should include longitudinal
displacements since, apart from moments and shear forces, it is acted upon by axial
forces. Because there is no coupling between the bending and stretching
displacements, the two stiffness matrices can be added taking into account the
proper location of their elements.

5.6.1 Axial effects

The axial nodal forces are related to the nodal displacements by equation

[ ]

f1
e q1
= kS
f4
q4

(5.52)

where the stiffness matrix for stretching (4.22) is

[ k ]= ElA 11
e
S

1
.
1

(5.53)

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

98

5.6.2 Stiffness matrix and load vector in local coordinates

For the frame element, combining equations (5.53) and (5.29), and
arranging the elements in proper locations we get the element stiffness matrix
given by

[k ]
e

(i l )

EA
l

0
=
E A
l

12 E I
l3
6E I
l2

6E I
l2
4E I
l

12 E I
l3
6E I
l2

EA
l
0

0
12 E I
l3
6E I
2
l

0
EA
l

6E I
l2
2E I
l

0
12 E I
l3
6E I
2
l

6E I

l2
2E I
l . (5.54)

6E I
2
l
4 E I
l e
0

The ratio of the bending terms to the stretching terms in (5.54) is of order

, where i is the relevant radius of gyration. For slender beams, this ratio
may be as small as 1 20 or 1 50 , so the stiffness matrix may possibly be
numerically ill-conditioned.
If there is a uniformly distributed load on a member, the vector of
consistent nodal forces is

{ f }= 0
e

p le
2

p l 2e
12

p le
2

p l 2e
.
12

(5.55)

5.6.3 Coordinate transformation

A frame element is shown in Fig. 5.10 both in the initial and deformed
state. For node 1, the local linear displacements q 1 and q 2 are related to the
global linear displacements Q 1 and Q 2 by the equations

q 1 = Q 1 cos + Q 2 sin ,
q 2 = Q 1 sin + Q 2 cos .

(5.56)

Equations (5.56) can be written in matrix form as

q1 c
q =
2 s

s Q1

c Q 2

(5.57)

5. BEAMS, FRAMES AND GRIDS

99

where c = cos and s = sin .

systems

The angular displacements (rotations) are the same in both coordinate

q 3 = Q3 .

(5.58)

Fig. 5.10
Adding the similar relationships for node 2

we obtain

q4 c
q =
5 s

s Q4

,
c Q 5

q6 = Q6 ,

(5.59)

{ q } = [ T ] { Q }.
(5.60)
In (5.60), { q } is the beam element displacement vector in the local
coordinate system, { Q } is the beam element displacement vector in the global
e

coordinate system and

[T ]
e

c
s

0
=
0
0

s 0
c 0
0
0
0
0

1
0
0
0

0
0

0 0
0 0
0 0 0

c s 0
s c 0

0 0 1

is the local-to-global coordinate transformation matrix for plane frames.

(5.61)

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

100

5.6.4 Stiffness matrix and load vector in global coordinates

Using the same procedure as in section 3.7, the stiffness matrix of the
frame element in global coordinates is obtained as

[ K ]= [T ] [ k ][T ] .
e

(5.62)

The nodal loads due to a uniformly distributed load p are given by

{F }= [T ] { f }
e

(5.63)

{ } are added to the global load vector.

The values of F e

5.7 Assembly of the global stiffness matrix

[K ],

is assembled from element matrices

~
K e using element connectivity matrices
T e , that relate the nodal
displacements at element level with the nodal displacements at the entire structure
level, by equations of the form
~
Q e = T e { Q }.
(5.64)

[ ]

The global stiffness matrix,

[ ]

{ } [ ]

The global uncondensed stiffness matrix is equal to the sum of the

expanded element stiffness matrices
[ K ] = K~ e ,
(5.65)

[ ]

where

[ K~ ] = [T~ ] [ K ][T~ ] .
e

(5.66)

The equations of equilibrium can be regarded as having been derived as

soon as the reduced stiffness matrix and load vector have been calculated using the
boundary conditions.
Having solved [ K ] { Q } = { F } it is routine to backtrack and recover the
eth element strains, using equations (5.4), (5.12) and (5.60)

{ }

[ ] { Q }.

e = y v = y N q e = y N T e

(5.67)

5. BEAMS, FRAMES AND GRIDS

101

Strains, and hence stresses, are not accurate. Strains are derivatives of an
approximate displacement (in beams - second derivatives) and differentiation
inevitably decreases accuracy.

Example 5.2
Calculate the transverse displacement at the free end of the cantilever
stepped beam shown in Fig. E5.2.

Fig. E5.2
Solution. Consider the beam divided into two cubic Hermitian elements.
The element stiffness matrices are

[k ]
1

6l 12 6l
12
6l 4l 2 6l 2l 2
2E I
,
= 3

l
l

12
6
12
6
l

2
2
6l 4l
6l 2l

[k ]
2

6l 12 6l
12
6l 4l 2 6l 2l 2
EI
.
= 3

l
l

12
6
12
6
l

2
2
6l 4l
6l 2l

The unreduced global stiffness matrix is

12l
24 12l
24
12l 8l 2 12l 4l 2

6l
E I 24 12l 36
K ]= 3
2
6l 12l 2
l 12l 4l
0
0
12 6l

0
6l
2l 2
0

0
0

0
0
12 6l
.
6l 2l 2
12 6l

6l 4l 2

Using the boundary conditions at the fixed end Q1 = Q2 = 0 , and omitting

the first two rows and columns, we obtain the finite element equations

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

102

36 6l

2
EI 6l 12l
l 3 12 6l

2l 2
6l

12 6l Q3
6l 2l 2 Q4

12 6l Q5

6l 4l 2 Q6

0
0

=
F
0

The three equations with zero right hand side can be written
36 6l
6l 12l 2

6l
2l 2

6l
2l 2
4l 2

Q3
Q
4
Q6

12

= 6l Q5 .
6l

or
Q3

Q4
Q
6

=
2
216l

11l 2
9l 21l 12
60l

27
27 6l Q5 =
108 Q5 .
9l
216 l

21l 27 99 6l
180

By substitution into the equation with non-zero right hand side

EI
( 12 Q3 6l Q4 + 12 Q5 6l Q6 ) = F
l3
the transverse displacement in 3 is obtained as

v3 = Q5 = 1.5

F l3
.
EI

Example 5.3
Calculate the transverse displacement at 2 and the support reactions for the
beam shown in Fig. E5.3.
Solution. Consider the beam modeled by two Bernoulli-Euler beam
elements. Assembling the element stiffness matrices (5.29), the unreduced global
stiffness matrix is obtained as
6l 12 6l
0
0
12
6l 4l 2 6l 2l 2
0
0

0
6l 24
12 6l
[ K ] = E3I 612
.
2
2
0
8l
6l 2l 2
l l 2l
0
0
12 6l 12 6l

0
6l 2l 2 6l 4l 2
0

5. BEAMS, FRAMES AND GRIDS

103

At the fixed end Q1 = Q2 = 0 ; at the simply supported end Q5 = 0 .

Omitting the corresponding rows and columns, we obtain the finite element
equations
6l Q3 F
24 0
EI

2
0 8l 2l 2 Q4 = 0 .
3
l
6l 2l 2 4l 2 Q6 0
The last two equations give
8l 2
2
2l

0
2l 2 Q4
=

Q3

4l 2 Q6
6l

or
Q4 =

3
Q3 ,
7l

Q6 =

12
Q3 .
7l

Fig. E5.3
Substitution of Q4 and Q6 into the first equation gives
3 7l
F l3
24 Q3 + 0 6l
Q3 =
EI
12 7l
or

v2 = Q3 =

7 F l3
.
96 E I

The rotations are

2 = Q4 =

3 F l2
,
96 E I

3 = Q6 =

The support reactions are given by

12 F l 2
.
96 E I

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

104

0 Q3
12 6l
EI

2
0 Q4
6l 2l
3
l
12 6l 6l Q6

V1

= M1
V
3

which yield
V1 =

11
F,
16

3
M1 = F l ,
8

V3 =

5
F.
16

Example 5.4
Find the transverse displacement at 2 and the support reactions for the
beam with fixed ends shown in Fig. E5.4.

Fig. E5.4
Solution. Consider the beam modeled by two Bernoulli-Euler beam
elements. Using the boundary conditions Q1 = Q2 = Q5 = Q6 = 0 , the finite element
equations can be written
12
6l
6l
0
0 0 V1
12

6l 4l 2
2
6l
2l
0
0 0 M 1

E I 12 6l 13.5 4.5l 1.5 1.5l Q3 F

=
.
2
4.5l 6l 2
1.5l
l 2 Q4 0
l 3 6l 2l
0
1.5 1.5l 1.5
1.5l 0 V3
0

2
1.5l 2l 2 0 M 3
0
1.5l
l
0
From the third and fourth rows we obtain

with solutions

E I 13.5 4.5l Q3 F
=

2
l 3 4.5l 6l Q4 0

v2 = Q3 =

8 F l3
,
81 E I

2 = Q4 =

2 F l2
.
27 E I

5. BEAMS, FRAMES AND GRIDS

105

Substituting the displacements into the other four equations yields

6l
V1
12
8

6l 2l 2 l
2
EI
81 F l = M 1 .
l 3 1.5 1.5l 2 E I V3

M 3
l 2 27
1.5l
The support reactions are

V1 =

20
4
7
2
F , M 1 = F l , V3 =
F , M3 = Fl .
27
9
27
9

Example 5.5
Calculate the rotations at supports and the reaction forces for the two-span
beam shown in Fig. E5.5 where the right span carries a uniformly distributed load.

Fig. E5.5

Solution. The continuous beam is modeled by two Bernoulli-Euler beam

elements. Using the boundary conditions Q1 = Q3 = Q5 = 0 , the finite element
equations can be written
6l 12 6l
0
0 0 V1

12
Q
6l 4l 2 6l 2l 2

0
0
0 2

12 6l 0 V2 p l 2
0
E I 12 6l 24

=
.
2
0
8l 2 6l 2l 2 Q4 p l 2 12
l 3 6l 2l
0
0
12 6l 12 6l 0 V3 p l 2

0
6l 2l 2 6l 4l 2 Q6 p l 2 12
0
Omitting the first, third and fifth rows and columns, we obtain

EI
l3

4l 2
2
2l
0

2l 2
8l 2

2l 2

0 Q2

2l 2 Q4
4l 2 Q6

2
= p l 12 .
p l 2 12

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

106

The first equation above yields

Q
Q2 = 1 2 0 4
Q6

(a)

which, substituted into the second and third equation

EI
l3

2l 2

8l 2
Q2 + 2

2l

gives

2 = Q4 =

pl3
,
48 E I

2l 2 Q4 p l 2 1

=
,
4l 2 Q6 12 1

3 = Q6 =

pl3
.
32 E I

(b)

Substituting the rotations (b) in (a) we obtain

pl3
.
96 E I
The reaction forces are calculated from

1 = Q2 =

6l
0 Q2
6l
EI

6l
0
6l Q4
3
l
0
6l 6l Q6

V1

= V2 p l 2
V pl 2
3

obtaining

V1 =

pl
,
16

V2 =

5
pl ,
8

V3 =

7
pl .
16

Example 5.6
Find the transverse displacement and the angle of rotation at 2 for the beam
shown in Fig. E5.6.

Fig. E5.6

5. BEAMS, FRAMES AND GRIDS

107

Solution. Two Bernoulli-Euler beam elements are used to model the

system. Using the boundary conditions Q1 = Q2 = Q5 = 0 , the finite element
equations can be written
1.5l
0
0 0 V1 0.7 p0 l
1.5 1.5l
1.5

1.5l
2
2
2l
0
0 0 M 1 0.2 p0 l 2
1.5l l

E I 1.5 1.5l 13.5 4.5l 12 6l Q3 0.3 p0 l

=
.
l2
4.5l 6l 2 6l 2l 2 Q4 0.1333 p0 l 2
l 3 1.5l
0

0
V3
12 6l 12 6l 0

0
6l
2l 2 6l 4l 2 Q6
0
0
Deleting the first, second and fifth rows and columns we obtain
13.5 4.5l 6l Q3
EI

4.5l 6l 2 2l 2 Q4
3
l
6l 2l 2 4l 2 Q6

0 .3 p 0 l

2
= 0.1333 p0l

0

The last equation yields

Q6 =

3
1
Q3 Q4
2l
2

which, substituted into the first two equations

EI
l3

0.3 p0l
13.5 4.5l Q3 6l
4.5l 6l 2 Q + 2l 2 Q6 = 0.1333 p l 2 ,
0
4

gives

v2 = Q3 = 0.084

p0 l 4
,
EI

2 = Q4 = 0.0518

p0 l 3
.
EI

Example 5.7
Find the shape functions for the 3-node beam element shown in Fig. E5.7.

Answer.
N 1( r ) =

1 2
r 4 5r 2r 2 + 3r 3 ,
4

N 2 (r ) =

1 2
r 1 r r 2 + r 3 ,
4

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

108

N 3(r ) = 1 r 2
N 5 (r ) =

N 4 (r ) = r 1 r 2

1 2
r 4 + 5r 2r 2 3r 3 ,
4

Fig. E5.7, a

Fig. E5.7, b

),
2

N 6 (r ) =

1 2
r 1 r +r 2 + r3 .
4

5. BEAMS, FRAMES AND GRIDS

109

Example 5.8
The planar frame shown in Fig. E5.8, a has pinned ends and is loaded in 2
by a force
5

F = 1000 N . It has

E = 2 1011 N m 2 ,

A = 1600 mm 2

and

I = 2 10 mm . Determine the nodal displacements, plot the deformed shape and

the diagrams of axial force, shear and bending moment.
Answer. The frame is modeled with 6 elements and 7 nodes.

Nodal data
Node
nr
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Restr
X
1
0
0
0
0
0
1

Restr
Y
1
0
0
0
0
0
1

Restr
Z
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

Coord
X
0
0
0
0.5
1.4
2
2

Coord
Y
0
1
2
2
2
2
1

Displ
X
0
0.010
1.0699e-2
1.0698e-2
1.0697e-2
1.0696e-2
0

Displ
Y
0
8.500e-7
1.700e-6
1.309e-3
2.321e-3
-8.500e-7
0

Rotation
Z
-1.232e-2
-5.531e-3
2.353e-3
2.592e-3
-1.260e-3
-6.889e-3
-1.260e-2

The deformed shape is shown in Fig. E5.8, b.

The diagrams of the axial force N , shear T and bending moment M are
shown in Figs. E5.8, c, d, e.

Fig. E5.8

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

110

Example 5.9
The planar frame shown in Fig. E5.9, a has fixed ends in 1, 5, 10, 13. It is
loaded by a couple M 3 = 2 106 N mm and two point loads F6 = 2 10 4 N and
F12 = 10 4 N . For
E = 2 105 N mm 2 ,
A = 400 mm 2 ,
I = 2 104 mm 4 ,
l1 2 = 100 mm and l 9 10 = l 9 11 = 200 mm , find the displacements in 6 and plot
the deformed shape.
Answer. The frame is modeled with 12 elements and 13 nodes.

Fig. E5.9, a
The displacements in 6 are
h 6 = 0.2476 mm , v 6 = 0.9673 mm , 6 = 0.00623 rad .

The deformed shape is presented in Fig. E5.9, b.

Fig. E5.9, b

5. BEAMS, FRAMES AND GRIDS

111

5.8 Grids
Grids or grillages are planar structural systems subjected to loads applied
normally to their plane. They are special cases of tree-dimensional frames in which
each joint has only three nodal displacements, a translation and two rotations,
describing bending and torsional effects.

Fig. 5.11

5.8.1 Finite element discretization

The grid is divided into finite elements, as shown in Fig. 5.11. Each node
has three degrees of freedom, two rotations and a linear displacement. Typically,
the degrees of freedom of node i are Q3 i 2 , Q3 i 1 and Q3 i , defined as the rotation
about the X axis, the rotation about the Y axis and the displacement along the Z
axis, respectively.
Nodes are located by their coordinates in the global reference frame XOY
and element connectivity is defined by the indices of the end nodes. Elements are
modelled as uniform rods with bending and torsional flexibility, without shear
deformations and not loaded between ends. Their properties are the flexural rigidity
E I , the torsional rigidity G I t and the length l . Only cross sections whose shear
centre coincides with the centroid are considered.

5.8.2 Element stiffness matrix in local coordinates

Consider an inclined grid element, as illustrated in Fig. 5.12, a, where the
nodal displacements are also shown.

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

112

In a local physical coordinate system, the x axis, oriented along the beam,
is inclined an angle with respect to the global X axis. The z axis for the local
coordinate system is collinear with the Z axis for the global system. Alternatively,
an intrinsic (natural) coordinate system can be used.

Fig. 5.12
The vector of element nodal displacements is

{ q }= q
e

q2

q3

q4

q5

q6

(5.68)

and the corresponding vector of element nodal forces can be written

{ f }= f
e

In (5.69)

f 3 and

f2

f3

f4

f5

f6

T .

f 6 are transverse forces, while f 2 and

(5.69)
f 5 are

couples producing bending (Fig. 5.12, b). The corresponding displacements

q 3 , q 6 are translations, while q 2 , q 5 are rotations. Their column vectors are
related by the flexural stiffness matrix.
Rearranging the matrix (5.29) we obtain

f2
f3
f5
f6

4l 2 6l 2l 2 6l q 2

EI

6l 12 q 3
e 6l 12
.
= 3
2
2
6l q 5
l e 2l 6l 4l

6l 12 6l 12 e q 6

(5.70)

The axial nodal forces f 1 , f 4 are torques and the nodal displacements
q 1 , q 4 are twist angles. They describe torsional effects so that their action is

decoupled from bending. The respective stiffness matrix can be calculated

5. BEAMS, FRAMES AND GRIDS

113

separately. The derivation of this matrix is essentially identical to the derivation of

the stiffness matrix for axial effects in a frame element or in a truss element.
The twist angle can be expressed in terms of the shape functions (4.51) as

(r ) = N1 (r ) q 1 + N 2 (r ) q 4 ,
which substituted into the strain energy
Ue =

G It e

d x
x

(5.71)

(5.72)

yields, after the change of coordinates, the element stiffness matrix

[ ]=
kte

2 G It e

le

+1

N
r

N r d r .

(5.73)

As a consequence of this analogy, the nodal forces are related to the nodal
displacements by equation
f1
e q1
(5.74)
= kt
f4
q4

[ ]

where the stiffness matrix for torsional effects is

[ k ] = GlI
e
t

te

1 1
1 1 .

(5.75)

In (5.75), G is the shear modulus of elasticity and I t e is the torsional

constant of the cross section. For axially symmetrical cross sections the latter is the
polar second moment of area.
For the grid element, combining the stiffness matrices from equations
(5.70) and (5.75), we get the stiffness matrix in local coordinates relating the nodal
forces (5.69) and the nodal displacements (5.68)

[k ]
e

0
0 a 0
0
a
0 4l 2 6l 0 2l 2 6l

0 6l 12
EI e 0 6l 12
= 3
(5.76)
0
0
0
a
l e a 0

2
2
6l
0 2l 6l 0 4l
0 6l 12 0 6l 12

where a = G I t e l 2e E I e .

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

114

5.8.3 Coordinate transformation

It is necessary to transform the matrix (5.76) from the local to the global
system of coordinates before its assemblage in the stiffness matrix for the complete
grid. As has been indicated, the z direction for local axes coincides with the Z
direction for the global axes, so that only the rotational components of
displacements should be converted. The transformation of coordinates is defined
by equation

{ q } = [ T ] { Q },
e

(5.77)

{ } is the element displacement vector (5.68) in the local coordinate

where q e
system,

{ Q } = Q
e

Q2

Q3

Q4

Q5

Q6 T

is the element displacement vector in the global coordinate system (Fig. 5.12) and

[T ]
e

s 0
c 0

c
s

0
=
0
0

0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
,
c s 0
s c 0

0 0 1

0 1
0 0
0 0
0 0

(5.78)

where c = cos and s = sin , is the local-to-global coordinate transformation

matrix. The same transformation matrix (5.78) serves to transform the nodal forces
from local to global coordinates.

5.8.4 Element stiffness matrix in global coordinates

Using the same procedure as for frame elements, we obtain the stiffness
matrix of the grid element in global coordinates as

[ K ]= [T ] [ k ][T ] .
e

(5.79)

It is used to assemble the unreduced global stiffness matrix [ K ] using

~
element connectivity matrices T e that relate the nodal displacements at element
level with the nodal displacements at the complete structure level, by equations of
the form (5.64).

[ ]

5. BEAMS, FRAMES AND GRIDS

115

For grounded systems the unreduced matrix [ K ] is then condensed using

the boundary conditions. The effect of lumped springs can be accounted for by
adding their values along the main diagonal at the appropriate locations in the
global stiffness matrix.

Example 5.10
The grid shown in Fig. E5.10 is fixed at points 1 and 2, has E = 210 GPa ,
G = 81 GPa , l = 1 m and diameter d = 20 mm . Find the vertical displacement of
point 7 when the grid is loaded by forces F7 = F8 = 500 N and draw the spatial
deflected shape.

b
Fig. E5.10

Answer. The grid is modeled with 14 elements and 8 nodes, having 18

dofs. The deflected shape is presented in Fig. E5.10, b. The deflection is
w7 = 0.436 m .

Example 5.11
The grid shown in Fig. E5.11, a is fixed at points 1 and 2, and has l = 1 m ,
I = 0.785 10 8 m 4 , I t = 1.57 10 8 m 4 , E = 210 GPa and G = 81 GPa . Find the
vertical displacement of point 5 when the grid is loaded by a force F5 = 103 N .
Draw the deflected shape and the diagrams of the bending moment and torque.

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

116

d
Fig. E5.11

Answer. The grid is modeled with 5 elements and 5 nodes, having 9 dofs.
The largest displacement is w5 = 0.4 m . The deflected shape is presented in Fig.
E5.11, b. The bending moment and torque diagrams are shown in Figs. E5.11, c, d.

5.9 Deep beam bending element

Shear deformation becomes important when analyzing deep beams, for
which Bernoullis hypothesis is no more valid. The nonlinear distribution of shear
stresses produces the warping of the cross section.
A simplifying hypothesis (Bresse, 1859) considers an average shear strain,
constant over the cross section. This way, planar cross sections remain undistorted
and plane (warping neglected) but no more perpendicular to the centroidal axis.
The assumption is adopted in the formulation of the Timoshenko beam element
used in vibration studies.

5. BEAMS, FRAMES AND GRIDS

117

5.9.1 Static analysis of a uniform beam

Beams with cross sections that are symmetric with respect to the plane of
loading are considered herein (Fig. 5.13, a). Only transverse loads act upon the
beam, axial forces are ignored.

Fig. 5.13
The axial displacement of any point on the section, at a distance y from the
neutral axis, is approximated by

u (x, y ) = y (x ) ,

(5.80)

where is the cross section rotation at position x .

The strain components x and xy are given by

x =

xy =

du
d
= y
= y ,
dx
dx

u v
dv
+
= +
= + v ,
y x
dx

(5.81)
(5.82)

where v is the slope of the deformed beam axis.

Note that the slope v is no more equal to the rotation , as in the
Bernoulli-Euler theory.
Normal stresses on the cross section are given by Hookes law
d
y,
dx
where E is Youngs modulus of the material.

x = E x = E

(5.83)

The bending moment is the resultant of the normal stress distribution on

the cross section

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

118

M (x ) = x y dA = E I z
A

d
= E I z
dx

(5.84)

where I z is the second moment of area of the cross section.

The sign convention used here (Fig. 5.13, b) is that positive internal forces
and moments act in positive (negative) coordinate directions on beam cross
sections with a positive (negative) outward normal.
The shear force is given by
T (x ) =

dM
.
dx

(5.85)

The transverse load per unit length is

p (x ) =

dT
.
dx

(5.86)

The average shear strain is

xy =

T
T
=
G As AG

(5.87)

where G is the shear modulus of elasticity, is a shear factor and As is the

effective shear area calculated as

As

[ dA ]
=

dA

(5.88)

Equations (5.82) and (5.87) give

T = G As ( v ) .

(5.89)

For a uniform beam not loaded between ends ( p = 0 ) , elimination of M

and T gives the differential equations of equilibrium

G As v G As = 0 ,

(5.90)

G As v + E I z G As = 0 .

(5.91)

5.9.2 Shape functions

Consider a prismatic beam element (Fig. 5.14) of length l (the index e is
omitted) not loaded between ends ( p = 0 ) . Using natural coordinates, r = 2 x l .

5. BEAMS, FRAMES AND GRIDS

119

Fig. 5.14
Eliminating and v in turn in (5.90) and (5.91) gives
d4v
=0,
d x4

and

d 3
= 0.
d x3

(5.92)

d 3
= 0.
d r3

(5.93)

Changing to the r coordinate yields

d4v
=0,
d r4

and

The general solutions of these equations are

v (r ) = a 4 r 3 + a 3 r 2 + a 2 r + a 1 ,

(5.94)

(r ) = b 3 r 2 + b 2 r + b 1 .

(5.95)

The seven constants of integration are not independent since the above
solutions must also satisfy equation (5.91) which, in the new variable r, becomes
2 dv
d 2
+
= 0,
l dr
d r2

(5.96)

where

4E I z
.
G As l 2

(5.97)

Substituting (5.94) and (5.95) into (5.96) gives

b3 =

6
a4 ,
l

b2 =

4
a3 ,
l

b1 =

2
12
a2 + a 4 .
l
l

(5.98)

This leaves only four independent constants which can be determined by

evaluating (5.94) and (5.95) at r = 1 . The resulting displacement functions are

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

120

v = N1

l
N2
2

2 ~
l

N3
2 ~
N3
l

= N1 N 2
where

{ q } = N { q },

(5.99)

{ q } = N~ { q },
e

(5.100)

1 v2 2 T .

(5.101)

N4
2

~
N4

{ q }= v
e

The shape functions are

[ 2 3r + r

N 1( r ) =

1
4 ( 1 + 3

N 2 (r ) =

1
4 ( 1 + 3

[1 r r
)

N 3(r ) =

1
4 ( 1 + 3

N 4 (r ) =

4 ( 1 + 3 )

+ 6 ( 1 r ) ,

)]

+ r 3 + 3 1 r 2 ,

[ 2 + 3r r

[ 1 r + r

+ 6 ( 1 + r ) ,

)]

+ r 3 + 3 1 + r 2 ,

~
N1 ( r ) =

1
4 ( 1 + 3

( 3 + 3r ) ,

~
N 2 (r ) =

1
4 ( 1 + 3

[ 1 2r + 3r

~
N3 ( r ) =

1
4 ( 1 + 3

( 3 3r ),

~
N 4 (r ) =

1
4 ( 1 + 3

[ 1 +2r + 3r

(5.102)

+ 6 ( 1 r ) ,

+ 6 ( 1 + r ) .

For = 0 , the first four functions (5.102) become the third degree
Hermitic polynomials (5.21) and the last four functions satisfy the relationship
2 Ni
~
N i (r ) =
l r

( i = 1,..., 4 ) .

(5.103)

It is useful to introduce a third set of shape functions which are used in the
derivation of the element stiffness matrix, and defined by

5. BEAMS, FRAMES AND GRIDS

121
2 dN

.
dr

N = N~ l

(5.104)

They are
3 1
N1 (r ) = N 2 (r ) = N 3 (r ) = N 4 (r ) =
.
1 + 3 l

(5.105)

5.9.3 Stiffness matrix

The strain energy for a beam element with shear effects included is
E Iz
Ue =
2
As

l2

d
G As

d x +
2
dx

l 2

d 2 d
=
dx l dr

and

l 2

dv

dx .
d x

(5.106)

l 2

dx =

l
dr ,
2

(5.107)

the contribution due to bending is

U eB

E Iz 2
=
2 l

+1

d r ,
dr

(5.108)

and the contribution due to shear is

G As l
U eS =
2 2

+1

2 dv

dr .
l d r

(5.109)

On substituting (5.100) into (5.108) we get

U eB

1
=
2

{q }

e T

2
EIz
l

+1

N N dr { q }
~

(5.110)

wherefrom we obtain the element stiffness matrix due to bending

+1

[ k ] = E I 2l N~ N~ dr .
e
B

On substituting (5.100) and (5.99) into (5.109) we get

(5.111)

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

122

U eS

1
=
2

{q }

e T

l
G As
2

+1

N d r { q e }

(5.112)

wherefrom we obtain the element stiffness matrix due to shear

+1

[ k ] = G A 2l N N dr .
e
S

(5.113)

Substituting the shape functions (5.102) and (5.105) and performing the
integration yields the stiffness matrix

[k ]
e

12

1 EI z 6l
=
1 + 3 l 3 12

6l

6l

(4 + 3 ) l
6l

12
2

(2 3 ) l 2

6l

6l

(2 3 ) l

2
6l (4 + 3 ) l
12

6l

(5.114)

The vector of consistent nodal forces is identical to the corresponding

vector (5.42) derived for a slender beam.

6.
LINEAR ELASTICITY

In this chapter the fundamental concepts from the linear theory of elasticity
are recalled, with emphasis on two-dimensional problems. The four main groups of
equations are written in the matrix notation used in FEA: (a) equations of
equilibrium, (b) equations of compatibility or strain/displacement relations, (c)
stress/strain relations or Hookes law, and (d) boundary conditions.

6.1 Matrix notation for loads, stresses and strains

An arbitrarily shaped tree-dimensional body of volume V, in equilibrium
under the action of external loads and the reactions in supports, is shown in Fig.
6.1. The total surface S of the body has two distinct parts: S u , the portion of the
boundary on which displacements are prescribed, and S , the portion on which
surface forces are prescribed.
Points in the body are located by x, y, z coordinates. Any point on the
surface has a local outward-pointing normal n whose orientation is usually
described by its three direction cosines n x , n y , n z .
In general there may be three sets of applied forces: (a) internal body
forces, (b) surface forces, and (c) concentrated forces.
Internal body forces
Internal body forces inside the volume V can be inertial forces, like
centrifugal or gravity forces. Their the magnitude per unit volume is denoted by
components pv x , pv y , pv z . It is convenient to write these components as a single
body force vector

{ pv } = pv x

pv y

pv z T .

(6.1)

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

124
Surface tractions

Likewise there could be surface forces (not necessarily normal pressures)

on the surface S , defined by the magnitude per unit surface area, also having
three components

{ ps } = ps x

ps y

ps z

T ,

(6.2)

Concentrated loads
Concentrated loads are defined by their three components

{ Fi } = Fi x

Fi y

Fi z

T .

(6.3)

Any system of loads has to fall into categories (6.1) to (6.3).

Fig. 6.1
Displacements
It is natural to form the single displacement vector

{ u} = u

v w T ,

(6.4)

where u , v , w are the displacement components inside the body or on the surface
S with unprescribed displacements.
Stresses and strains

The stresses inside V will have two types of component, the direct stress
components x , y , z and the shear stresses xy , yz , zx . It is convenient to
represent both stress and strain components as single column matrices. Thus

{ } = x

y z xy yz zx

T .

(6.5)

6. LINEAR ELASTICITY

125

In two-dimensional problems

{ } = x

y xy

T .

(6.5, a)

Strains are represented in vector form as

{ } = x

y z xy yz zx

T .

(6.6)

In two-dimensional problems

{ } = x

y xy

T .

(6.6, a)

6.2 Equations of equilibrium inside V

Figure 6.2 shows stresses acting on an infinitesimal element in the plane
xOy. The small linear increments in stresses are equilibrated by the applied body
forces yielding the following equilibrium equations, where xy = yx
x yx
+ pv x = 0,
+
y
x
xy y
+
+ p v y = 0.
x
y

Fig. 6.2
In matrix form, equations (6.7) can be written

(6.7)

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

126

x
y

xy

p vx

=
pvy

(6.8)

or, denoting the matrix of differential operators

and using (6.1)

x
[ ] = 0

,
y

(6.9)

[ ]T { } + { pv } = { 0 } .

6.2 Equations of equilibrium on the surface

(6.10)

Let now consider an element near the loaded boundary S . The

equilibrium along the two axes directions yields

x l + yx m = ps x ,
xy l + y m = ps y .

Fig. 6.3
In (6.11) the direction cosines for the outward normal n are

(6.11)

6. LINEAR ELASTICITY

127

n
= nx ,
x
n
m = cos (n , y ) =
= ny .
y

l = cos (n , x ) =

(6.12)

In matrix form, equations (6.11) can be written

nx 0 n y x
0 n n y
y
x

xy

ps x
= p ,
sy

(6.13)

or in condensed form

sometimes written

[ n ] T { } = { p s } ,

(6.14)

[ n ] { } = { p

(6.15)

},

where T n implies that the operators in [ ] T are acting upon n.

6.3 Strain-displacement relations

Figure 6.4 gives the deformation of the dx dy face for small
deformations.
The equations of compatibility have the familiar form

x =

u
;
x

y =

v
,
y

xy =

v u
+
.
x y

(6.16)

In matrix form

x x

y = 0

xy

y
and can be summarized as

u
,
y v

{ } = [ ] { u } .

(6.17)

(6.18)

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

128

Fig. 6.4

6.4 Stress-strain relations

For linear isotropic elastic materials, the stress-strain relations come from
the generalized Hookes law

{ } = [ C ] { } ,

(6.19)

where the material elastic compliance matrix is

1
[C ]= 1
E
SYM

0
0
0
2 (1 +

0
0

0
0
2 (1 +

0
0

0
.
0
0

2 ( 1 + )

(6.20)

The inverse relation is

{ } = [ C ] 1{ } = [ D ] { } .
The inverse of [ C ] is the material stiffness matrix

(6.21)

6. LINEAR ELASTICITY

129

[D] =
(1 + )(1 2 )

0
1

0
0
1

SYM

0
0
0

0 .(6.22)

1

2

Plane stress

A thin planar body subjected to in-plane loading on its edge surface is said
to be in plane stress. If stresses z , xz , and yz are set as zero, discarding rows
and columns 3, 5 and 6 in (6.20), the Hookes law can be written
x

xy

1
1
=
E 0

1
0

0 y
2 (1 + ) xy
0

(6.23)

The inverse relations are given by

x

xy

E
=
2
1

0
1
1
0

1
0 0
2

x
y

xy

(6.24)

which is used as { } = [ D ] { }.
Plane strain

If a long body of uniform cross section is subjected to transverse loading

along its length, a small thickness in the loaded area can be treated as subjected to
plane strain. If strains z , xz , and yz are set as zero, from (6.21) and discarding
rows and columns 3, 5 and 6 in (6.22), we obtain
x

xy

0
1
E

1
0

(
)(
)
+

1
1
2

1
2

0
0

x
y

xy

(6.25)

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

130

which is also used as { } = [ D ] { } but here [ D ] has a different expression as in

(6.24).

6.5 Temperature effects

The temperature strains are represented as initial strains

{ 0 } = T

T T 0 0 0 T ,

(6.26)

where T is the temperature rise and is the coefficient of linear expansion of the
material.
The stress-strain relations become

{ } = [ D ] ( { } { 0 } ) .

(6.27)

{ 0 } = T

(6.28)

In plane stress
T 0 T .

In plane strain

{ 0 } = (1 + ) T

0 T .

(6.29)

6.6 Strain energy

For linear elastic materials, the strain energy per unit volume in the body is
U0 =

1
{
2

}T { } = 1 { }T { }.
2

(6.30)

For the elastic body shown in Fig. 6.1, the total strain energy is given by
U=

1
2

{ } { } dV .
T

(6.31)

Substituting (6.21) we obtain the strain energy in terms of strains

U=

1
2

{ } [ D ] { } dV .
T

(6.32)

7.
ENERGY METHODS
The finite element method can be considered a Rayleigh-Ritz method.
The classical Rayleigh-Ritz technique represents a variational approach
whereby a distributed system is approximated by a discrete one by assuming a
solution of the differential boundary-value problem as a finite series of admissible
functions. Unfortunately, systems with complex geometry or complex boundary
conditions cannot be accomodated easily by global admissible functions.
In the finite element method, the approximate solution is constructed using
local admissible functions, defined over small subdomains of the structure. Good
approximations can be realized with low-degree polynomials. Displacements are
calculated by methods based on the principle of virtual work and/or the principle of
minimum total potential energy.
Instead of solving differential equations with complicated boundary
conditions, the finite element method evaluates integrals of relatively simple
polynomial functions. Variational methods put less strict conditions on the
functions approximating the displacement field than the analytical methods based
on differential equations.

7.1 Principle of virtual work (PVW)

PVW is basically a statement of the static equilibrium of a mechanical
system. In the following, the form known as the principle of virtual displacements
(PVD) will be used, as applied to elastic bodies.

7.1.1 Virtual displacements

By definition, virtual displacements are:
a) arbitrary (fictitious, virtual);
b) infinitesimal (follow the rules of differential calculus);

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

132

c) not related to either the actual displacements or to the forces

producing them;
d) continuous in the interior and on the surface of the body;
A continuity C 0 is generally required for bars and elasticity problems,
while a continuity C1 is imposed for beams, plates and shells. Exceptions do exist.
Remember that a function of several variables is said to be of class C m in a
domain V if all its partial derivatives, up to the mth order inclusive, exist and are
continuous in the domain V.
e) kinematically admissible, i.e. consistent with the system
kinematic boundary conditions (geometric constraints).
If the differential equation of the problem is of order m = 2n , the

admissible functions must have continuity C n 1 , i.e. the geometrical boundary

conditions must be satisfied to the (n 1)th derivative. For bars, m = 2 and the

assumed functions must have continuity C 0 .

For beams m = 4 and the approximating functions must have continuity
1

C . Because the continuity required is reduced from C 2 in the governing

differential equation to C1 in the variational equation, the functional is said to have

a weak form.
A virtual displacement will be denoted by in front of a letter, e.g. u .
The symbol was introduced by Lagrange to emphasize the virtual character of
the variations, as opposed to the symbol d which designates actual differentials of
position coordinates.
Denoting by

{ u} = u

v w T ,

the displacement vector (6.4) inside the body or on the surface S with
unprescribed displacements (Fig. 6.1), the vector of virtual displacements is

{u } = u

v w T .

(7.1)

The vector of the corresponding virtual strains will be

{ } = [ B ] { u } .
where [ B ] is the strain-displacement matrix.

(7.2)

7. ENERGY METHODS

133

7.1.2 Virtual work of external loads

For a bar in tension (Fig. 7.1, a), the virtual work of the external force F is
WE = F u .

(7.3)

It has the same value whether the bar material is linear elastic (Fig. 7.1, b)
or nonlinear elastic (Fig. 7.1, c). Note that it is simply (force displacement),
because the force is constant along the virtual displacement, the latter being
arbitrary, hence independent of the force.
In the general case of loading by conservative body forces (6.1), surface
tractions (6.2) and point forces (6.3), the virtual work of external loads is
WE =

{ u } { pv }dV + { u } { ps }d A + i { ui } { Fi } .
T

(7.4)

Note that the scalar product under the first integral is

{ u }T { pv } = u pv x + v pv y + w pv z .

Fig. 7.1
Note also the absence of the factor 1 2 which occurs in the expression of
the work of elastic forces, because the external loads remain constant during the
action along the virtual displacements.

7.1.3 Virtual work of internal forces

For a three-dimensional continuum, the virtual work of internal stresses is
WI =

V { } { }dV
T

as shown in Fig. 7.2 for the uniaxial case.

(7.5)

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

134

Fig. 7.2
Again, stresses remain constant during the action on virtual strains.

7.1.4 Principle of virtual displacements

For elastic bodies, the principle of virtual displacements states that:
If a system is in equilibrium, then during an arbitrary small displacement
from the equilibrium position, the virtual work of applied loads equals the virtual
work of internal forces
WE = WI .
(7.6)
Also: A body is in equilibrium if the internal virtual work equals the
external virtual work for every kinematically admissible displacement field.

{ } { }dV { u } { pv }dV { u } { ps }d A i { ui } { Fi } = 0 .
T

(7.6, a)
In (7.6) WE is the work of external loads on the virtual displacements
{ u } which are independent of loading and kinematically admissible.
If stresses are expressed in terms of a set of parameters defining
completely the displacement pattern the nodal displacements, then equilibrium
relations can be obtained and the displacement parameters determined. The nodal
displacements do not permit the fully equilibrating position to be reached, so that
the PVD will ensure approximate equilibrium.
Note that the virtual work of reaction forces at supports is zero. Since the
principle of virtual displacements is an equilibrium requirement, it is independent
of material behaviour, i.e. whether the material is elastic or inelastic. It applies only

7. ENERGY METHODS

135

for loading by conservative forces, which do not change direction during the action
on the virtual displacements. The external work is independent of the path taken.

Example 7.1
For the three-bar pin-jointed framework shown in Fig. 7.3, loaded by a
force F, find the internal bar forces and the displacement of point 4.

Fig. 7.3
Solution. Consider three states of the analyzed system:
1. The initial state, in which bars are not loaded by external forces and are
not prestressed (Fig. 7.4, a).
2. The final state of static equilibrium, in which the external force F, of
components F1 = F sin and F2 = F cos , produces a displacement of the joint 4,
of components u1 and u2 (Fig. 7.4, b).
The joint 4 is acted upon by the external forces F1 , F2 and by internal
forces T1 , T2 , T3 (Fig. 7.4, c). The joint reacts with forces equal in magnitude but
of opposite sign, producing the elongations 1 , 2 , 3 (Fig. 7.4, d).
3. An imaginary state, in which the joint 4 is given a virtual displacement
of components u1 and u2 (Fig. 7.4, e), which produce virtual elongations in bars
1 , 2 , 3 (Fig. 7.4, f), the applied forces remaining constant.
The virtual displacements u1 and u2 and the virtual bar extensions 1 ,
2 , 3 satisfy the compatibility equations (2.19)

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

136

1 = u1 sin + u 2 cos ,
2 = u 2 ,

(7.7)

3 = u1 sin + u 2 cos .
For the three bars, the force-elongation equations (2.21) can be written

1=

T1 l
,
EA

2=

T2 l cos
,
EA

3=

T3 l
.
EA

(7.8)

Fig. 7.4
Equating internal work to external work (7.6) using the products of real
forces and virtual displacements we obtain
T1 1+ T2 2 + T3 3 = F1 u1 + F2 u2 .

(7.9)

Substituting (7.7) into (7.9) and collecting coefficients of u1 and u2

gives

7. ENERGY METHODS

137

u1 (T1 sin T3 sin F1 ) + u2 (T1 cos + T2 + T3 cos F2 ) = 0 .

(7.10)

Since u1 and u2 are unrelated to each other, we could put either to zero.
Equation (7.10) must be zero whatever the values of u1 and u2 . This can only
be true if their coefficients vanish
T1 sin T3 sin = F1 ,

(7.11)

T1 cos + T2 + T3 cos = F2 .

These are indeed the equations of equilibrium. It is confirmed that the

principle of virtual work is an equivalent statement of statical equilibrium.
Substituting (7.8) in the finite form of (7.7), then in (7.11), the components
of the displacement of point 4 can be determined from the following equations
2 EA 2
sin u 1 = F1 ,
l
EA
1
2
u 2 = F2 .
2 cos +
l
cos

(7.12)

7.1.5 Proof that PVD is equivalent to equilibrium equations

Consider a form of equation (7.6, a) without point forces

{ } { }dV = { u } { pv }dV + { u } { ps }d A .
T

(7.6, b)

Convert { } to { u } using the integration by parts

x x dV = x x d x dy dz =

y y dV = y v m d A
S

xy xy dV =

(u ) d x l d A =
x

x d(u ) l d A = x u l d A

y
y

x
dx dy dz ,
x
dV

dV ,
xy
xy
v +
u dV ,
y

xy ( v l + u m)d A

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

138

where l and m are direction cosines of the outward normal at the surface.
Adding together

( x x + y y + xy xy )dV = [ u ( x l + xy m)+ v ( xy l + y m) ] d A

x xy
+
u
y
x

+ v xy +
y

dV .

In matrix form (Gauss theorem)

T
T
T
T
T
{ } { }dV = { u } [ n ] { }d A { u } [ ] { }dV ,

which is true provided [ ] T { } and { } are finite in V, that is the stress and
displacement fields are continuous. This applies only within a single element and
up to its surface.
The componets of stresses at element interfaces may not balance at a point,
but only in the mean. Most finite elements in use today do not achieve continuous
stresses across interfaces.
On substituting in (7.6, b)
T
T
T
T
{ u } ( [ ] { } + { pv }) dV { u } ( [ n ] { } { ps }) d A = 0 .

Because { u } are arbitrary, its coefficients must vanish. The equations of

equilibrium emerge from the brackets

[ ]T { } + { pv } = { 0 } in V, [ n ]T { } { ps } = { 0} on

S .

The PVD supplies equilibrium conditions both within and on the surface of
the body. So, when using approximate functions for { u }, it is not necessary to
worry about the equilibrium boundary conditions. Part of the surface, i.e. S , is
supported in some way and there the tractions { ps } will be unknown reactions and
not specified loads. It is conventional to remove the unknown reactions by
choosing the virtual displacements { u } to be zero over S .

7. ENERGY METHODS

139

7.2 Principle of minimum total potential energy

The total potential energy of an elastic body is defined as the sum of
the strain energy U and the work potential of external loads WP

= U + WP .

(7.13)

7.2.1 Strain energy

Consider the strain energy (6.32)
U=

1
2

V { }

[ D ] { } dV .

For a virtual strain { } , the virtual increase of strain energy is

U =

1
2

1
T
T
{
}
{
}
[
]

d
V
+

{ } [ D ] { } dV .
2

Because

({ }
U =

{ }
V

[ D ] { } )

= { }T [ D ] { },

[ D ] { } dV = { }T { } dV = WI .
V

U = WI .

(7.14)

For an elastic body, the virtual variation of the strain energy is equal to
the virtual work of the internal stresses on virtual strains.
For a bar in tension, substituting = E and =

U =

d u
du
EA
dx .
dx
dx

dV = E A d x =

For a beam in bending, substituting = y

U =

2v 2 v 2
d
E
y
A
dx =
x2
x 2
A

du
, yields
dx

(7.15)

d2v
(5.4), gives
d x2

d 2v
d2v
E
I
dx .
d x2
d x2

(7.16)

The above expressions can be obtained directly from the strain energies

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

140

U=

for a bar

E A du
dx ,
2 d x

EI
2

U=

for a beam

(7.17)

d2v

.
d x2 d x

(7.18)

7.2.2 External potential energy

The work potential of external loads WP is equal to the negative product of
external forces by the corresponding displacement

WP = WE .

(7.19)

The negative sign appears because the external loads lose some of their
capacity for doing work when displaced in the direction they act.
For example, a gravitational force F = m g acts in the opposite direction to
a vertical displacement h and the potential becomes m g h .

An external point load F j has potential energy F j u j

instead of

F j u j , because this potential arises from the magnitude of force and its
2

capacity to do work when it moves, being independent of the linear properties of

the body on which it acts.

For a three-dimensional continuum

WP =

{u } { pv }dV {u } { ps }d A i {ui } { Fi } .
T

(7.20)

For virtual displacements {u }

WP = WE .

(7.21)

7.2.3 Total potential energy

The total potential energy (7.13) can be written

= { }T { } dV { u }T { pv }dV
V

{u } { ps }d A i { ui } { Fi } .
T

(7.13, a)
Its variation is

7. ENERGY METHODS

141

= U + WP = WI WE .

(7.22)

Based on equation (7.6) it follows that

= 0 ,

(7.22, a)

hence, at equilibrium, the total potential energy has a stationary value. If

2 > 0 , the stationary value is a minimum, the equilibrium is stable.

The principle of minimum total potential energy states that:

If a deformable body is in equilibrium under the action of external loads
and reaction forces, then the total potential energy has a minimum value.
Reciprocally, if under the action of external loads and reaction forces the
total potential energy of a deformable body is a minimum, then it is in a stable
equilibrium state.
Thus, it can be considered that (7.22, a) is a condition that establishes or
defines the equilibrium, rather than a result of the equilibrium.
An equivalent statement is: For conservative systems, of all possible
kinematically admissible displacement fields, the one satisfying equilibrium
corresponds to a minimum value of the total potential energy.
Reciprocally, any kinematically admissible displacement field which
minimizes the total potential energy represents a stable equilibrium configuration.

Example 7.2
For the truss shown in Fig. 7.3, the strain energy for a bar is
1
1 E Ai 2
i ,
U i = Ti i =
2
2 li
and the external potential energy is
WP =

F u .
i i

Expressing the elongations in terms of displacements, according to the

compatibility relations, the total potential energy can be written

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

142

EA
( u1 sin + u2 cos
2l

)2 +

EA
u22 +
2 l cos

EA
( u1 sin + u2 cos
2l

)2 F1 u1 F2 u2 .

Cancelling the derivatives of with respect to each independent variable

= 0,
u1

=0,
u2

we obtain the equilibrium equations (7.11).

Example 7.3
Apply the principle of minimum total potential energy to a beam in
bending, subjected to a distributed load and to the end bending moments and shear
forces as shown in Fig. 7.5. Show that PMTPE is equivalent to the equilibrium
conditions inside and at the ends of the beam.

Fig. 7.5
Solution. For a beam segment loaded as shown, the total potential energy is

1
2

E I (v) d x p v dx + M
2

0 v0

M l vl T0 v0 + Tl vl .

At equilibrium, is stationary, = 0 or

E I v (v)d x p v dx + M
l

v0 M l vl T0 v0 + Tl vl = 0 .

Integrating by parts the first term gives

(a)

7. ENERGY METHODS

143

d dv

E I v (v)d x = E I v d x d x dx = E I v d (v) =
l

= E I v v 0

d x (E I v) dx v = E I v v (E I v) v dx.
l
0

Integrating by parts the last term gives

l
0

d
(E I v) dx v = (E I v) v
dx

(E I v) v dx = (E I v) d x (v)dx = (E I v) d (v) =
l

= (E I v) v

l
0

(E I v) v dx.
l

Equation (a ) becomes
l
E I v v 0 (E I v) v

l
0

(E I v) v dx p v dx M v
l

or

l
0

+ T v

l
0

=0

((E I v) p ) v dx + ( E I v - M ) v (( E I v ) T )v
l
0

l
0

=0.

The coefficient of v in the integrand gives the equation of equilibrium

(E I v) = p (x ) .
As v is arbitrary, the other terms deliver the equilibrium conditions at the
beam ends

( E I v)0 = T0 ,

( E I v) 0 = M 0 ,

or v0 = 0 ,

( E I v) l = M l ,

or vl = 0 , and

or v0 = 0 ,

( E I v)l = Tl ,

or vl = 0 ,

which are the boundary conditions.

7.3 The Rayleigh-Ritz method

The Rayleigh-Ritz method involves the construction of an assumed
displacement field. For a beam, the transverse displacement v (x ) is approximated
by a finite series

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

144
v (x )

a (x )
j

(7.23)

j =1

where a j are undetermined constants called generalized coordinates, and j ( x )

are prescribed functions of x , called admissible functions, that satisfy the
kinematic (geometric) boundary conditions and are continuous within the
definition interval.
Substituting the displacements (7.23) into the expression of the total
potential energy , the latter becomes a function of the parameters a j , whose
values are determined from the stationarity conditions
=

a
j

a j = 0 .

Because a j are arbitrary,

=0,
aj

( j = 1,..., n ) ,

(7.24)

which is a linear algebraic set of equations in the constants a j .

The solutions are back-substituted into (7.23) which represents an
approximate deflected shape, which is more accurate the more terms are selected in
the respective series.
The necessary requirements for the convergence of the Rayleigh-Ritz
method are the following:
a) The approximating functions must be continuous to one order less the
highest derivative in the integrand.
b) The functions must individually satisfy the geometric boundary
conditions, i.e. to be admissible functions.
c) The sequence of functions must be complete.
If the functions are not selected from the domain space of the operator of
the equation being solved (completeness property) the resulting solution could be
either zero or wrong.

Example 7.4
For the beam shown in Fig. 7.6 find the vertical displacement of point 2.
Consider: E = 210 MPa , I = 1600 mm 4 , l = 3 m , F = 100 N and q = 200 N m .
Solution. The total potential energy is

7. ENERGY METHODS

145

1
= EI
2

d2v

d x q v (x ) d x F v l .
d x2
2

2l 3

(7.25)

The geometric boundary conditions are

v (0) = 0 ,

2l
v =0,
3

v (0 ) = 0 ,

v (l ) = 0 .

(7.26)

In the following, for simplicity, the transverse displacements are

approximated by a series consisting of only two terms
v ( x ) = a1 1 (x ) + a2 2 (x ) ,

(7.27)

where the functions

1 (x ) =

x 2 (3 x 2 l )( x l )
l4

2 (x ) =

x 3 (3 x 2 l )( x l )
l5

(7.28)

satisfy all geometrical boundary conditions (7.26).

Fig. 7.6
Substituting (7.27) into (7.25) we obtain the functional
1
= EI
2

( a1 1 + a2 2 ) dx q ( a1 1 + a2 2 ) dx .
2

2l 3

[ a1 1(l 2) + a2 2 (l 2) ].

Requiring to be stationary with respect to a1 and a 2 , leads to two

equations relating the generalized coordinates

= EI
a1

2l 3

( a1 1 + a2 2 ) 1 d x q 1 d x F 1(l 2) = 0 ,

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

146

= EI
a2

0 ( a1 1 + a2 2 ) 2 d x 2 3q 2 d x F 2 (l 2) = 0 .
l

Because is of second order in and " , the equations are linear in a j .

Substituting the functions (7.28), for F = q l 6 , we obtain
56 E I
EI
11
a 1 + 10 3 a2 =
ql,
3
5 l
4320
l
10

EI
72 E I
269
a +
a2 =
ql.
3 1
3
7 l
46656
l

For example, the coefficient of a1 in the first equation is

l

EI

0 ( 1 )

dx = EI

0 l8 ( 36 x
1

30 l x + 4 l 2

dx =

56 E I
.
5 l3

The solutions are

a1 = 0.00207

q l4
,
EI

a2 = 0.00257

q l4
.
E I

(7.29)

In 2, the displacement is
v (l 2 ) = a1 1 (l 2) + a2 2 (l 2) =

1
1
q l4
a1 + a2 = 4.9 10 5
= 2.48 mm.
16
32
E Iy

Example 7.5
Consider a linear spring of stiffness k (Fig. 7.7, a) subjected to a load F.
Comment on the approximations of the Rayleigh-Ritz method.
Answer. The total potential energy (Fig. 7.7, b) is

1 2
ku Fu .
2

(7.30)

For a small virtual displacement u , the variation of the total potential

energy is
= k u u F u = ( k u F ) u .

7. ENERGY METHODS

147

The equilibrium equation is obtained by requiring to be zero ( be

stationary) for arbitrary u .

Fig. 7.7
For =0 we obtain
k ueq F = 0 .

(7.31)

As seen in Fig. 7.7, b, the exact solution corresponds to an absolute

minimum value of .
The total potential energy of the equilibrium configuration is

eq =

1
1
1 F2
.
F ueq F ueq = F ueq =
2
2
2 k

(7.32)

The stiffness is
1 F2 1 F2
=
.
2 eq 2 eq

(7.33)

1 2 1 F2
= eq .
k ueq =
2
2 k

(7.34)

k =
The strain energy is
U eq =

If F is prescribed and the resulting u has been approximated by a RayleighRitz solution uapp ueq , equations (7.32) (7.34) and Fig. 7.7, b indicate that:
a) Because eq is a minimum, the potential energy for an approximate
displacement which satisfies the kinematic boundary conditions is greater than the
true value
app > eq .
In magnitude

app < eq ,

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

148

the approximate total potential energy is underestimated.

b) The approximate stiffness is overestimated
k =

1 F2
.
2 eq

(7.35)

c) The approximate displacement is underestimated

u =

F
.
k

(7.36)

An approximate compatible displacement field corresponds to a structure

which is stiffer than the actual structure and therefore will give a lower bound on
displacement.

7.4 F.E.M. - a localized version of the Rayleigh-Ritz method

Instead of finding an admissible function satisfying the boundary
conditions for the entire domain, which is often difficult, in the FEM the
admissible functions are defined over small size subdomains.

7.4.1 F.E.M. in Structural Mechanics

a) Problem. Given a geometrically complex structure (including the
boundary conditions) and the external loads { pv } , { ps } , { Fi } , find the
displacement field { u } within V and on the surface S (Fig. 6.1). Then determine
stresses, internal forces, reaction forces, etc.
b) Solution approach. Use PVD or PMTPE as an approximate method for
solving the boundary-value problem. Admissible functions are defined over small
size finite elements, with simple geometry and well identified structural behaviour.
With these individually defined functions matching each other at certain points
(nodes) at the element interfaces, the unknown function is approximated piecewise
over the entire domain (continuity at global level).
c) Procedure. The geometric shape and the internal displacement field are
described by a series of discrete quantities (like nodal coordinates and nodal
displacements) distributed through the structure. For this a matrix notation is used.
d) Tools. Computers are used to store long lists of separate numbers and to
manipulate them, to present output data in an engineering format, taking advantage
of graphical and animation facilities.

7. ENERGY METHODS

149

7.4.2 Discretization
The structure is divided into finite elements (Fig. 7.8) that define the mesh.
Elements are defined by their nodal coordinates and some physical parameters.

Fig. 7.8

7.4.3 Principle of virtual displacements

For the entire structure, equation (7.6, a) can be written (considering only
surface tractions)
=

{ } { }dV { u } { ps }d A = 0 .
T

(7.37)

As a summation of virtual works on all elements, PVD yields

=

T
T
{ } { }dV { u } { ps }d A = 0 .

Ve
S e

(7.38)

In the following, only e will be considered. The aim is the calculation

of the element stiffness matrix and load vector.

7.4.4 Approximating functions for the element

In the Rayleigh-Ritz method, the trial function is expressed as a finite
expansion

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

150

a1
a

(7.39)
u (x )
a j j (x ) = 1 2 L n 2 = { a }
L

j =1
an
where the undetermined constants a j have no direct evident signification.
n

The basic idea of FEM is to choose the constants - the displacement

unknowns at the nodes { a } = Q e and to prescribe admissible functions denoted
= N so that

{ }

u N u

v = 0
w 0

or

0
N v
0

{ }
{ }
{ }

0 Que

0 Qve
e
N w Qw

{ u } = [ N ] {Q e },

(7.40)

where [ N ] is the matrix of shape functions (interpolation functions).

The reason is that elements are small enough so that the shape of the
displacement field can be approximated without too much error and only the
magnitude, defined by Q e remains to be found.

{ }

The proper selection of shape functions ensure the continuity of the

displacement field at global level. A finite element described by admissible shape
functions (integrable in the interior and with equal values of generalized
coordinates at element interfaces) is referred to as co-deformable or conforming.

7.4.5 Compatibility between strains and nodal displacements

From the compatibility relationship (6.18)

{ } = [ ] { u } = [ ][ N ] {Q e }= [ B ] {Q e },
where [ B ] is the matrix of differentiated shape functions.
The strain virtual variation is

{ } = [ B ] {Q e }.

(7.41)

7. ENERGY METHODS

151

7.4.6 Element stiffness matrix and load vector

Using the constitutive equation
element is
e =

{ } = [ D ] { } ,

the virtual work for an

T
T
e T
e
e T
{ Q } [ B ] [ D ][ B ]{Q }dV { Q } [ N ] { ps }d A = 0

Ve

Ae

or

e = Q e

} [ B ]
T

[ D ][ B ] dV

Ve

{Q } [ N ]
e

Ae

{ ps }d A = 0 .

As Q e are arbitrary and non-zero, cancelation of the bracket yields the

element equilibrium equation

[ K ] {Q }= {F },
e

(7.42)

where the element stiffness matrix is

[ K ]= [ B ]
e

[ D ][ B ] dV

(7.43)

Ve

and the vector of consistent nodal forces is

{F }= [ N ]
e

{ ps }d A .

(7.44)

Ae

7.4.7 Assembly of the global stiffness matrix and load vector

In the next step, all individual elements are assembled together so that the
displacements are continuous across element interfaces and the boundary
conditions are satisfied.
The kinematic connectivity is expressed by the relationship between
element and global displacements
~
Q e = T e { Q },
(7.45)

{ }

{ } [ ]

where Q e is the vector of nodal element displacements, {Q } is the vector of the

~
global displacements of the structure and T e is a connectivity matrix, containing
ones at the nodal displacements of element nodes and zeros elsewhere.

[ ]

The variation of element displacements is

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

152

{ Q }= [ T~ ] { Q }.
e

(7.46)

The PVD equation for the entire structure is

{Q } [ K ] {Q }= {Q } {F },
e

or using (7.45) and (7.46)

{Q }T
e

[ T~ ] [ K ][ T~ ] {Q } = {Q } [ T~ ] {Q }.
e T

e T

As { Q } are arbitrary and non-zero, the unreduced global equilibrium

equations are

[ K ] {Q } = { F } ,

(7.47)

where the global stiffness matrix is

[ K ]=

[ T~ ] [ K ][ T~ ]
e T

(7.48)

and the global load vector is

{ F } = [ T~ e ] T {F e }.

(7.49)

Applying the boundary conditions, the condensed equilibrium equations

are

[ K ] {Q } = { F } .

(7.50)

The above procedure is never used in practice. It has been used only to
show algebraically how to assemble a global stiffness matrix. The assembly is done
by directly placing the nonzero entries of element stiffness matrices in the right
locations of the global stiffness matrix based on element connectivity.

7.4.8 Solution and back-substitution

Nodal displacements are determined by solving the linear equations (7.50).
In the back-substitution phase, element stresses are evaluated as
{ } = [ D ] { } = [ D ][ B ] Q e = [ D ][ B ] T~ e { Q }

{ }

where [ D ] is given by (6.24) or (6.25).

[ ]

8.
TWO-DIMENSIONAL ELEMENTS

Many engineering structures can be modeled as two-dimensional flat

plates, designed to be primarily loaded in their plane and to resist loads by
membrane action rather than bending. In-plane displacement, strain and stress
components are uniform through the plate thickness, which is considered constant.
Only transversely homogeneous plates will be analyzed herein, composite and
sandwich plates being studied in other courses. This chapter presents the element
stiffness matrices and consistent force vectors for triangular and rectangular
elements, that allow closed form derivations, without the need for numerical
integration. The very first approximate finite element developed in 1956 to model
delta wing skin panels, the three-noded triangle with constant strain field, is treated
separately.

8.1 The plane constant-strain triangle (CST)

Before the advent of arbitrarily shaped isoparametric elements, discussed
in the next chapter, the CST was one of the most widely used elements and is still
available in systems today. It is a much more adaptable shape than the rectangle
and it allows the user to tailor the element mesh to suit any structural geometry. A
large number of small elements can be densely packed into a region of expected
high stress gradients, and uniformly stressed regions can be left with a small
number of larger triangles.

8.1.1 Discretization of structure

The plate is divided into a number of straight-sided triangles (Fig. 8.1, a),
joined together at their corners (nodes), so that the corners of adjacent elements
have common displacements. The elements fill the entire region except of a small
region at the boundary. This unfilled region exists for curved boundaries and it can
be reduced by choosing smaller elements.

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

154

The three nodes of the isolated element from Fig. 8.1, b are numbered
locally as 1, 2 and 3. The corresponding nodal coordinates are designated as
( x1 , y1 ) , ( x2 , y2 ) and ( x3 , y3 ) . The numbering is in anticlockwise direction to
avoid calculating a negative area.

b
Fig. 8.1

Each node is permitted to displace in the two directions x and y. Thus, each
node has two degrees of freedom. The displacement components of a local node j
are denoted as u j in the x direction and v j in the y direction. The vector of
element nodal displacements is defined as

{ q }= u
e

v1 u2

v2

u3

v3 T .

(8.1)

8.1.2 Polynomial approximation of the displacement field

The displacements u and v of a point within the triangle are expressed in
terms of the nodal displacements. Because for two displacements there are six
boundary conditions, the assumed displacement field is linear
u (x , y ) = a1 + a2 x + a3 y ,
v ( x , y ) = a4 + a5 x + a6 y

with six arbitrary parameters.

(8.2)

8. TWO-DIMENSIONAL MEMBRANES

155

The strains (6.16) are

x =

u
= a2 = const . ,
x

xy =

y =

v
= a6 = const . ,
y

u v
+
= a3 + a5 = const . ,
y x

hence the name constant strain triangle.

8.1.3 Nodal approximation of the displacement field

In the polynomial approximation (8.2) the constants ai have no physical
meaning. A nodal approximation is preferred, in which the constants are the nodal
displacements and the displacement field is obtained by interpolation based on
values of corner displacements.
Since the functions for u and v are of the same form, only one need be
considered in detail. We can write

u = 1 x

a1

y a2
a
3

= 1 x

y { a } .

(8.3)

Evaluating the expression for u at the three nodes gives the nodal
displacements in terms of the polynomial coefficients
u1

u2
u
3

or

1 x1

= 1 x2
1 x
3

y1 a1

y2 a2
y3 a3

{ u }= [ A ] { a } ,
e

(8.4)

(8.4, a)

where

1 x1
[A ] = 1 x2
1 x3
By inversion
where

y1
y2
y3

{ a } = [ A ] 1 { u e }.

(8.5)

(8.6)

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

156

[A ]

1 2 3
1
=
1 2 3 .
2A
1 2 3

(8.7)

in which

i = x j y k xk y j ,

i = y j yk ,

i = xk x j

(8.8)

and the subscripts i , j , k permute in a natural order.

The area of the triangle A is equal to one half the magnitude of the
determinant of [ A ]
1 x1
2 A = 1 x2
1 x3

y1
y2 = (x2 y3 x3 y2 ) + ( x3 y1 x1 y3 ) + (x1 y2 x2 y1 ) .
y3

(8.9)

The determinant is positive if nodes 1, 2, 3 are labeled anticlockwise

around the element.
Substituting (8.6) into (8.3) gives

u = N

{u }
e

(8.10)

where the row vector of shape functions

1
N = N1 N 2 N 3 = 1 x y [ A ] .

(8.11)

By transposition
T
T
T
N = [A ] 1 x y ,

N1

N2
N
3

1
1
=
2
2 A

1 1 1

2 2 x
3 3 y

(8.12)

or
Ni =
Similarly

1
( i + i x + i y ) .
2A

{ }

v = N v e .

( i = 1, 2, 3 )

(8.12, a)

(8.13)

8. TWO-DIMENSIONAL MEMBRANES

157

The shape functions (8.12, a) can also be written

N1 (x , y ) =

1
[ x2 y3 x3 y2 + ( y2 y3 ) x + (x3 x2 ) y ] ,
2A

N 2 (x , y ) =

1
[ x3 y1 x1 y3 + ( y3 y1 ) x + (x1 x3 ) y ] ,
2A

N3 (x , y ) =

1
[ x1 y2 x2 y1 + ( y1 y2 ) x + (x2 x1 ) y ] .
2A

(8.12, b)

Fig. 8.2
The shape functions N i vary linearly, have a unit value at node i and zero
values at the other two nodes, as illustrated in Fig. 8.2:
N i ( xi , yi ) = i j ,

( i , j = 1, 2, 3 )

(8.14)

and
3

Ni = 1 .

i =1

Combining (8.10) and (8.14) yields

(8.15)

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

158

u N1
=
v 0

N2

N3

N1

N2

u1
v
1
0 u2

N 3 v2
u3

v3

(8.16)

or

u
=[N
v

] { q e }.

(8.16, a)

Fig. 8.3
The displacement u (x, y ) =u1 N1 (x, y ) + u2 N 2 (x, y ) + u3 N 3 (x, y ) determines a
plane surface passing through u1 , u2 and u3 , as shown in Fig. 8.3.

8.1.4 The matrix [B ]

Strains are expressed in terms of displacements as

{ }
e

x
= [ ] { u }= 0

= 0
y v

x
y

[N
y

] { q e }= [ B ] { q e }.

8. TWO-DIMENSIONAL MEMBRANES

159

The matrix of the derivatives of shape functions is

N1

x
[ B ] = 0
N
1

0
N1
y
N1
x

N2
x
0
N2
y

1
1
[ B ]= 0
2A
1
y2 y3
1
[ B ]= 0
2A
x3 x2
The matrix
written simply

[B ]

N2
y
N2
x

0
N3
y

1 0
1 2

2
2

y3 y1

0
x3 x2
y2 y3

N3
,
y
N3

N3
x

0
x1 x3

0
x1 x3
y3 y1

0
3 ,
3

y1 y2
0
x2 x1

0
x2 x1
y1 y2

(8.17)

is constant for a given CST element. Sometimes it is

y23
1
[ B ]= 0
2A
x32

0
x32
y23

y31
0
x13

0
x13
y31

y12
0
x21

0
x21
y12

(8.17, a)

where the notation is obvious.

8.1.5 Element stiffness matrix and load vector

The element stiffness matrix (7.43) is

[k ]= [ B ]
e

[ D ][ B ] dV = [ B ]T [ D ][ B ] t e

A,

(8.18)

Ve

where t is the element thickness, A is the element area and [ D ] is the material
stiffness matrix given by (6.24) for plane stress and by (6.25) for plane strain
conditions.
e

The consistent nodal forces due to traction loads acting on a portion of the
boundary are calculated as for a linear two-node element. Along an edge 1-2, the
shape function N 3 is zero while N1 and N 2 are similar to the shape functions in
one dimension, satisfying N1 + N 2 = 1 . When the surface load distribution (per unit

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

160

area) is linear, varying from p1 at node 1 to p2 at node 2 (Fig. 8.4), the nodal
forces are

f1e =

lte
( 2 p1 + p2 ) ,
6

f 2e =

l te
( p1 + 2 p2
6

(8.19)

where t e is the thickness of the element. Because of linearity they coincide with
the static resultants.

Fig. 8.4
The nodal forces associated with the weight of an element are equally
distributed at the nodes.

8.1.6 Remarks
A mesh like in Fig. 8.5, a is clearly a directionally sensitive assembly, and
this could be corrected by using the union jack pattern of Fig. 8.5, b which
however produces a larger bandwidth. Benchmark tests using triangular elements
have shown that CST elements, even in a fine mesh, are much inferior to higher
order elements in a coarse mesh.

Fig. 8.5

8. TWO-DIMENSIONAL MEMBRANES

161

A drawback of the displacement form of the finite element method is that

equilibrium is only satisfied in the mean or over the element. This means that along
an edge which is common to two elements the stresses are different across the
edge, where they should be continuous. Most programs contain facilities for
averaging the stresses. The simplest form of averaging consists of simply
connecting the centroids of two adjacent triangles and to assign the mean stress
value to the crossing point of this line with the common edge.
A simple example of stress averaging is shown in Fig. 8.6 for a square
plate with a circular hole. Taking advantage of symmetry, only one quarter of the
plate is considered. The diagram compares the theoretical stress distribution along
the marked line with the averaged values calculated using CSTs.

Fig. 8.6

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

162

The procedure will be used in Example E8.3

Example 8.1
A square plate of thickness t and Youngs modulus E is pin-jointed at
three corners and subjected to a force F at the free corner (Fig. E8.1, a). Let
= 0 . Divide the plate into four CST elements and find: a) the nodal
displacements; b) stresses in elements; and c) the support reactions.

Fig. E8.1
Solution. The material stiffness matrix (6.24) is

1 0 0
[ D ] = E 0 1 0 .
0 0 1 2

(a)

With the origin of coordinate axes at the plate centre, the nodal coordinates
of element 1 are

x1 = y1 = 0 ,

x2 = l , y 2 = 0 ,

x3 = 0 , y3 = l .

The area is A = l 2 2 and the matrix (8.17) is

[B ]
1

1 0 1 0 0 0
1
= 0 1 0 0 0 1 .
l
1 1 0 1 1 0

The element stiffness matrix (8.18) is

(b)

8. TWO-DIMENSIONAL MEMBRANES

163

[ K ]= [k ]= [ B ]
1

[K ]
1

1 T

[ D ] [ B1 ] t A ,

3 2 1 2 1 1 2 1 2 0

32
0 1 2 1 2 1

1
0
0
0
Et
=
.

12
12
0
2

SYM
12
0

(c)

(d)

Element 2 can be obtained by rotating 90 0 anticlockwise element 1. In

general, the transformation matrix for a rotation with an angle is

[T ]
e

c
s

0
=
0
0

s 0
c 0
0 c
0 s
0 0
0 0

0
0

s
c
0
0

0
0 0
0 0

0 0
c s

s c
0

(e)

where c = cos and s = sin .

The stiffness matrix of the rotated element is

[ K ] = [T ] [ k ] [T ]. .
e T

(f)

For = 900 we obtain

[T ]
2

0
1

0
=
0
0

1
0

0
0

0
0

0 0
0 1
0 0
0 0

1
0
0
0

The stiffness matrix of element 2 is

[ K ] = [T ] [ k ] [T ]. ,
2

2 T

0
0
0 0

0 0
0 1

1 0
0
0

(g)

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

164

[K ]
2

3 2 1 2 1 2 0 1 1 2

32
1 2 1 0 1 2

12
0 0 1 2
Et
=

.
1
0
0
2

SYM
1
0

1 2

(h)

The same matrix is obtained by substituting the nodal coordinates

x1 = y1 = 0 ,

x2 = 0 , y 2 = 1 ,

x3 = 1 , y3 = 0

in (8.17) and performing the product (8.18).

Due to symmetry, only the upper half of the plate can be considered (Fig.
E8.1, b). Using the appropriate boundary conditions, the finite element equations
can be written
1 1 2 1
0
0 1 1 2 u1 0
3
0
2 0 1 2 0 V1
3
0 1 2
0

1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0 u2 F 2

12
0
0
0 0 V2
Et 1 2 1 2 0 1 2
=
.
0
0 12
1
0
0 1 2 0 H3
2 1

2
0
0
0
2
0
0 0 V3
0

1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0 0 H 4

1 2 0
0
0 1 2 0 V4
1 2 1 2 0
Solving
E t 3 1 u1 0
=

2 1 1 u2 F 2
we obtain the nodal displacements
u1 =

F
,
2Et

u2 =

3F
.
2E t

The reaction forces for half the plate are obtained as

H3 = F 4 ,

H 4 = F 4 ,

so that for the entire plate

H4 = F 2 ,

H5 = F 4 .

8. TWO-DIMENSIONAL MEMBRANES

165

Strains and stresses in elements are

{ }= [ B ] { q }
1

u1
0
1 0 1 0 0 0
u
1
= 0 1 0 0 0 1 2
l
0
1 1 0 1 1 0
0

{ }

1 1
2
u1
F
1

= 0 0 =
0 .
u 2 2l E t
l

1 0
1

xy

1
=[D ] = E

{ }

{ }= [ B ] { q }
2

2
1 0 0
2
0 1 0 F 0 = F 0 ,

2l E t 2 l t

0 0 1 2
1 2
1

u1
0
0 0 0 1 0
1
1
F
1
0

= 0 1 0 1 0 0 =
0 ,
0 2l E t
l

1 1 0 0 1 1
1
0

0

x
1
1 0 0
1

F F

2
y =[D ] = E 0 1 0
0 .
0 =
2l E t 2 l t

0 0 1 2
1 2
1
xy 2

{ }

Example 8.2
A thin triangular plate is fixed along the edge 5-4 and loaded by forces
F1 = 1 and F2 = 2 along the upper edge in its plane (Fig. E8.2). Assume the
cantilever to have unit thickness t = 1 and be in plane stress, with Youngs
modulus E = 1 and Poissons ratio = 0.3 . Divide the plate into three CST
elements and find: a) the nodal displacements; b) stresses in elements; and c) the
support reactions. The units are coherent.

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

166

Fig. E8.2

Solution. The input data are given below

For each element, the stiffness matrix is calculated longhand from equation
(8.18), where the matrix [ B ] is obtained from (8.17), based on the nodal
coordinates, and the matrix [ D ] is given by (6.24).

8. TWO-DIMENSIONAL MEMBRANES

167

The element stiffness matrices are the following:

The condensed global stiffness matrix is

The condensed finite element equations can be written

0.317 0.165
0.165 u1
0
0
0.317

0
0.111
0.192 0.111 0.192
0 v1

0.317 0.192
0.666
1.301
0
0 u2

1.903 v2
0
2.125
0
0.165 0.111
0
0.192 0.666
0
1.301
0 u3

1.903
0
0
0
2.125 v3
0.165

1
0
=
.
2
0

The solution to these equations gives

u1 = 7.712 , u2 = 6.542 , u3 = 2.686 ,
v1 = 40.823 , v2 = 15.835 , v3 = 13.582 .

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

168

The output data are presented below:

The reaction forces at nodes 4 and 5 are obtained from the unused
unreduced equations.
Note that the adopted discretization is very crude, to allow longhand
calculation, and this leads to misleading results. Along the edge 4-5, a distribution
of bending stresses from compressive at 4 to tensile at 5 is expected. However,
element 3, being a constant strain element, gives only one value of x , which is
wrong. Normally, the plate should be modeled by many more elements. Ascribing
stress values to the element centroids and averaging them as shown in section
8.1.6, a more realistic stress distribution along the edge 4-5 is obtained.

Example 8.3
A thin rectangular plate, containing a circular hole of radius a = 10 mm , is
subjected to loads that produce uniform tensile stresses 0 = 5 MPa at its ends
(Fig. E8.3, a). The plate has length l = 60 mm , width b = 40 mm , thickness
t = 5 mm , E = 200 GPa and = 0.3 . Determine: a) the deformed shape of the
hole; b) the location and magnitude of the maximum von Mises stress in the plate;
c) the distribution of x stresses in the midsection. Compare the stress values at
the periphery of the hole obtained by FEM and from the theory of elasticity.
Solution. Taking advantage of the symmetry of geometry and symmetry of
loading, we can analyze only one-quarter of the plate (upper right).

8. TWO-DIMENSIONAL MEMBRANES

169

Fig. E8.3, a
A 55-node, 81-element mesh is created as shown in Fig. E8.3, b. Let x and
y represent the axes of symmetry. The points along the x axis are constrained in the
y direction, and points along the y axis are constrained along the x direction.

Fig. E8.3, b
The applied nodal forces are shown, but the element numbering is omitted
for clarity. The centroids of the elements near the midsection are marked, and the
crossing points of the lines connecting the centroids with the common sides (where
stresses are averaged), are denoted a to f.
The deformed shape is shown in Fig. E8.3, c. The hole is elongated in the
direction of the loading axis.

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

170

Fig. E8.3, c
The calculation of stresses is summarized in Fig. E8.3, d. Elements are
hatched according to the value of von Mises stresses, using five intervals with
limits shown in the legend.

Fig. E8.3, d
The maximum von Mises stress is 19.6 MPa and occurs in element 1.
Stress values in elements near the midsection are given in Table E8.3.

8. TWO-DIMENSIONAL MEMBRANES

171

Table E8.3
Element

xy

eq

20.0178

0.8845

-0.5706

19.6155

11.4577

1.9228

-0.6221

10.6821

11.3275

0.815

0.0595

10.9433

8.068

1.5768

0.927

7.5786

7.6445

0.1651

0.174

7.5693

5.7162

0.2632

0.6667

5.7073

4.0752

0.763

0.3595

3.8037

Stresses x , averaged at points a to f, have the following values:

Point

x , MPa

15.78

11.39

9.69

7.85

6.68

4.89

The theoretical distribution of stresses x in the midsection of a plate

containing a small circular hole and subjected to uniaxial tension is approximated
by

a2 3 a4
x = 0 1 + 2 + 4 ,
2r
2r

where r is the distance from the x axis (Fig. E8.3, a).

The maximum stress occurs at the periphery of the hole (r = a ) and is

xmax = 3 0 = 15 MPa .
The averaged value of elements 1 and 2, in point a, is x a = 15.78 MPa ,
which is surprisingly accurate for the rough mesh used in the exercise.

Example 8.4
An axially loaded thin plate with a circular fillet (Fig. E8.4, a) has length
150 mm , width of the reduced portion 40 mm , width of the extended portion
80 mm , thickness 5 mm , fillet radius 20 mm , E = 2 105 MPa and = 0.25 . The
normal stress at a point far to the right of the fillet has a uniformly distributed value

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

172

of 440 MPa . Find the location and magnitude of the maximum von Mises stress in
the plate. Determine the stress concentration factor for the circular fillet.

Fig. E8.4, a
Answer. Taking advantage of the symmetry, only half of the plate is
considered. The points along the symmetry axis are constrained in the vertical
direction. Points along the left edge are constrained in the horizontal direction. A
model comprising 95 nodes and 144 CST elements is constructed as shown in Fig.
E8.4, b.

Fig. E8.4, b
The nodal loads are calculated from equation (8.19). The right edge has
four elements, each with a surface of 25 mm 2 , subjected to a normal stress of
440 N mm 2 . The nodal loads for each element are 440 25 / 2 = 5500 N . The
resulting five nodal forces, for the quarter plate, have magnitudes of 5500 N at the
upper and lower node, and 11000 N at the three middle nodes.
The distribution of von Mises stresses is shown in Fig. E8.4, c for five
stress intervals given in the legend. The largest equivalent stress is 604.7 MPa .

8. TWO-DIMENSIONAL MEMBRANES

173

Fig. E8.4, c
Values of the principal stress 1 around the fillet are presented in
the upper part. The largest principal stress 1 is 622.7 MPa . The stress
concentration factor relative to the value 440 MPa is 1.415. This value is
reasonably close to the theoretical true value of 1.42 given by Singer (1962).

Example 8.5
The nodal coordinates and the nodal displacements of element 96 in Fig.
E8.4, b are given below:

x60 = 92.35 , y60 = 21.52 , x64 = 95 , y64 = 18 , x65 = 95.5 , y65 = 20.5 ;
u65

u60 = 0.11224 , v60 = 3.97e 3 ,

= 0.12247 , v65 = 4.92e 3 .

u64 = 0.12367 ,

v64 = 3.63e 3 ,

E = 2 105 MPa and = 0.25 . Calculate the element stresses.

Solution. The triangle area is A96 = 4.1925 mm 2 .
The matrix [ B ] is (8.17)
0
0.1216
0
0.4198
0
0.2982

[ B ]= 0
0.0596
0
0.3757
0
0.3160 .
0.0596 0.2982 0.3757 0.1216 0.3160 0.4198

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

174

The matrix [ D ] is (6.24)

2.1333 0.5333 0
[ D ] = 10 0.5333 2.1333 0 .
0
0
0.8
5

The vector of nodal displacements (8.1) is

{ q } = 0.11224

3.97 e 3 0.12367 3.63e 3 0.12247 4.92e 3 T .

Element stresses are given by

{ } = [ D ][ B ] { q },
{ } = x

y xy T = 596.72 63.58 120.08 T .

Example 8.6
Find the deformed shape and the stress distribution in the loaded gear tooth
shown in Fig. E8.6, a. The load is not applied at the tooth tip, but is distributed
over a larger area than for the mating contact of two teeth, to concentrate only on
the influence of fillet geometry.

Fig. E8.6, a

8. TWO-DIMENSIONAL MEMBRANES

175

Answer. The adopted finite element mesh has 126 nodes and 212
CST elements. Note the restraints which model the tooth built-in end. The
deformed shape is presented in Fig. E8.6, b.

Fig. E8.6, b
The stress distribution is shown in Fig. E8.6, c. Note the stress
concentration at both fillet areas, where the equivalent von Mises stresses are
indicated.

Fig. E8.6, c

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

176

8.2 Rectangular elements

Rectangular elements are the easiest to discuss and are used to model
stiffened thinwalled panel structures, built up beams and boxes.

8.2.1 The four-node rectangle (linear)

Consider the 4-node element in Fig. 8.7.

Fig. 8.7
We have to find two-dimensional shape functions which have unit values
at one selected node, but zero at all other nodes on the element

N i x j , y j = ij .

(8.20)

They can be generated using the equations of the sides. For example, N1 is
identically zero on lines x = a and y = b , and has a unit value at the node with the
same index N1 ( x1 , y1 ) = 1 , hence it must be of the form

N1 ( x , y ) = c1 ( a x ) ( b y ) .
1
, hence
ab
1
( a x ) ( b y ) = 1 x 1 y .
N1 ( x , y ) =
ab
a
b

From condition N1 ( x1 , y1 ) = N1 ( 0 ,0 ) = 1 we get c1 =

Likewise, the remaining three shape functions are

N2 ( x, y ) =

x
y
1 ,
a
b

N3 ( x , y ) =

x y
,
a b

N4 ( x, y ) =

y
x
1 .
b
a

It is convenient to transform to dimensionless central coordinates

8. TWO-DIMENSIONAL MEMBRANES

r=

177

2x
1 ,
a

s=

2y
1.
b

(8.21)

The equations of element sides become

1 r = 0 ,. 1 s = 0 .

(8.22)

The required shape functions are

1
(1 r ) (1 s ) , N2 = 1 (1 + r ) (1 s ) ,
4
4
1
1
N3 = ( 1 + r ) ( 1 + s ) , N 4 = ( 1 r ) ( 1 + s ) .
4
4
N1 =

(8.23)

The displacements inside the element can be expressed in terms of the

nodal displacements as
u N1
=
v 0

where

{q }

0
N1

e T

N2
0

= u1

0
N2

0
N3

N3
0

v1 u2

v2

u3

N4
0

v3

0 e
q ,
N 4

{ }

(8.24)

v4 .

(8.25)

u4

The use of the shape functions (8.23) has one drawback they are not
complete. That is, all like powers in x and y are not present. In this case x y is
present but x 2 and y 2 are not. Thus the variation of strain does not have the same
order in all directions.
The displacements u and v of a point within the rectangle can be
expressed in terms of the nodal displacements by a polynomial approximation.
Because, for two displacements, there are eight boundary conditions, the assumed
displacement field is

u (x , y ) = a 1 + a2 x + a3 y + a4 x y ,
v ( x , y ) = b1 + b 2 x + b 3 y + b4 x y .

(8.26)

The direct strain x = a2 + a4 y is constant in the x direction whereas the

shear strain xy = a3 + a4 x + b2 + b4 y varies linearly with x and y .
Some improvement can be gained by diminishing the shear variation
through the use of reduced integration on the shear contribution in the element
stiffness matrix. Many users prefer to use higher order elements rather than use a
larger number of small 4-noded rectangles. The 4-noded rectangular element is
exploited in non-linear problems like elasto-plastic behaviour, where the stiffness
has to be reevaluated as the load increments are applied and plasticity spreads.

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

178

The element stiffness matrix (7.39) is

[k ]= [ B ]
e

[ D ][ B ] dV ,

Ve

where

[ B ] = [ ][ N ] .

The poor performance of the 4-noded element is shown below, in an

example where it is expected to behave like a slender beam in which bending
stresses are dominant.

Fig. 8.8
Figure 8.8, a shows the deformed shape of a single element in pure
bending. In comparison, Fig. 8.8, b shows the expected circular deformed shape
free of shear deformations. The 4-node element has flat sides. At the element ends
the shear strain is xy = d b and only the centre has no shear deformation. The
direct strains are x = d a on the upper and lower surface. The ratio
spurious shears a
= = aspect ratio .
bending strains b

This explains the poor results obtained with high aspect ratio elements
( 3) which have also badly conditioned stiffness matrices. The stress
discontinuities at element interfaces can be comparable with the mean values and
the free edge stresses are not zero. Generally, because the strain energy is
underestimated, stresses are lower than the true values.

8.2.2 The eight-node rectangle (quadratic)

The higher order 8-node rectangular element is shown in Fig. 8.9. Adding
four nodes means adding four supplementary boundary conditions (or nodal
displacements) so that in the polynomial approximation we can add four more
(higher order) terms.

8. TWO-DIMENSIONAL MEMBRANES

179

The assumed displacement field is cubic

u (x , y ) = a 1 + a2 x + a3 y + a4 x 2 + a5 x y + a6 y 2 + a7 x 2 y + a8 x y 2 ,
v ( x , y ) = b1 + b2 x + b3 y + b4 x 2 + b5 x y + b6 y 2 + b7 x 2 y + b8 x y 2 ,

(8.27)

so that the strains are quadratic. Note that choosing the last terms in x 3 and y 3
would make the element more anisotropic. The 16 constants can be expressed
(interpolated) in terms of the 16 nodal displacements and the nodal coordinates.
Using the nodal approximation, the displacement field is expressed as
u = N1 u1 + N 2 u2 + N 3 u3 + ... + N 8 u8 ,
v = N1 v1 + N 2 v2 + N 3 v3 + ... + N8 v8 ,

(8.28)

where the shape functions N i can be easily built up based on the equations of the
lines passing through the nodes (serendipity approach).

Fig. 8.9
In Fig. 8.9 only the lines through the new nodes are shown for clarity, the
old ones are presented in Fig. 8.7. In the natural system of coordinates r and s, the
shape functions have the following expressions
1
( 1 r )( 1 s )(1 + r + s ) , N 2 = 1 ( 1 + r )( 1 s )(1 r + s ) ,
4
4
1
1
N 3 = ( 1 + r )( 1 + s )( 1 r s ), N 4 = ( 1 r )( 1 + s )(1 + r s ) ,
4
4
1
1
N 5 = ( 1 r )( 1 + r )( 1 s ) , N 6 = ( 1 + r )( 1 s )( 1 + s ) ,
2
2
1
1
N 7 = ( 1 r )( 1 + r )(1 + s ) , N8 = ( 1 r )( 1 s )( 1 + s ).
2
2
N1 =

(8.29)

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

180

The interpolation function N1 should be zero at nodes 2, 3,..., 8 and have

a value of unity at node 1. Equivalently, N1 should vanish on the sides defined by
the equations of lines passing through nodes 2 to 8: 1 s = 0 , 1 r = 0 ,
1 + r + s = 0 . Therefore N1 is of the form
N1 = c1 ( 1 r ) ( 1 s ) (1 + r + s ) ,

where c1 is a constant which is determined so as to yield N1 ( 1,1) = 1 , i.e.

c1 = 1 4 , which gives the expression of N1 in (8.29).
The displacements inside the element can be expressed in terms of the
nodal displacements as
u N1
=
v 0
where

0
N1

N2

{ q }= u
e

0 L L N8
N2 L L 0

v1 u 2

0 e
q ,
N 8

{ }

(8.30)

v8 T .

(8.31)

v 2 L L u8

Having generated the shape functions [ N ] , the functions [ B ] = [ ][ N

[ ] can be evaluated using [ D ] .

follow and the element stiffness matrix k

8.3 Triangular elements

In order to obtain accurate results for stresses with a constant strain
discretization, one has to use a large number of elements. Considerable effort has
been devoted to develop refined elements, i.e. elements having linear, quadratic
or higher-order strain expansions.

8.3.1 Area coordinates

For a triangle it is possible to define a completely symmetrical coordinate
system known as area coordinates.
The position of any point M in the triangle is identified by the
perpendicular distances h1 , h2 , h3 from the three sides (Fig. 8.10, a), and nondimensionalized, by division to the triangle heights, as
h1
h2
h3
, 2 =
, 3 =
,
1 =
H1
H2
H3

8. TWO-DIMENSIONAL MEMBRANES

181

or
1 =

A1
A

, 2 =

A2
A

, 3 =

A3
A

(8.32)

As A1 + A2 + A3 = A (Fig. 8.10, b), one obtains

1 + 2 + 3 = 1 ,

(8.33)

so the three coordinates are not independent and they behave like the shape
functions.

Fig. 8.10
The physical coordinates of point M can be expressed in terms of the nodal
coordinates as
x = 1 x1 + 2 x 2 + 3 x3 ,

(8.34)

y = 1 y1 + 2 y2 + 3 y3 ,

or in matrix form
1 1

x = x1
y y
1

1
x2
y2

1 1

x3 2
y3 3

By inversion, we obtain equation (8.12)

1

3
or

1
=
2
A
2

1 1 1

2 2 x
3 3 y

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

182
i =

1
( i + i x + i y ) .
2A

( i = 1, 2, 3 )

(8.35)

where A is given by (8.9) and the expressions (8.8) are

i = x j y k xk y j , i = y j y k , i = x k x j .

8.3.2 Linear strain triangle (LST)

The linear strain triangle is a six-noded element, obtained adding three
mid-side nodes to the CST. In Fig. 8.11, the equations of the three sides and the
lines through the mid-side nodes are shown using area coordinates.

Fig. 8.11
The shape functions are readily seen to be
1

N1 = 2 1
2

N 4 = 4 1 2 ,

1
1

1 , N 2 = 2 2 2 , N 3 = 2 3 3 ,
2
2

N 5 = 4 2 3 , N 6 = 4 3 1 .

(8.36)

The displacements in terms of the nodal displacements are

u N1
=
v 0
where

N2
0

0
N1

{ q }= u
e

0 L L N6
N2 L L 0

v1 u2

0 e
q ,
N 6

{ }

(8.37)

v6 T .

(8.38)

v 2 L L u6

8. TWO-DIMENSIONAL MEMBRANES

183

To form [ B ] = [ ][ N ] we need to find the derivatives of shape functions

with respect to the physical coordinates, so we must transform from x , y to
1 , 2 , 3 . Using (8.33) we can eliminate 1 in (8.34) obtaining
x = (x 2 x1 ) 2 + (x3 x1 ) 3 + x1 ,

(8.39)

y = ( y2 y1 ) 2 + ( y3 y1 ) 3 + y1 .

Using the chain rule for partial derivatives

2

3
where [ J

x

2
= x

y
2
y
3

] x

(8.40)

3 2

3
3

(8.41)

=[J

] is the Jacobian of the transformation.

The inverse relationship is

x

=[J

] 1 2

1 2
=

2A 2

where A is the triangle area (8.9) and i , i are defined by (8.8).

The element stiffness matrix is

[k ]= [ B ]
e

[ D ][ B ] t e d A ,

(8.42)

where
d A = l 3 d 2 l 2 d 3 sin = 2 A d 2 d 3 .
The integration is frequently performed numerically. However, it can be
solved explicitly in terms of a, b and [ D ] using the integration formula for
monomials

a b
i j

dA = 2 A

a ! b!
.
(2 + a + b ) !

(8.43)

The results for first- and second-degree terms are

dA =

A
,
3

dA =

A
,
12

2
i

dA =

A
.
6

(8.44)

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

184

The LST element is based on expanding the displacements in a complete

second-degree polynomial in 2 and 3

u = a1 + a2 2 + a3 3 + a4 22 + a5 2 3 + a6 32 ,
v = b1 + b2 2 + b3 3 + b4 22 + b5 2 3 + b6 32 .

(8.45)

The displacement field is complete, containing all possible products, so the

element is truly isotropic, without recourse to computationally inefficient internal
nodes. There are twelve nodal displacements, six for each component. In order to
satisfy inter-element displacement compatibility, the displacement expansion on a
boundary must involve only the nodal quantities for that boundary. There are three
constants for this case (the function is quadratic) and an additional interior node is
required for each boundary. It is convenient to locate these interior nodes at the
mid-points of the sides.
Solving for the constants in terms of the nodal displacements, the nodal
approximation (8.37) is obtained.
Denoting

2 = r,

3 = s,

1 = 1 2 3 = 1 r s

(8.46)

we can introduce oblique triangular coordinates (Fig. 8.12).

The physical coordinates of a point within the triangle are
x = ( 1 r s ) x1 + r x 2 + s x3 ,

y = ( 1 r s ) y1 + r y2 + s y3 .

(8.47)

Fig. 8.12
The coefficients of the nodal coordinates are genuine geometric
interpolation functions
N1 = 1 r s ,

N2 = r ,

N3 = s ,

(8.48)

8. TWO-DIMENSIONAL MEMBRANES

185

The nodal displacements for the 3-node triangle can also be written
u = ( 1 r s ) u1 + r u2 + s u3 ,
v = ( 1 r s ) v1 + r v2 + s v3 ,

(8.49)

so that the same functions can be used as interpolation functions. This is the basic
idea behind the isoparametric formulation, treated in the next chapter.

8.3.3 Quadratic strain triangle

A triangular element with a quadratic strain field can be built up in two
ways. One possibility is to work with corner point nodes and two interior nodes per
side, taking as nodal quantities the displacement components. This element is
shown in Fig. 8.13, a.

Fig. 8.13
The displacements are expressed as complete cubic polynomials. In order
to satisfy inter-element displacement compatibility, the displacement function for a
side must depend only on the nodal displacement quantities for the side. Since the
function is cubic, four nodal quantities are required to define the distribution on a
side. The side nodes are located at the third points. An additional interior node is
needed to maintain completeness of the polynomial since, if the polynomial is not
complete, the stiffness will have preferred direction which is not desirable. It is
convenient to take the interior node at the centroid.
The displacement nodal expansion has the form
9

u = N i ui + N c u c ,
i =1

where

v = N i vi + N c v c ,
i =1

(8.50)

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

186

1
1
1 ( 3 1 1 ) ( 3 1 2 ) , N 2 = 2 ( 3 2 1 ) ( 3 2 2 ) ,
2
2
1
N3 = 3 ( 3 3 1 ) ( 3 3 2 ) ,
2
9
9
N 4 = 1 2 ( 3 1 1 ) , N 5 = 1 2 ( 3 2 1 ),
2
2
9
9
N 6 = 2 3 ( 3 2 1 ), N 7 = 2 3 ( 3 3 1 ),
2
2
9
9
N 8 = 3 1 ( 3 3 1 ) , N 9 = 3 1 ( 3 1 1 ) ,
2
2
N c = 27 1 2 3 .
N1 =

(8.51)

Another possibility is to work only with corner nodes, in order to reduce

the bandwidth of the stiffness matrix. The solution is to include displacement
u u v v
,
,
,
as nodal quantities. At each corner, there are six
derivatives
x y x y
nodal variables, two displacements and four first derivatives, a total of 18
parameters (Fig. 8.13, b). Two additional displacement quantities not associated
with the boundaries are required for completeness. It is convenient to take the
displacement components of the centroid (uc , vc ) as the remaining parameters.
The nodal expansion for u has the form
u = N1 u1 + N 2 u x1 + N 3 u y1 + N 4 u2 + N 5 u x 2 + ... + + N 9 u y 3 + N c uc .

(8.52)

In (8.52) the interpolation polynomials, expressed in terms of triangular

coordinates, are
N1 = 12 ( 1 + 3 2 + 3 3 ) 7 1 2 3 ,
N 2 = 12 ( 3 2 2 3 ) + ( 2 3 ) 1 2 3 ,
N 3 = 12 ( 2 3 3 2 ) + ( 3 2 ) 1 2 3 ,

( 2 + 3 3 + 3 1 ) 7 1 2 3 ,
N 5 = 22 ( 1 3 3 1 ) + ( 3 1 ) 1 2 3 ,
N 6 = 22 ( 3 1 1 3 ) + ( 1 3 ) 1 2 3 ,
N 7 = 32 ( 3 + 3 1 + 3 2 ) 7 1 2 3 ,
N 8 = 32 ( 2 1 1 2 ) + ( 1 2 ) 1 2 3 ,
N 9 = 32 ( 1 2 2 1 ) + ( 2 1 ) 1 2 3 ,
N 4 = 22

N c = 27 1 2 3 ,

(8.53)

8. TWO-DIMENSIONAL MEMBRANES

187

where i , i are defined by (8.8) and the subscript c refers to the centroid.
The same interpolation functions are valid for v .

8.4 Equilibrium, convergence and compatibility

It is useful to make some general comments on the fulfilment of the
equilibrium and compatibility conditions in a finite element solution based on
assumed displacement fields [33].

8.4.1 Equilibrium vs. compatibility

In a FEM solution based on assumed displacement fields, one can say that:
a) Within elements, compatibility is satisfied if the assumed element
displacement field is continuous, but equilibrium is usually not satisfied.
pv x

Let write the equilibrium equations in terms of displacements for the case
= pv y = 0 . Substituting the stress-strain relations (6.24) into the equilibrium

equations (6.7) we obtain

x + y +
xy = 0,
2 y
x
1

xy +
y + x = 0.
2 x
y

(8.54)

Substituting the strain-displacement relations (6.16) in (8.54) gives

2u 2u 1 + 2u
2 v
+
=

,
2 y 2 x y
x2 y2
2 v 2 v 1 + 2 v 2 u
+
=

.
2 x 2 x y
x2 y2

(8.55)

Equations (8.55) are not satisfied by the assumed displacement field (8.26)

u ( x , y ) = a1 + a2 x + a3 y + a4 x y ,
v ( x , y ) = b1 + b2 x + b3 y + b4 x y .

of the rectangular element.

For example,

(8.56)

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

188

2v
u
u
2u 2u
= b4
= a2 + a4 y ,
= a3 + a4 x ,
,
and
=
=
0
x y
x
y
x2 y2
which is not zero, so the first equation (8.55) is not satisfied.
The rectangle would satisfy equilibrium if a4 = b4 = 0 , but this is the case
only in a field of constant strain. But as already shown, the direct strain x is linear
in the y direction whereas the shear strain xy varies linearly with x and y .
However, equilibrium is satisfied within the CST because of its extreme
simplicity. One cannot conclude from this that, in general, the rectangle is inferior
to the triangle. In some cases it can give better results.
b) Between elements, compatibility may or may not be satisfied, and
equilibrium is usually not satisfied.
For example, for both the 3-node triangle and the 4-node rectangle, u and
v are linear in x (or y ) along element edges. So, for any nodal displacement, the
edges remain straight, and adjacent elements do not overlap or separate, the
elements fit together. Inter-element equilibrium is obviously violated in the CST,
where stresses are constant within the element but differ from one element to
another. However, inter-element stress continuity may exist, as in the case of
uniform beams loaded only at nodes.
When inter-element compatibility is satisfied, the finite element solution
gives an upper bound on the total potential energy. As the discretization is refined,
the solution will converge monotonically to the true solution, provided that the new
mesh contains all the nodes of the previous meshes.
c) At nodes, compatibility is enforced by joining elements at these
locations, and equilibrium of nodal forces and moments is satisfied.
The finite element equations are a set of equilibrium equations and the
solution is such that resultant forces and moments acting on each node are zero.
Happily, in a proper finite element solution, any violations of equilibrium
and compatibility tend to vanish as more and more elements are used in the mesh.
Moreover, the convergence of displacements with the mesh refinement must be
monotonic from below.

8.4.2 Convergence and compatibility

As the mesh of elements is refined, the sequence of solutions to a problem
is expected to converge to the correct result if the assumed element displacement
fields satisfy the following criteria:

8. TWO-DIMENSIONAL MEMBRANES

189

a) The displacement field within an element must be continuous. This is

normally ensured by the selection of shape functions.
b) When the nodal degrees of freedom are given values corresponding to a
state of constant strain, the displacement field must produce the constant strain
state throughout the element.
The check is done using the so called patch test. The model consists of
an assembly of several elements arranged so that at least one node is completely
surrounded by elements. The boundary nodes are then given either displacements
or forces consistent with a constant strain state. Internal nodes are to be neither
loaded nor restrained. The computed displacements, strains, and stresses within
elements should be consistent with the constant strain state. If not, the element type
is invalid or at least suspect (it may happen that an element is valid in certain
configurations only).
c) Rigid body modes must be represented. When nodal degrees of freedom
are given values corresponding to a state of rigid body motion, the element must
exhibit zero strain and therefore zero nodal forces.
If this requirement is violated, extraneous nodal forces appear, and the
equations of nodal equilibrium are altered. To satisfy the requirements on both
rigid body modes and constant strain rates, the expansion must be at least a
complete polynomial of order equal to the highest derivative occurring in the
strain-displacement relations.
d) Compatibility must exist between elements. Elements must not overlap
or separate. In the case of beam, plate and shell elements, the slope must be
continuous across interelement boundaries.
This requirement is violated by many successful non-conforming elements.
Such elements do satisfy inter-element compatibility in the limit of mesh
refinement, as each element approaches a state of constant strain. However, noncompatible elements do not provide a bound on the potential energy, i.e. we do not
know whether the potential energy corresponding to a particular non-conforming
element is higher or lower than the true value. Also, it is not possible to construct a
minimizing sequence with non-compatible elements. This means that by suitably
specializing the nodal displacements for the nth discretization, we will not be able
to reproduce the displacement patterns corresponding to the n 1 previous
discretizations.
e) The element should have no preferred directions. Elements should be
invariant with respect to the orientation of the load system. Invariance exists if
complete polynomials are used for element displacement fields. It is achieved even
when based on incomplete polynomials, if there is a balanced representation of
terms in the polynomial expansion.

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

190

Example 8.7
For the assembly of four triangular elements shown in Fig. E8.6, a simple
patch test is carried out as follows.

Fig. E8.7
Assume a displacement field

u=v= x+ y
for which the strains are

{ } = 1

1 2 T .

The resulting nodal displacements are

u1 = 0 , u2 = 1 , u3 = 4 , u4 = 1 ,
v1 = 0 , v2 = 1 , v3 = 4 , v4 = 1 .
If these are the boundary conditions imposed to the model, the internal
node must behave accordingly.
The condensed set of finite element equations has the form

[K ]

u5
= {F } ,
v5

where [K ] depends on the material properties and {F } depends on both the

material properties and the prescribed nodal displacements.
Its solution must be

u5 = v5 = 1.25
and the strains at any point must be { } = 1 1 2 T .

9.
ISOPARAMETRIC ELEMENTS

Simple triangular and rectangular elements allow closed form derivations

of stiffness matrices and load vectors. The construction of shape functions and
evaluation of stiffness matrices for quadrilateral and higher-order elements with
curved sides faces difficulties which are overcome by the use of isoparametric
elements and numerical integration. Elements with curved sides provide a better fit
to curved edges of an actual structure.
For isoparametric elements, the same interpolation functions are used to
define the element shape as are used to define the displacement field within the
element. The constant strain triangle is an isoparametric element though it was not
treated like that. In fact, the shapes of the interpolation functions and not the
parameters are the same. It is possible to construct subparametric elements whose
geometry is determined by a lower order model than the displacements. When the
eight node rectangle is transformed into a quadrilateral with straight sides, we
obtain a subparametric element. When it is mapped into a quadrilateral with
parabolically curved sides, the result is an isoparametric element. If we develop
higher order triangular elements while keeping straight sides, they are
subparametric elements, because only the displacement expansion is refined
whereas the geometry definition remains the same.

9.1 Linear quadrilateral element

Consider the general quadrilateral element shown in Fig. 9.1, a. The local
nodes 1, 2, 3 and 4 are labelled counterclockwise. The coordinates of node i are
( xi , yi ) . Each node has two degrees of freedom. The displacement components of
a local node i are denoted as ui in the x direction and vi in the y direction. The
vector of element nodal displacements is defined as

{ q }= u
e

v1 u2

v2

u3

v3

u4

v4 T .

(9.1)

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

192

9.1.1 Natural coordinates

A natural coordinate system can be attached to a quadrilateral element as
illustrated in Fig. 9.1, b. The coordinates r and s vary from 1 on one side to + 1
at the other, taking the value zero over the quadrilateral medians. They are called
quadrilateral coordinates.

b
Fig. 9.1

In the development of isoparametric elements it is useful to visualize the

quadrilateral coordinates plotted as cartesian coordinates in the { r , s } plane. This
is called the reference plane. In the reference plane, quadrilateral elements become
a square of side 2 (Fig. 9.2, a), called the reference element (or master element),
which extends over r [ 1, 1 ] , s [ 1, 1 ] . The transformation between the
natural coordinates { r , s } in the reference plane and the cartesian coordinates
{ x , y } is called the isoparametric mapping.

b
Fig. 9.2

9. ISOPARAMETRIC ELEMENTS

193

Each quadrilateral child in the { x , y } is generated by the parent or

reference element from the { r , s } plane (Fig. 9.2, b). The advantage is that the
interpolation functions defined for the reference element are the same for all actual
elements and have simple expressions. The drawback is that the mapping is a
change of coordinates which implies complications in the evaluation of the integral
in the element stiffness matrix.

9.1.2 Shape functions

The interpolation functions (8.23) developed for the rectangle are directly
applicable
1
1
N1 = ( 1 r ) ( 1 s ) , N 2 = ( 1 + r ) ( 1 s ) ,
4
4
(9.2)
1
1
N3 = ( 1 + r ) ( 1 + s ) , N 4 = ( 1 r ) ( 1 + s ) .
4
4

The following compact representation is useful for the implementation in a

computer program
Ni ( r , s ) =

1
( 1 + r ri )( 1 + s si ) ,
4

(9.3)

where ( ri , si ) are the coordinates of node i .

The coordinates of a point within the element are expressed in terms of the
nodal coordinates as
4

x = N1 x1 + N 2 x 2 + N 3 x3 + N 4 x 4 = N i x i ,
i =1
4

(9.4)

y = N1 y1 + N 2 y2 + N 3 y3 + N 4 y4 = N i y i .
i =1

In matrix form

{ }

x = N x e = N1

{ }

y = N y e = N1

N2

N2

N3

N4

x1
x2
x3
x4

(9.4, a)

N3

N4

y1
y2
.
y3
y4

(9.4, b)

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

194

9.1.3 The displacement field

In the isoparametric formulation, the same shape functions are used to
express the displacements within the element in terms of the nodal values as are
used to define the element shape.
If u and v are the displacement components of a point located at ( r , s ) ,
then
4

u = N1 u 1 + N 2 u 2 + N 3 u 3 + N 4 u 4 = N i u i ,
i =1
4

(9.5)

v = N1 v1 + N 2 v2 + N 3 v3 + N 4 v4 = N i v i ,
i =1

which can be written in matrix form

{ u } = [ N ] { q e },

(9.6)

where

[ N ] =

N1

N2

N3

N4

N1

N2

N3

0
.
N 4

(9.7)

As the shape functions in natural coordinates (9.2) fulfil continuity of

geometry and displacements both within the element and between adjacent
elements, the compatibility requirement is satisfied in cartesian coordinates too. As
mentioned in Chapter 8, polynomial models are inherently continuous within the
element. Then it is easy to show that the displacements along a side of the element
depend only upon the displacements of the nodes occurring on that side.
If the u displacement is approximated as
u ( r , s ) = a1 + a2 r + a3 s + a4 r s ,

(9.8)

along each side the approximation is linear, because r (or s) is constant.

For example, along the side 2-3 (Fig. 9.2, a), r = 1 and
u
u

r =1

r =1

= a1 + a2 + ( a3 + a4 ) s ,
=

1+ s
1 s
u2 +
u3 .
2
2

The four-node quadrilateral is termed a linear (sometimes bi-linear)

element because its sides remain straight during deformation. This ensures interelement compatibility, i.e. there are no openings, overlaps or discontinuities

9. ISOPARAMETRIC ELEMENTS

195

between the elements. The 4-node isoparametric quadrilateral is a conforming

element.
Also, because the interpolation displacement model provides rigid body
displacements in the natural coordinate system, the conditions of both rigid body
displacements and constant strain states are satisfied in cartesian coordinates too.
On the contrary, the 4-node quadrilateral is a non-conforming element.
If the u displacement is approximated as
u ( x , y ) = b1 + b2 x + b3 y + b4 x y ,

(9.9)

along each side the approximation is quadratic.

For example, the equation of the side 2-3 (Fig. 9.1, a) has the form
y = m x + c , where m is the slope of 2-3, so that
u ( x)

2 3

= b1 + cb3 + ( b2 + m b3 + c b4 ) x + m b4 x 2 .

Along 2-3, u ( x ) varies quadratically and cannot be uniquely defined as a

function of u 2 and u 3 . The approximation (9.9) is non-conforming.

9.1.4 Mapping from natural to cartesian coordinates

Subsequently, we need to express the derivatives of a function in { x , y }
coordinates in terms of its derivatives in { r , s } coordinates. This is done
considering the function f = f ( x , y ) to be an implicit function of r and s as
f = f [ x (r , s ) , y (r , s ) ] .
Transformation of differential operators

Using the chain rule of differentiation, we have

x
r
= x

s

y
r
y
s

J11

J12
J 22

=[J

] x

(9.10)

where

[ J ] =

J 21

is the Jacobian matrix. Using (9.10) and (9.4), it can also be expressed as

(9.11)

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

196

[ J ] = r

r
y =

N { x e }

r N
=

N { y

} =
(9.12)

{ x e } { y e } .

For the four-node quadrilateral element

(1 s ) (1 s )
4 (1 r ) (1 + r )

[ J ] = 1

(1 + s )
(1 + r )

x1 + x 2 + x3 x 4 +

1 + s (x1 x 2 + x3 x 4 )
[ J ]=
4 x1 x 2 + x3 + x 4 +

+ r (x1 x 2 + x3 x 4 )

x1
(1 + s ) x2
(1 r ) x3

x4

y1
y2
,
y3

y4

y1 + y2 + y3 y4 +

+ s ( y1 y2 + y3 y4 )
.
y1 y2 + y3 + y4 +
+ r ( y1 y2 + y3 y4 )

(9.13)

(9.13, a)

Analogously, the inverse relationship is

x

y
where

r
x
r
y

s
x
s
y

r
= [ j ] ,

(9.14)

[ j ] = [ J ] 1 is the inverse of the Jacobian matrix

[ j ] =

j11
j21

j12
1
=

j22 det [J ]

J 22 J12
.
J
J11
21

(9.15)

For the four-node quadrilateral element

det [ J ] = A0 + A1 r + A2 s ,
where
A0 =

1
8

[ ( y4 y2 )( x3 x1 ) ( y3 y1 )( x 4 x 2 ) ] ,

(9.16)

9. ISOPARAMETRIC ELEMENTS

Usually

197

A1 =

1
8

[ ( y3 y4 )( x2 x1 ) ( y2 y1 )( x3 x4 ) ],

A2 =

1
8

[ ( y4 y1 )( x3 x2 ) ( y3 y2 )( x4 x1 ) ] .

[ j]

is used because we want to express

f f
,
in terms of
x y

f f
,
, determined on the reference element. Because r = r ( x , y ) , s = s ( x , y )
r s
are not explicitly known, we need [ j ] .

The above expressions will be used in the derivation of the element

stiffness matrix.
Transformation of an infinitesimal area

An additional result that will be needed is the relation

dx dy = det [ J ] dr ds .

(9.17)

It is needed because, for the evaluation of the element stiffness matrix, the
integration on the real element is replaced by the simpler integration over the
reference element.
In cartesian coordinates { x , y }, the elementary area dA is given by the
modulus of the cross product d x d y , where d x = d x i , d y = d y j , and i , j
are base vectors.
In a curvilinear system { r , s } , the elementary area dA is given by the
modulus of the cross product d r d s . It is equal to the area of the elemental
parallelogram enclosed by the two vectors d r and d s directed tangentially to the
r = const . and s = const . contours respectively. The components of these vectors
in a cartesian coordinate system are

dr =

x
y
d r i + d r j = ( J11 i + J12 j ) d r ,
r
r

d s = ( J 21 i + J 22 j ) d s .

By equating the moduli of the cross products

d x d y = d x d y k ,

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

198

d r d s = J11
J 21

0 d r d s = det [J ] d r d s k
0

J12
J 22

we obtain equation (9.17).

9.1.5 Element stiffness matrix

The element stiffness matrix (7.43) is

[k ]= t [ B ]
e

[ D ][ B ] d A ,

(9.18)

where [ D ] is the material stiffness matrix and t e is the element thickness.

The matrix of differentiated shape functions [ B ] is (7.41)

[ B ] = [ ][ N ] ,
where [ ] is the matrix of differential operators (6.9) and
shape functions (9.7).

(9.19)

[ N ] is the matrix of

Substituting (6.9) into (7.41) gives the strain-displacement matrix

x
[ B ] = [ ] [ N ] = 0

[ N ].
y

(9.20)

Using the transformation (9.14) we obtain

[ B ] = [ B1 ][ B2 ] ,

(9.21)

where
j11
[ B1 ] = 0
j21

j12

0
j22

0
j21
j11

0
j22
j12

(9.22)

9. ISOPARAMETRIC ELEMENTS

199

[ B2 ] = s
0

and

[ N ],

r

s

(9.23)

or

(1 s )
0
0
(1 s )
(1 r )
(1 + r )
0
0
[ B2 ] = 1
(1 s )
(1 s )
0
0
4

(1 r )
(1 + r )
0
0

(1 + s )
(1 + r )
0
0

(1 + s )
0
0
(1 r )
0
0
.
(1 + s )
(1 + s )
0
(1 + r )
(1 r )
0

Using equation (9.17), the element stiffness matrix can be written

+1 +1

[k ]= t [ B ]
e

[ D ][ B ] det [ J ] dr ds .

(9.24)

1 1

Because [ B ] and det [ J ] are involved functions of r and s, the above

integration has to be performed numerically, as shown in the following.

9.1.6 Element load vectors

Because the displacements along a side of the quadrilateral isoparametric
element are linear, the consistent nodal forces applied along that side are calculated
as for a linear two-node element.
If there is a distributed load having components

( px , p y ) per unit length

along side 2-3 in Fig. 9.1, then the equivalent nodal force vector is

{ f }= 12 l 0
e

2 3

px

py

px

py

0 0 T ,

if p x and p y are constants and l 2 3 is the length of the side 2-3.

(9.25)

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

200

9.2 Numerical integration

The numerical evaluation of stiffness integrals is usually done by Gaussian
quadrature. It is more efficient than other methods, as for example the NewtonCotes integration, because it involves only a half of the sample values of the
integrand required by the latter. For higher order elements, the stiffness integrals
become progressively more complicated. As the order of the displacement field
increases, the differentiated shape functions in the matrix [ B ] grow algebraically
more cumbersome. The isoparametric mapping introduces det [ J ] in the integrand
so that closed form evaluation of stiffness integrals becomes impossible.

9.2.1 One dimensional Gauss quadrature

The one-dimensional version of the Gauss method relies on the concept
that any function f ( r ) can be represented approximately over the interval
r [ 1, 1 ] by a polynomial which can be integrated exactly. A polynomial of
order (2n 1) can be fitted to f ( r ) by imposing n weights wi and n sampling
points in such a way that the summation
+1

f (r ) d r =

wi f ( r i )

(9.26)

i =1

is exact up to the chosen order.

The particular positions of these sampling points are known as Gauss
Points. They turn out to be the roots of Legendre polynomials and so the method is
referred to as a Gauss-Legendre integration.
The actual area represented by the integral is replaced by a series of
rectangles of unequal widths, whose heights are equal to the function values at the
sampling points. In other words, the integral of a polynomial function is replaced
by a linear combination of its values at the integration points ri :
+1

f ( r )d r = w1 f (r1 ) + w2 f (r 2 ) + ... + wi f (ri ) + ... + wn f (r n ) .

The 2n coefficients are determined from the condition that the above
equation is satisfied for a polynomial of order 2n 1 of the form
f ( r ) = a1 + a2 r + a3 r 2 + ... + a2 n r 2 n 1 .

(9.27)

9. ISOPARAMETRIC ELEMENTS

201

On substitution above we get

+1

a1

+1

+1

d r + a2 r d r + ... + a2 n

2 n 1

d r = a1 ( w1 + w2 + ... + wn ) +

(9.28)

+ a2 w1 r1 + w2 r 2 + ... + wn r n + ... + a2 n w1 r12 n 1 + w2 r 2 2 n 1 + ... + wn r n 2 n 1 .

Identifying the terms
+1

+1

i =1

d r = wi ,

+1

i =1

r d r = wi r i ,

r d r = wi r i .
i =1

Generally
+1

r d r =
2

+1

if i is odd
if i is even

(9.29)

so that
2 = w1 + w2 + ... + wn ,
0 = w1 r1 + w2 r 2 + ... + wn r n ,
2
= w1 r12 + w2 r 22 + ... + wn r n2 ,
3

(9.30)

L L L L L L
0 = w1 r12n 1 + w2 r 22n 1 + ... + wn r n2 n 1 .

This is a set of 2n equations, linear in wi and nonlinear in r i . The 2n

parameters are determined from conditions

wi > 0

i = 1, 2 ,..., n .
1 < r i < +1

One-point formula
For n = 1 we have the midpoint rule (Fig. 9.3, a)
+1

f ( r ) d r w1 f (r1 )

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

202

which is exact only when f (r ) is a polynomial of order 1. However, it is employed

in some selective integration schemes, e.g. to separate shear from extension effects,
avoiding the so-called shear locking by using reduced integration for shearing.

Two-point formula
For a two-point integration
+1

f ( r )d r = w1 f (r1 ) + w2 f (r 2 ) .

(9.31)

For a polynomial of order 2n 1 = 2 2 1 = 3 , equations (9.30) give

2 = w1 + w2 ,
0 = w1 r1 + w2 r 2 ,
2
= w1 r12 + w2 r 22 ,
3
0 = w1 r13 + w2 r 23 .
The solution to this set of equations is

w1 = w2 = 1 ,

r1 = r 2 =

1
= 0.5773502691
3

so that (Fig. 9.3, b)

+1

f ( r )d r = 1 f ( 0.57735 ) + 1 f ( 0.57735 ) .

Fig. 9.3

9. ISOPARAMETRIC ELEMENTS

203

Three-point formula
For a three-point integration (Fig. 9.3, c)

wi f (ri ) = 0.555 f ( 0.774) + 0.888 f ( 0 ) + 0.555 f ( 0.774 ) .

3

i =1

Gauss points and weights are given in Table 9.1 for the first four orders.
Table 9.1
Number of
Gauss points

Order of polynomial
integrated exactly

1
2

1
3

Gauss Points,

Weights,

ri

wi

2.0
1.0
0.8888
0.5555
0.652145
0.347854

0.57735
0

0.774596
0.339981
0.861136

9.2.2 Two dimensional Gauss quadrature

The one dimensional version of Gaussian quadrature is readily extended to
two dimensions if we use the rectangles or isoparametric quadrilaterals of section
9.1:

I=

+1 +1

f ( r , s )d r d s

1 1

I=

+1 +1

1 1

n
w j f r ,s j
1
j =1

+1

i =1

j =1

) ds = wi w j f (ri , s j ) ,

f ( r , s ) d r d s = wi w j f ri , s j .
i =1 j =1

(9.32)

For n = 2

w1 = w2 = 1 , r1 = s 1 = 0.57735 , r 2 = s 2 = 0.57735 ,
so that

I = f ( r1 , s1 ) + f ( r1 , s2 ) + f ( r2 , s1 ) + f ( r2 , s2 ) .
Gauss quadrature formulae for quadrilateral elements are shown in Table. 9.2.

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

204

Table 9.2
n

Number of
Gauss points

(1 1)

4 (= 2 2) at centre

4
(2 2)

1 (= 1 1) at points 1, 2, 3, 4

Gauss Points,
ri , s j

nn

Weights,
wi , w j

25 5 5
= at points 1, 2, 3, 4
81 9 9

9
(3 3)

40 5 8
= at points 1, 2, 3, 4
81 9 9
64 8 8
= at points 1, 2 , 3, 4
81 9 9

9.2.3 Stiffness integration

The element stiffness matrix (9.24) is

[k ]= t [ B ]
e

1 1

[ D ][ B ] det [ J ] dr ds

1 1

which means that the integral above actually consists of the integral of each
element (below or above the main diagonal) in an ( 8 8 ) matrix.
In general, det [ J ] is a linear function of r and s . For a rectangle or
parallelogram it is a constant. The elements of [ B ] are obtained by dividing a bilinear function of r and s by a linear function. Therefore, the elements of

9. ISOPARAMETRIC ELEMENTS

205

[ B ]T [ D ][ B ] det [ J ] are bi-quadratic functions divided by a linear function. This

[ ]

means that k e cannot be evaluated exactly using numerical integration.

From practical considerations, it is best to use as few integration points as
is possible without causing numerical difficulties. An alternative is to use reduced
integration at fewer points than necessary, with the aim of decreasing the stiffness
and so compensating for the overstiff finite element model. This is cheaper as well.
A lower limit on the number of integration points can be obtained by
observing that as the mesh is refined, the state of constant strain is reached within
an element. In this case, the stiffness matrix equation (9.24) becomes

[k ] [ B ]
e

+1 +1

[ D ][ B ]

t det [ J ] dr ds .
e

(9.33)

1 1

The integral in (9.33) represents the volume of the element. Therefore, the
minimum number of integration points, is the number required to evaluate exactly
the volume of the element. Taking the thickness, t e , to be constant and noting that

det [ J ] is linear, indicates that the volume can be evaluated exactly using one
integration point.

Fig. 9.4
However, in the present case, one integration point is unacceptable since it
gives rise to zero-energy deformation modes (Fig. 9.4). These are modes of
deformation which give rise to zero strain energy. This will be the case if one of
these modes gives zero strain at the integration point. The existence of these modes
is indicated by the stiffness matrix having more zero eigenvalues than rigid body
modes.
Experience has shown that the best order of integration for the 4-node
quadrilateral element is a ( 2 2 ) array of points.
Using the 2 2 rule (9.33), we can write

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

206

[ k ] t [ B ( r , s ) ] [ [ D ] det [J ( r , s )] ] [ B ( r , s ) ]+
e

[ B ( r1 , s2 ) ] [ [ D ] det [J ( r1 , s2 )] ] [ B ( r1 , s2 ) ]+
+ t e [ B ( r2 , s 1 ) ]T [ [ D ] det [ J ( r2 , s 1 )] ] [ B ( r2 , s 1 ) ]+
+t

+ t e [ B ( r2 , s2 ) ] T

(9.34)

[ [ D ] det [ J ( r2 , s2 )] ] [ B ( r2 , s2 ) ] .

The calculation consists of four basic steps:

a) Calculation of [ J ] at the Gauss points (9.11)
x1

1 + s j x2

( 1 ri ) x 3

x4

[ J ( ri ,s j ) ] = 14 ( 1 s j ) ( 1 s j ) ( 1 + s j ) (
( 1 ri )

( 1 + ri )

( 1 + ri )

y1
y 2
y3

y4

and its determinant.

b) Calculation of the inverse

[ j ] = [ J ] 1 at the Gauss points.

c) Calculation of the [ B ] matrix (9.21)

j11
[ B ] = 1 0
4
j 21

j12
0
j 22

0
j 21
j11

j 22
j12

d) Calculation of

0
1 s j

(
)
1
0

r
i

1 s j
0

(1 ri )
0

[k ]
e

1 s j
(1 + ri )

0
0

1+ s j
1 + ri

0
0

1+ s j
1 ri

0
0

1 s j
(1 + ri )

0
0

1+ s j
1 + ri

0
0

0
0
1+ s j
1 ri

using the 2 2 rule (9.34).

Example 9.1
Consider the quadrilateral element from Fig. 9.1 with the following nodal
coordinates

x1
x
2
x3

x4

y1
y2
y3
y4

10
20
=
25

8

10
15
.
30

25

For convenience, consider approximately the Gauss Points at

r i , s j = 0.5 instead of r i , s j = 0.57735 . For the first term in (9.34) we need

det [ J ] and [ B ] calculated at GP1.

9. ISOPARAMETRIC ELEMENTS

207

At GP1, the Jacobian matrix (9.11) is

10
0.5 0.5 1.5 1.5 20
[ J ] = 1
4 0.5 1.5 1.5 0.5 25

10
15 1
=
30 8

25

61 20
13 60 .

Its determinant and inverse are

det [ J ]= 53.125 ,

[ j ] = [ J ] 1 =

1 60 20
.
425 13 61

At GP1, the matrix [ B ] is given by (9.21)

0
60 20 0
[ B ] = 1 0 0 13 61
1700
13 61
60 20

0
0.5
0.5
0

0
0 .5

0
0 .5

0.5
1.5
0
0

1.5 0 1.5
0
1. 5 0
0.5
0 ,
0 1 .5
0
1.5

0
0 .5
1.5 0 1.5
0

0
0 .5

0
30
0
30 0 50
0
10
1
[ B ] = 0 12 0 49 0 36 0 25 .
850
12 10 49 30 36 30 25 50

9.2.4 Stress calculations

In the quadrilateral element, stresses

{ } = [ D ] [ B ] {q e }

(9.35)

vary within the element.

In practice, stresses are evaluated at the Gauss points, where they are found
to be accurate (Barlow, 1976). Some programs which use Gauss point stresses
extrapolate to the element nodes and then output the mean value if several elements
meet at a node.
Maximum stresses usually occur at edges of plates or at other
discontinuities at the element boundaries. In order not to miss these peak stresses, a
refined mesh should be used in these regions. However, Gauss point values are
ideal for constructing internal stress contours.

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

208

9.3 Eight-node quadrilateral

This element is the isoparametric version of the eight-node rectangle
presented in section 8.2.2. The difference is that in cartesian coordinates it has
curved sides (Fig. 9.5, a) and the master element is a square (Fig. 9.5, b).

Fig. 9.5
The displacement functions in simple polynomial form (8.27) are
u = a1 + a2 r + a3 s + a4 r 2 + a5 r s + a6 s 2 + a7 r 2 s + a8 r s 2 ,
v = b1 + b2 r + b3 s + b4 r 2 + b5 r s + b6 s 2 + b7 r 2 s + b8 r s 2 .

(9.36)

The element has three nodes along one edge, so that the displacement
variation should be parabolic (three constants) to satisfy compatibility.
The eight-node quadrilateral employs displacement fields quadratic in r

and s , as are the stresses. The product [ B ] T [ D ][ B ] is therefore fourth order and
det [ J ] is cubic. It would seem necessary to use a 3 3 Gauss quadrature for
exact stiffness integration.
For a single 8-node rectangular element, even if it is supported
conventionally, using a 2 2 integration scheme would result in a singular
stiffness matrix. In practice, large groups of elements will not suffer from such
mechanisms, and 2 2 integration is normally used for this popular element. The
optimal sampling points for this element are the Gauss points for the 2 2 scheme

9. ISOPARAMETRIC ELEMENTS

209

and not those for the higher order 3 3 scheme, so the advantages of reduced
integration are compounded.
For an 8-node quadrilateral element, better displacements are obtained
using a 3 3 Gauss point mesh, nine points in all.
It was shown that, in order to evaluate the minimum order of the numerical
integration, it is sufficient to examine the Jacobian determinant. For the 8-node
quadratic element, det [ J ] is of third order hence the minimum number of
integration points is 4 (2 2 ) .
The eight-node curved quad is ideal for nonlinear problems and can be
easily adapted to model cracks by moving the midside nodes. Care is needed
because the accuracy declines with excessive shape distortion.

9.3.1 Shape functions

The shape functions (8.29) have the following expressions

1
( 1 r )( 1 s )(1 + r + s ) ,
4
1
N 2 = ( 1 + r )( 1 s )(1 r + s ) ,
4
1
N 3 = ( 1 + r )( 1 + s )( 1 r s ),
4
1
N 4 = ( 1 r )( 1 + s )(1 + r s ) ,
4
N1 =

)
(
)
(

1
1 r 2 (1 s ) ,
2
1
N6 = (1 + r ) 1 s 2 ,
2
1
N 7 = 1 r 2 ( 1 + s ) , (9.37)
2
1
N8 = ( 1 r ) 1 s 2 .
2
N5 =

As they are constructed based on the equations of the lines passing through
the nodal points, they belong to the serendipity *) family of elements.
For ease in programming, one can also use the following equivalent
formulae in which ( ri , si ) are the natural coordinates of node i:
for corner nodes
1
( 1 + r ri ) ( 1 + s si ) (r ri + s si 1) ,
4
N i ri
( 1 + s si ) (2r ri + s si ) , N i = si ( 1 + r ri ) (2s si + r ri ) ;
=
r
s
4
4

Ni =

(9.38)

___________

*) After the extraordinary discoveries of the princes of Serendip from the horror novels by
Horace Walpole (1717-1797).

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

210

for mid-side nodes, when ri = 0

1
1 r 2 ( 1 + s si ) ,
2
Ni
Ni 1
= r ( 1 + s si ) ,
= si 1 r 2 ;
r
s
2

Ni =

(9.39)

for mid-side nodes, when si = 0

1
1 s 2 ( 1 + r ri ) ,
2
Ni 1
Ni
= ri 1 s 2 ,
= s ( 1 + r ri
r
2
s
Ni =

(9.40)

).

The displacements inside the element can be expressed in terms of the

nodal displacements as
u
e
(9.41)
=[N ] q ,
v
where
N
0 N 2 0 L L N8 0
[ N ] = 1
(9.42)
,
0 N1 0 N 2 L L 0 N8

{ }

{ q }= u
e

v1 u 2

v8 T .

v 2 L L u8

(9.43)

Having generated the shape functions [ N ] , the matrix [ B ] = [ ][ N

N1

x
[ B ] = 0
N
1
y

0
N1
y
N1
x

N2
x
0
N2
y

N8
x

N2
L
0
y
N8
N2
L
x
y

0
N8
y
N8
x

(9.44)

9.3.2 Shape function derivatives

Use of the isoparametric formulation
8

x = N i (r , s ) x i ,
i =1

leads to

y = N i (r , s ) y i
i =1

(9.45)

is

9. ISOPARAMETRIC ELEMENTS

Ni
x
N
i

211

Ni
y

r
1 s

= [ j ] N =
i det [ J ] x

y
r
x
r

Ni
r

Ni
s

(9.46)

where

x
=
r
y
=
r

N i (r , s )
xi ,
r

x
=
s

N i (r , s )
yi ,
r

y
=
s

i =1
8

i =1

( )

N sr , s x
i

i =1
8

i =1

N i (r , s )
yi .
s

(9.47)

9.3.3 Determinant of the Jacobian matrix

The Jacobian matrix is
x

[ J ] = xr

y
r
y
s

(9.48)

x y x y
.

r s s r

(9.49)

and its determinant is

det [ J ] =

9.3.4 Element stiffness matrix

The element stiffness matrix is
+1 +1

[k ]= t [ B ]
e

1 1

[ D ][ B ] det [ J ] d r d s

(9.50)

where t is the thickness of the plate and the material stiffness matrix [ D ] has the
form
D1 D 2 0
[ D ] = D 2 D 4 0 .
(9.51)
0
0 D 5

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

212

Substituting (9.44), the stiffness matrix (9.50) can be written

N1
x

N2
+1 +1
x

ke = te

1 1
L
N
8
x

0
N1
y

N2
y
L

0
N8
y

N1
y
N1
x

N2
y

N2
x

L
N8

y
N8

N1

x
[D ] 0

N1
y

0
N1
y
N1
x

N2
x

0
N2
y

0
N2
y
N2
x

N8
x

N8
L
y

0
N8
y
N8
x

det [ J ] d r d s

(9.52)
The (16 16 ) element stiffness matrix contains submatrices [ k ] i j which,
evaluated by numerical integration, have the form

[k ] i j

Ni
n
n
x
w p wq
= te
0
p =1 q =1

0
Ni
y

[ k ] i j = k 1

or

Ni
y
Ni
x

k 2
k 4

N j

[D] 0

N j
y

N j
det [ J ] , (9.53)
y
N j
x

(9.53, a)

ij

Denoting
w = t e w p wq det [ J ] ,

(9.54)

the elements of the matrix (9.53, a) can be determined as

k1

ij

Ni N j
Ni N j
,
= w D 1
+ D5
y y
x x

Ni N j
Ni N j
,
k 2 i j = w D 2
+ D5
x y
y x

k3

ij

Ni N j
Ni N j
,
= w D 2
+ D5
y x
x y

(9.55)

9. ISOPARAMETRIC ELEMENTS

213

Ni N j
Ni N j
.
k 4 i j = w D 4
+ D5
y y
x x

When i = j , k 2 = k 3 .
A close inspection of equations (9.55) shows that all the terms are of the
form

(cons tan t ) (material

property ) ( product of shape function derivatives ) .

Therefore, providing that the material properties are constant throughout

the element, it is useful to store separately in an array [ S ] i j the sum of the
products of the shape function derivatives multiplied by w , such that

[ S ]i j

w
=

Ni
x
Ni
y

N j
x
N j
x

Ni
x
N
w yi

N j

y
N j
y

(9.56)

and then to work out equations (9.55) by incorporating the relevant material
constants.
This method (K. A. Gupta & B. Mohraz, 1972) reduces the computing time
by a factor of nine over the full matrix multiplication method.

9.3.5 Stress calculation

The vector of element stresses is

{ } = [ D ][ B ]{ q e }.

(9.57)

The explicit form of equation (9.57) for the quadratic 8-node element is

xy

D1

= D 2
0

D2
D4
0

N1

0 x

0 0

D 5 N
1
y

0
N1
y
N1
x

N2
x
0
N2
y

i =1

N8
x

N2
L
0
y
N2
N8
L
x
y

wherefrom

x = D1

8
Ni
Ni
ui + D2
vi ,
x
i =1 y

0
N8
y
N8
x

u 1

v 1
u
2
L
v
8

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

214
8

y = D2

i =1

8
Ni
Ni
ui + D4
vi ,
x
i =1 y

(9.58)

Ni
Ni
ui +
v i ,
x

i =1 y
8

xy = D 5

In some programs the stresses are determined at nodes, since the nodal
positions are readily located and it is convenient to output the displacements and
stresses at the same points. It has been found that nodal stresses from an 8-node
quadratic element are usually incorrect. However, if the stresses of all elements
meeting at a node are averaged, closer results to the true values are obtained.
A better alternative is to calculate stresses at the Gauss points, in which
superior accuracy is obtained and averaging is not necessary. This is due to the fact
that the element stiffness is calculated by sampling at the Gauss points, and it is
therefore reasonable to expect the most accurate stresses and strains occurring at
the same points.

9.3.6 Consistent nodal forces

Unlike the triangular element, in which all loads can be reduced to nodes
intuitively or by statics, for a quadratic isoparametric element the nodal forces due
to distributed loads must be computed in accordance with equation (7.44)

{ f }= [ N ]
e

{ p }d V

(9.59)

Ve

The equivalent nodal forces are added, element by element, into the global
load vector which represents the right hand side of the linear set of equations to be
solved for displacements.
Edge pressure

When coding the load vectors in a computer program, the actual pressure
distribution along an element edge is replaced by a parabolic distribution defined
by the pressure values at each of the three nodes along that edge. All intermediate
values can be calculated using the shape functions. It is usual to use all the nodes of
the element in the computation, so that there is no need to sort out the appropriate
shape functions for the three nodes with given pressure values.
Consider a distributed load p , specified in force per unit length, acting
along the s = +1 edge of an element. The components of the force p d r acting
upon an elemental length d r are

9. ISOPARAMETRIC ELEMENTS

215

y
r
px

= p x dr .
py

(9.60)

The consistent load for p is given by a modified form of equation (9.59) in

which the volume integral has been reduced to a line integral
y
r
p [ N ]T
x

+1

{ f }=
e

where [ N ] is given by (9.42).

dr

(9.61)

The above vector is usually integrated numerically and is written as

y
r
pi
x

wi [ N ] T
fe =
(9.62)

i =1
i
where pi is the pressure at the Gauss point i along the s = +1 edge and is
computed by equation
n

{ }

p=

N (r , s ) p
k

(9.63)

k =1

If the same pressure acts on the edge s = 1 , the sign of the force vector

{ f } is reversed, since a positive pressure is assumed to act towards the centre of

e

the element. A more general equation applicable to the two edges s = 1 is

y
8
r

f e = wi ws [N ]T N k p k
x
i =1
k =1

r i
where w s takes up the value of the s coordinate for the loaded edge.

{ }

(9.64)

A similar expression for pressure loads on the r = 1 edges is

{ f }=
e

i =1

y
8
s

T
wi wr [N ] N k p k
x

k =1
s

(9.65)

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

216

For a rectangular isoparametric element with edges parallel to the x , y

axes, it is possible to integrate the equations for the equivalent nodal forces
explicitly.

Example 9.2
Consider the element of Fig. E9.2, a with a uniform pressure load along the
top edge. Find the equivalent nodal forces.

Fig. E9.2
Solution.

For the edge s = +1 we have N1 = N 5 = N 2 = N 6 = N 8 = 0 .

For the rectangular element

{f }
e

y
x
= 0 and
= a . Equation (9.61) gives
r
r

f y3

= f y7
f
y4

+1

= p
1

N3

N7
N
4

( a ) d r .

Denoting the total pressure load P = 2 p a , we can write

f y3 =
f y7 =

P
2
P
2

+1

1
4 ( 1 + r ri ) ( 1 + s si ) ( r ri + s si 1) d r ,

1
+1

1
2
4 ( 1 + s si ) ( 1 r ) d r ,

(9.66)

9. ISOPARAMETRIC ELEMENTS

f y4 =

P
2

+1

217

1
(1 + r ri
4

) (1 + s si ) ( r ri + s si 1) d r .

In the above expressions, substituting r i = 1 and s i = 1 for node 3, r i = 0

and s i = 1 for node 7, and r i = 1 and s i = 1 for node 4, yields
P
2

f y3 =
f y7 =
f y4 =

P
2
P
2

+1

1
(1 + r )( 2)( r + 1 1) d r = P ,
4
6

1
( 2 ) 1 r 2 dr = 2P ,
4
3

1
(1 r )(2)( r + 1 1) d r = P .
4
6

1
+1
1
+1
1

Hence a uniform load acting along an edge is not distributed in the

intuitive ratio of 1 4 : 1 2 : 1 4 , but in the ratio 1 6 : 2 3 : 1 6 (Fig. E9.2, b).
The same result could have been obtained noticing that the integrands in
the above equations are the shape functions of the three-node isoparametric onedimensional element (4.26).
Gravity loading

For gravity loading (downwards negative) the vector of equivalent nodal

forces (9.59) is

{ f }= m [ N ]
e

0
d x d y =
g

+1 +1

m [N ]

1 1

0
det [ J ] d r d s
g

(9.67)

where m is the mass per unit area and g the acceleration in the y direction.
The integration is carried out numerically and equation (9.67) takes the
form

{ f }= w w
e

i =1 j =1

0
m [ N ] T det [ J ] .
g

(9.68)

Example 9.3
Consider the rectangular element of Fig. E9.3, a with gravity loading. Find
the equivalent nodal forces.
Solution. Because all the equivalent nodal forces act in the y direction,

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

218

f y1
+1 +1
f y 2
mg
=

L
1 1
f y8

N1
N
2

det [ J ] d r d s .
L
N 8

(9.69)

For a rectangular element det [ J ] = ab .

For a corner node i the integral becomes

+1 +1

f yi =

m g 4 (1 + r ri ) (1 + s si ) ( r ri + s si 1) det [ J ] d r d s .

(9.70)

1 1

Denoting the total weight of the element W = m g 2a 2b , the force (9.70)

can be written
f yi =

W
( I1 + I 2 + I 3 ) ,
16

(9.71)

where
+1 +1

I1 =

(1 + r ri ) (1 + s si ) r ri d r d s = 3

(9.72)

1 1

since ri = 1 for all corner nodes,

+1 +1

I2 =

(1 + r ri ) (1 + s si ) s si d r d s = 3

(9.73)

1 1

since si = 1 for all corner nodes, and

+1 +1

I3 =

(1 + r ri ) (1 + s si ) d r d s = 4 .

(9.74)

1 1

Therefore, the equivalent nodal forces for gravity loading at a corner node i
are given by
f yi =

W
( I1 + I 2 + I 3 ) = W 4 + 4 4 = W .
16
16 3 3
12

(9.75)

For a midside node i with ri = 0 , the integral is

+1 +1

f yi =

1
W
2
m g 2 (1 r ) (1 + s si ) det [ J ] d r d s = 3 .

(9.76)

1 1

For a midside node i with si = 0 , the integral is

1 1

f yi =

1
W
2
m g 2 (1 s ) (1 + r ri ) det [ J ] d r d s = 3 .

1 1

(9.77)

9. ISOPARAMETRIC ELEMENTS

219

Fig. E9.3
Hence for gravity loading the equivalent nodal forces are as shown in Fig.
E9.3, b. Again, they are different from the values of W 12 and W 6 , which
would have been assigned intuitively to the corner and midside nodes respectively.

9.4 Nine-node quadrilateral

This element belongs to the Lagrange family of elements. Apart from the
eight nodes located on the boundary, it contains an internal node. The local node
numbers for this element are shown in Fig. 9.6, a. The master element is presented
in Fig. 9.6, b.

Fig. 9.6

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

220

The associated displacement functions in polynomial form are

u = a1 + a2 r + a3 s + a4 r 2 + a5 r s + a6 s 2 + a7 r 2 s + a8 r s 2 + a9 r 2 s 2 ,
v = b1 + b2 r + b3 s + b4 r 2 + b5 r s + b6 s 2 + b7 r 2 s + b8 r s 2 + b9 r 2 s 2 .

(9.78)

Along the sides of the element, the polynomial is quadratic (with three
terms - as can be seen setting s = 0 in u ), and is determined by its values at the
three nodes on that side.
Higher-order rectangular elements can be systematically developed with
the help of the so-called Pascals triangle, which contains the terms of polynomials
of various degrees in the two variables r and s , as shown in Fig. 9.7.

Fig. 9.7
Since a linear quadrilateral element has four nodes, the polynomial should
have the first four terms 1, r, s, and rs . In general, a pth-order Lagrange

rectangular element has ( p + 1) 2 nodes ( p = 0 ,1, ...) . The quadratic quadrilateral

element has 9 nodes. The polynomial is incomplete. It contains the complete
polynomial of the second degree (6 terms) plus other three terms which have to be
located symmetrically: the third degree terms r 2 s and r s 2 and also an r 2 s 2 term.

The shape functions are defined as follows. Considering the r axis alone,
as shown at the bottom of Fig. 9.6, b, we can define generic shape functions L1 ,
L2 and L3 having unit value at the node with the same index and zero at the other
two nodes
L1 (r ) =

r (1 r )
,
2

L 2 (r ) = ( 1 + r )( 1 r ) ,

L 3 (r ) =

r (1 + r )
.
2

(9.79)

They turn out to be Lagrange polynomials, which, for three points, have
the expressions

9. ISOPARAMETRIC ELEMENTS

L 1 (r ) =

( r r 2 ) ( r r3 )
( r1 r 2 ) ( r1 r3 )

, L 2 (r ) =

221

( r r1 ) ( r r 3 )
( r 2 r1 ) ( r 2 r 3 )

, L 3 (r ) =

( r r1 ) ( r r 2 )
( r 3 r1 ) ( r 3 r 2 )

Similarly, generic shape functions can be defined along the s axis, as

shown at the right of Fig. 9.6, b
L1 (s ) =

s (1 s )
,
2

L 2 (s ) = ( 1 + s ) ( 1 s ) ,

L 3 (s ) =

s (1 + s )
.
2

(9.80)

The shape functions N i can be constructed as products of the above onedimensional functions
N1
N
5
N 2

N8
N9
N6

N 4 L 1 (r )

N 7 = L 2 (r ) L 1 (s ) L 2 (s ) L 3 (s ) .
N 3 L 3 (r )

(9.81)

It should be cautioned that the subscripts of N i refer to the node

numbering used in Fig. 9.6, a.
Since the internal nodes of the higher-order elements of the Lagrange
family do not contribute to the inter-element connectivity, they can be condensed
out at the element level to reduce the size of the element matrices. Alternatively,
one can use the serendipity elements, but their shape functions cannot be obtained
using products of one-dimensional interpolation functions.

9.5 Six-node triangle

Higher-order triangular elements can be developed using Pascals triangle
(Fig. 9.8). One can view the position of the terms as the nodes of the triangle, with
the constant term and the first and last terms of a given row being the vertices of
the triangle. The six node triangle (Fig. 9.9, a) is an element of order 2 (i.e., the
degree of the polynomial is 2), as can be seen from the top three rows of Pascals
triangle. The polynomial involves six constants, which can be expressed in terms of
the nodal values of the variable being interpolated.
By referring to the master element in Fig. 9.9, b, the shape functions can be
expressed in terms of area coordinates as for the linear strain triangle (8.36)
N1 = 1 ( 2 1 1 ) , N 2 = 2 ( 2 2 1 ) , N 3 = 3 ( 2 3 1 ) ,
N 4 = 4 1 2 ,

N5 = 4 2 3 ,

N 6 = 4 3 1 ,

(9.82)

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

222

where 1 = 1 2 3 . Because of terms 22 , 32 in the shape functions, this

element is also called a quadratic triangle.

Fig. 9.8
The isoparametric representation is (8.37)
u N1
=
v 0

where

{ q }= u
e

0
N1

N2
0

v1 u2

0 L L N6
N2 L L 0

v 2 L L u6
6

x = Ni x i ,
i =1

Fig. 9.9

(9.83)

v6 T , and

y = Ni y i .
i =1

{ }

0 e
q ,
N 6

(9.84)

9. ISOPARAMETRIC ELEMENTS

223

The element stiffness matrix, which has to be integrated numerically, can

be evaluated using (9.24) if the (r , s ) coordinates are defined by (8.46). This gives

,
r N 2 N1

.
s N 3 N1

(9.85)

Details on numerical integration schemes for triangles are given in [18,

39]. The Gauss quadrature formulas for a triangle differ from those considered
earlier for the rectangle.

9.6 Jacobian positiveness

In the higher-order isoparametric elements discussed above, we note the
presence of midside nodes. The midside node should be as near as possible to the
centre of the side. It must be placed inside the middle third of a side. This condition
ensures that det [ J ] does not attain a value of zero in the element.
The sign of det [ J ] should be checked. If the Jacobian becomes negative
at any location, a warning message will be signaled indicating the nonuniqueness
of mapping. Note that while the Jacobian is always computed at Gauss points, it is
more likely to be negative at corners, where stresses may be computed.
A necessary requirement for applying equation (9.14) to shape functions is
that [ J ] can be inverted. This inverse exists if there is no excessive distortion of
the element such that lines of constant r or s intersect inside or on the element
boundaries or there are re-entrant angles. When the element is degenerated into a
triangle by increasing an internal angle to 1800 then [ J ] is singular at that corner.
A similar situation occurs when two adjacent corner nodes are made coincident to
produce a triangular element. Therefore to ensure that [ J ] can be inverted, any
internal angle of each corner node of the element should be less than 1800 , and, as
an internal angle approaches 180 0 there is a loss of accuracy in the element stress,
particularly at that corner.
If the determinant det [ J ] 0 , then [ j ] and the operators in
increase without limit and consequently produce infinite strains.

[ ]

will

The above statements are illustrated for the one-dimensional quadratic

isoparametric element shown in Fig. 4.4. The row vector of shape functions is

N = N1 N 2 N 3 = 2 r ( r 1) ( 1 + r )( 1 r ) 2 r ( r + 1) .

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

224

The Jacobian matrix is

[ J ] = J11 = N1
r

N 2
r

x1
N 3
x2
r
x3

2r 1
2r
=
2

0
2r + 1
x2
2
l

The determinant of the Jacobian matrix is

det [ J ] = J11 = ( r + 0.5 ) l 2 r x2 .
For any x2 this determinant vanishes at the point
0.5 l
.
2x2 l

r0 =

Fig. 9.10
This point lies within the element (Fig. 9.10) if 1 r 0 1 , i.e. if
1

0.5 l
1,
2x2 l

where 0 x 2 l .
l
3l
< x 2 < , then det [ J ] does not vanish on the element. This explains
4
4
why it is recommended to place precautiously the midside node inside the middle
third of a side.

If

10.
PLATE BENDING

Flat plate structures, such as the floors of buildings and aircraft, enclosures
surrounding machinery and bridge decks are subject to loads normal to their plane.
Such structures can be analyzed by dividing the plate into an assemblage of twodimensional finite elements called plate bending elements. These elements may be
either triangular, rectangular or quadrilateral in shape. In this chapter, finite
element displacement models for the flat plate bending problem are discussed.
Thin plates with transverse shear neglected are analyzed based on
Kirchhoffs classical theory. Plates with a constant shear deformation through the
plate thickness are treated in the Reissner-Mindlin plate theory. For thick or
composite plates some higher-order shear deformation plate theories are available,
in which on the faces of plate the shear strains are equal to zero.

10.1 Thin plate theory (Kirchhoff)

A plate is described as a structure in which the thickness is very small
compared with the other dimensions, that is the thickness-to-span is h l 0.1 . For
this case, it can be assumed that the plate deformation may be expressed by the
deformation state at the middle surface, which is the plane midway between the
faces of the plate.
For thin plates, Kirchhoffs hypotheses are adopted: a) there is no
deformation (stretching) in the middle plane of the plate; b) normals to the middle
plane of the undeformed plate remain straight and normal to the middle surface of
the plate during deformation; and c) the direct stress in the transverse direction can
be disregarded.
The x-y plane is taken to coincide with the middle surface of the plate (Fig.
10.1) and the positive z-direction is upwards. The plate has constant thickness h
and is subject to distributed surface loads.

226

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

The displacements parallel to the undeformed middle surface are given by

u ( x, y, z ) = z

w
,
x

v ( x, y, z ) = z

w
,
y

(10.1)

where w ( x, y ) denotes the displacement of the middle surface in the z-direction

(Fig. 10.2, a).

Fig. 10.1
The components of the strain are given as follows:

x =

2w
u v
u
2w
v
2w
,
= z 2 , y =
= z 2 , x y =
= 2 z
+
x
y
x y
y x
x
y

yz =

v w
+
=0,
z y

zx =

w u
+
= 0.
x z

(10.2)

b
Fig. 10.2

The strain vector can be written in the form

{ } = x
where the curvature vector

y x y T = z { },

(10.3)

227

10. PLATE BENDING

2
{ } = w2
x

2w
2

x y

2w
y2

(10.4)

Since z = 0 , the stress-strain relations take the form

{ } = [ D ] { } = z [ D ] { } ,

(10.5)

{ } = x

y x y T ,

(10.6)

(10.7)

where
and

d11
[ D ] = d12
d16

d12
d 22
d 26

d16
d 26
d 66

The strain energy in the plate can be written as

U=

1
2

{ }T { }dV = 1

h3
{ }T [ D ] { }d A .
12

(10.8)

Fig. 10.3
The positive sense of internal bending and twisting moments (per unit
length) is shown in Fig. 10.3. Their definig equations are
h2

M x

My

Mxy =

y xy dz .

(10.9)

h 2

Denoting
h2

Di j =

h 2

ij

z2 d z

(10.10)

228

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

the moment - curvature equations can be expressed as follows

Mx

My
M
xy

D11

= D12
D
16

or

D12
D22
D26

2w

x2
D16 2
w
D26
y2
D66 2
w

x y

{ M } = [ D ]{ }

(10.11)

(10.12)

For isotropic materials

0
1
[ D ] = D 1 0

1
0 0
2

(10.13)

(10.14)

where

D=

E h3

12 1

E is Youngs modulus and is the Poissons ratio.

The equilibrium equations are
M x M y x
Qx = 0 ,
+
y
x
M x y M y
+
Qy = 0 ,
x
y
Qx Q y
+
+ pz = 0 ,
x
y

(10.15)

where p z is the lateral distributed load (per unit surface) and Qx , Q y are the shear
forces (per unit length).
From (10.11) and (10.15) it can be shown that

Qx = D

2 w 2 w
+
x x 2 y 2

Qy = D

2 w 2 w
+
y x 2 y 2

(10.16)

229

10. PLATE BENDING

By substituting (10.16) into the last equation (10.15), the differential

equilibrium equation for isotropic materials can be obtained as

4 w pz
4w
4w
2
=
.
+
+
D
x2 y2 y4
x4

(10.17)

The bending and torsion stresses are given by (10.9)

y xy =

12 z
M x
h3

My

Mxy

(10.18)

Qy ,

(10.19)

and the shear stresses by

2

1 4z

h2

where a parabolic distribution is assumed.

z x

yz =

3
2h

Qx

The strain energy (10.8) can be expressed as

D
U=
2

2
2
2
w + w + 2 ( 1
x2 y 2

2 2
2w 2w
w
)
dx dy .
2
x y 2
x y

(10.20)

The potential of the external load is

W P = p z w dx dy .

(10.21)

10.2 Thick plate theory (Reissner-Mindlin)

For moderately thick plates, the thickness-to-span ratio is not small enough
to neglect transverse shear deformations and Kirchhoffs assumption is no longer
valid. To overcome this problem, the classical hypothesis of zero transverse shear
strain is relaxed. First, Reissner proposed to introduce the rotations of the normal to
the plate midsurface in the xOz and yOz plane as independent variables. Then,
Mindlin simplified Reissners assumption considering that normals to the plate
midsurface before deformation remain straight but not necessarily normal to the
plate after deformation. The displacements of the middle surface are independent
of the rotations of the normal (Fig. 10.2, b). The transverse normal stress is
disregarded as in the Kirchhoffs theory.
According to Reissner-Mindlin assumptions, the displacements parallel to
the middle surface can be expressed as

230

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

v (x , y , z ) = z x (x , y ) ,

u (x , y , z ) = z y (x , y ) ,

(10.22)

where x , y are the rotations about the Ox and Oy axes of lines originally normal
to the middle plane before deformation.
The in-plane strains are now given by

{ } = z { },

(10.23)

where the curvature vector is

{ }= y
x

x y

x
y

x
y

(10.24)

The transverse shear strains are

yz =

v w
+
,
z y

zx =

w u
.
+
x z

(10.25)

Substituting for the displacements from (10.22) gives

w

+
y z x y
{ } = =
w
zx y +

(10.26)

Note that when y z = 0 , z x = 0 , equation (10.26) gives x =

y =

w
,
y

w
, and equation (10.24) reduces to (10.4).
x
The average shear stresses are given by

[ ]{ } .

yz
S
= D

zx

{ } =

(10.27)

where is a shear correction factor and

[ D ] = G0
S

0
G

1 0

E
= 2 (1 + ) 0 1 .

(10.28)

The strain energy in the plate can be written as the sum of the energies due
to bending and shear deformation
U=

1
2

{ } { }dV + 2
T

{ }T { }dV .

(10.29)

231

10. PLATE BENDING

or, integrating through the thickness

U=

1
2

h3
{ }T [ D ] { }d A + 1
12
2

h { } [ D ]{ }d A .
T

(10.30)

(10.31)

For isotropic materials, equation (10.11) becomes

Mx

My
M
xy

0
1

0
=D 1

0 0

x

x

y
x

x y

or (10.12), where { } is given by (10.24).

The transverse shear constitutive equation is
w

x +

Qy

y
.
=G

w
Qx

y +

(10.32)

The strain energy (10.30) can be expressed as

U=

1
2

y
M x
x

w
Qx y +
x

1
2

+ M x y x y
y

w
+ Q y x +
y

+ M y x dx dy +
y

dx dy .

w
w
and y =
, the above expression reduces to (10.20).
y
x
The main drawback of this theory is the arbitrary averaging of the shear
strains. If a constant shear strain is considered through the plate thickness, on the
faces of plate the shear strains are not zero, which is not true. This assumption is
equivalent to the introduction of parasitic shear stresses that force the normal to
remain a straight line. As the thickness of the plate becomes extremely thin, the
shear strain energy predicted by the finite element analysis can be magnified
unreasonably and a shear locking occurs for large span-to-thickness ratios.
If x =

232

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

10.3 Rectangular plate bending elements

For a thin plate bending element, the strain energy is given by (10.20) and
the potential of the external load by (10.21). The highest derivative appearing in
these expressions is the second. Hence, for convergence, it will be necessary to
w
w
and
are continuous between
ensure that w and its first derivatives
x
y
elements. These three quantities are, therefore, taken as degrees of freedom at each
node. Also, complete polynomials of at least degree two should be used, according
to the convergence criteria of the Rayleigh-Ritz method. The assumed form of the
displacement function, irrespective of the element shape, is
w = a1 + a2 x + a3 y + a4 x 2 + a5 x y + a6 y 2 + higher degree terms.

(10.33)

Figure 10.4 shows a thin rectangular element of thickness h, having four node
points, one at each corner.

Fig. 10.4
The dimensionless coordinates = x a and = y b will be used in the
following with the origin at the plate centre.

10.3.1 ACM element (non-conforming)

Figure 10.5 shows the ACM element (Adini, Clough, Melosh - 1961,
1963). There are three degrees of freedom at each node, namely, the transverse
w
w
displacement w , and the two rotations x =
and y =
. In terms of the
y
x
dimensionless coordinates and , these become

233

10. PLATE BENDING

x =

1 w
,
b

y =

1 w
.
a

(10.34)

Since the element has 12 degrees of freedom, the displacement function

can be represented by a polynomial having twelve terms, that is

w = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 2 + 5 + 6 2 +

+ 7 3 + 8 2 + 9 2 + 10 3 + 11 3 + 12 3 .

(10.35)

Note that this function is a complete cubic to which two quartic terms 3
and 3 have been added, which are symetrically located in Pascals triangle. This
ensures that the element is geometrically invariant.

Fig. 10.5
The expression (10.35) can be written in the following matrix form

w = 1 2 2 3 2 2 3 3 3

{ },

w = P ( , ) { } ,

(10.36)
(10.36, a)

where

{ }T = 1

2 3 L 12 .

(10.37)

Differentiating (10.36) gives

w
= 0 1 0 2

w
= 0 0 1 0

0 3 2 2 2 0 3 2 3 { } ,

(10.38)

{ }.

(10.39)

0 2

2 3 2 3 3 2

234

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

Evaluating (10.36), (10.38) and (10.39) at = 1 , = 1 gives

{ q }= [ A ]{ },
e

(10.40)

where

{ q } = w b a L w b a { }, (10.41)
and the matrix [ A ] is given in [87] but not reproduced here, for conciseness.
e T

x1

y1

x4

y4

Solving (10.40) for { } gives

{ } = [ Ae ]

{q } .
e

(10.42)

Substituting (10.42) into (10.36, a) yields

{ }

w = N ( , ) q e = N1

e
N 2 N 3 N 4 {q },

(10.43)

where the vector of nodal displacements is

{ q } = w
e T

x1 y1 L w4 x 4 y 4 ,

(10.44)

and the shape functions are defined as

)(

N i ( , )

1
2
2
8 ( 1 + i ) 1 + j 2 + i + i

b
( 1 + i )( i + ) 2 1
=
8

( i + ) 2 1 ( 1 + i )

where ( i ,i

(10.45)

) are the coordinates of node i.

The element is non-conforming. Indeed, evaluating (10.45) on the side 2-3

(for = +1 ) gives

N 1

0

= 0 ,
0

N 2

N 3

(1 4 )( 1 + ) 2 + 2

= (b 4 )( 1 + ) 2 1

)
) ,

(1 4 )( 1 ) 2 2

= (b 4 )( 1 + ) 2 1

N 4

0

= 0 .
0

235

10. PLATE BENDING

This indicates that the displacement w , and hence the rotation x , are
uniquely determined by their values at nodes 2 and 3. If the element is attached to
another rectangular element at nodes 2 and 3, then w and x will be continuous
along the common side. Unfortunately, this is not the case with the rotation y .
The rotation y is given by (10.34)

y =

{ }

N 4 e
1 w
1 N
= 1 L
q .

a
a

(10.46)

Substituting (10.45) into (10.46) gives

N i ( , ) T

i ( i )

b
i ( i + ) 2 1 .
=

8
a ( 2 + 2 ) ( 1 + )
i
i

(10.47)

Evaluating (10.47) along = +1 gives

( 1 )

N1 T
= (b 8) ( 1 + ) 2 1

( 1 )

N 3 T
= (b 8) ( 1 + ) 2 1

(a 2 ) ( 1 + )

( 1 )

N 2 T
= (b 8) ( 1 + ) 2 1
,

(a 2 ) ( 1 )

( 1 )

N 4 T
= (b 8) ( 1 + ) 2 1

The above expressions indicate that y is determined by the values of w

and x at nodes 1, 2, 3, and 4 as well as by y at nodes 2 and 3. The rotation y is
not continuous across the side 2-3 and the element is non-conforming.
Substituting (10.43) into (10.4) and (10.8) gives
Ue =

1
2

{ q } [k ] { q },
e T

(10.48)

where the element stiffness matrix is

[ k ] = 12h [ B ]
3

and the strain-displacement matrix is

[ D ] [ B ]dA

(10.49)

236

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

2
x
2

[ B ] = 2
y

2
2
x y

1 2

2
2

1 2
N
=
2
2

2 2

ab

N ( , ) .

(10.50)

Substituting the shape functions from (10.45) and integrating gives the
element stiffness matrix

[k ]
e

[ k11 ]

Eh

=
2
48 1 a b

SYM
3

[ k12 ] [ k13 ] [ k14 ]

[ k22 ] [ k23 ] [ k24 ]
[ k33 ] [ k34 ]
[ k44 ]

(10.51)

where the submatrices have the following expressions

2
2 1

2
2
4 + + 5 (7 2 ) 2 + 5 (1 + 4 ) b

4 2 4
2

[ k11 ] =
+ (1 ) b
15
3

SYM

2 1
2 (1 + 4 ) a
5

,
a b

4
4

2
2
+ ( 1 ) a
15
3

2
2 1

2
2
(1 + 4 ) b
2 2 + 5 (7 2 )
5

2 2 4
2
2 1

[ k12 ] =
(1 ) b
(1 + 4 ) b
5
15
3

0
2 + (1 ) a
5

2
2 1

2
2
( 1 ) b
2 + + 5 (7 2 )
5

1 2 1
2
2 1

[ k13 ] = + ( 1 ) b
+ ( 1 ) b
5
15
3

0
( 1 ) a

2 2 + (1 ) a
5

,
0

2 2 1
2
(1 ) a
15
3

2 1

+ ( 1 ) a
5

,
0

1 2 1
2
+ ( 1 ) a
15
3

237

10. PLATE BENDING

2
2 1

2
2
2 2 5 (7 2 ) 2 + 5 (1 ) b

2 2 1
2

2 1
[ k 41 ] = 2 (1 ) b (1 ) b
5
15
3

2 + (1 + 4 ) a
0
5

2 1
+ (1 + 4 ) a
5

2 2 4
2
(1 ) a
15
3

and

a
,
b

b
.
a

The remaining submatrices of (10.51) are

[ k22 ] = [ I 3 ]T [ k11 ][ I 3 ] , [ k23 ] = [ I 3 ]T [ k14 ][ I 3 ] , [ k24 ] = [ I 3 ]T [ k23 ][ I 3 ] ,

[ k33 ] = [ I1 ]T [ k11 ][ I1 ] , [ k34 ] = [ I1 ]T [ k12 ][ I1 ] ,

[ k44 ] = [ I 2 ]T [ k11 ][ I 2 ] ,
(10.52)
where
1 0 0
[ I1 ] = 0 1 0 ,
0 0 1

1 0 0
[ I 2 ] = 0 1 0 ,
0 0 1

1 0 0
[ I 3 ] = 0 1 0 .
0 0 1

(10.53)

The above relationships are presented in reference [87].

In deriving this result, it is simpler to use the expression (10.36) for w and
substitute for { } after performing the integration. A typical integration is then of
the form

+1 +1

0
4
(m + 1)(n + 1)

m n d d =

1 1

m or n odd
m and n even

For p z = constant , substituting the shape functions into

{ f } = N
e

pz d A

(10.54)

and integrating, the vector of equivalent nodal forces is obtained as

{ f }= p

ab
T
3 b a 3 b a 3 b a 3 b a .
3
Stresses at any point in the plate are given by (10.5). In terms of the nodal
displacements they can be expressed as
e

238

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

{ } = z [ D ][ B ]{q e },

(10.55)

where [ B ] is defined in (10.50). The most accurate values are at the Gauss points
of a (2 2) numerical integration scheme.

10.3.2 BFS element (conforming)

A conforming rectangular element, of the form shown in Fig. 10.4,
commonly referred to as the BFS element (Bogner, Fox and Schmit - 1966), can be
obtained using products of separate one-dimensional Hermitian shape functions
(5.21) as for uniform slender beams. It is a four-node thin plate bending element.
The nodal expansion of the displacement function has the form (10.43)
with

N i ( , )

f i ( ) f i ( )

= b f i ( ) g i ( ) ,
a g ( ) f ( )
i
i

(10.56)

where

(
(

)
)

(
(

)
)

1
1
2 + 3 i i 3 , g i ( ) = i + i 2 + 3 ,
4
4
1
1
f i ( ) = 2 + 3i i 3 , g i ( ) = i +i 2 + 3 ,
4
4
f i ( ) =

(10.57)

in which ( i ,i ) are the coordinates of node i.

Unfortunately, when we examine the derivatives of these products we find
that the twist 2 w is zero at all four corners and that there is no constant
component to this second derivative. As this controls the shear strain in equation
(10.2), this violates the fundamental requirement that the element can represent all
constant strain states. In the limit, as an increasing number of elements is used, the
plate will tend towards a zero twist condition.
A compromise is to use the cubic Hermitian polynomials for the deflection
shape functions but reduce the order to linear for the rotation shape functions. This
element does have constant strain but is non-conforming, and discontinuities in
slope occur at interfaces. However, as the mesh is refined and the element size is
decreased, the results are convergent.
The solution used for the BFS element is the introduction of 2 w as
an additional degree of freedom at each node. In this case, the displacement
function is of the form (10.43) but with 16 terms

239

10. PLATE BENDING

{ q } = w
e T

wx y 4 , (10.58)

x1 y1 wx y1 L w4 x 4 y 4

where wx y 2 w x y and

N i ( , )

f i ( ) f i ( )
b f ( ) g ( )

i
i
=
.
a g i ( ) f i ( )
ab g i ( ) g i ( )

(10.59)

It can be shown that this element can perform rigid body movements
without deformation and can describe pure bending behaviour in the x- and ydirections. This is ensured by the presence in the functions (10.59) of the first six
terms in (10.33).
The element stiffness matrix and consistent vector of nodal forces are
given by (10.49) and (10.53) where the matrix N is defined by (10.43) and
(10.59).
Although the BFS element is more accurate than the ACM element, it is
difficult to use in conjunction with other types of elements in built-up structures
due to the presence of the degree of freedom 2 w x y . This is overcome in the
WB element (Wilson, Brebbia 1971) by introducing the approximations

wx y 2 =

1
x 2 x1 ,
2a

wx y 4 =

1
x3 x 4 .
2a

wx y1 =

1
y1 y 4 ,
2b

wx y 3 =

1
y 2 y3 ,
2b

Applying the above constraints to the BFS element makes it a nonconforming one. The transverse displacement and tangential slope are continuous
between elements but the normal slope is not.

10.3.3 HTK thick rectangular element

When the thickness is greater than about a tenth of the plate width, the
shear deformations become important and a Reissner-Mindlin plate model is
adopted. For a thick plate-bending element, the strain energy expression is (10.30)
and the potential of the external load is (10.21), with { } and { } given by
(10.24) and (10.26). The highest derivative of w , x and y appearing in these
expressions is the first. Hence, for convergence, w , x and y are the only
degrees of freedom required at the nodal points (Fig. 10.5).

240

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

The four-node HTK element (Hughes, Taylor and Kanoknukulcha - 1977)

expands separately w , x and y in terms of their nodal values. It represents the
shear deformation directly, without having to infer it as the derivative of the
bending moment.
The displacement functions are of the form
4

i =1

i =1

i =1

w = Ni w i , x = Ni x i , y = Ni y i ,

(10.60)

where the functions N i are defined by (9.3), that is

)(

1
1 + i 1 + i .
4

Ni =

(10.61)

These functions ensure that w , x and y are continuous between

elements.
In matrix form, expressions (10.60) can be written

e
=[N] q ,

{ }

(10.62)

where

{ q } = w
e T

x1 y1 L w4 x 4 y 4 ,

(10.44)

and

N1
[ N ] = 0
0

N1
0

0 L
N1 L

L N4
0
0

N4
0

0
0 .
N 4

(10.63)

Substituting (10.62) into (10.24), (10.26) and (10.30) gives

Ue =

1
2

{ q } [ k ] { q },
e T

(10.64)

[ ]

where the element stiffness matrix k e can be written as the sum of the matrices
due to bending and shear

[ k ] = [ k ] + [ k ].
e

In (10.65)

(10.65)

241

10. PLATE BENDING

[ k ] = 12h [ B ]
3

[ D ] [BB ] d A

(10.66)

and

[ k ] = h [ B ] [ D ][ B ] d A .
The strain-displacement matrix [ B ] is of the form
[ B ]= [ [ B ] [ B ] [ B ] [ B ] ]
S

(10.67)

B
1

B
2

B
3

B
4

(10.68)

0
Ni x
0
.

0
= 0 Ni y

0 N i x N i y

(10.69)

where

[ ]
BiB

[ ]
[ B ]= [ [ B ] [ B ] [ B ] [ B ] ]

The strain-displacement matrix B S is of the form

S

S
1

S
2

S
3

S
4

(10.70)

where

[ B ] = NN
S
i

i
i

x
0
y Ni

Ni
.
0

(10.71)

Substituting (10.61) into (10.69) and (10.71) gives

[ ]
BiB

0
i 1 + i 4a
0

= 0 1 + i i 4b
0

0 i 1 + i 4 a 1 + i i 4b

(10.72)

and

[ B ] = (1 +(1+ ) ) 44ba (1 + )(01 + ) 4 (1 + )(01 + ) 4 .(10.73)

S
i

Substituting (10.72) into (10.68) and the resulting matrices into (10.66)
gives the element stiffness matrix due to bending

242

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

[k ]=
B

E h3

48 1 2

[ ] [ k ] [ k ] [ k ]
[ k ] [ k ] [ k ]
[ k ] [ k ]
[ k ]

kB
11

ab

SYM

12

13

14

22

23

24

B
34

33

44

where the submatrices are

[k ]
B

11

= 0

[k ]
B

12

[k ]
B

13

[k ]
B

14

= 0

= 0

1
,
(1 + )a b

4 2 1
2
(
)
+

3
2

0
4
3

2 1
2
+ ( 1 ) b
2

1
(1 + )a b
2

1
( 3 1) a b ,
2

1
2
2
4 + ( 1 ) a

2
2 ( 1 ) b 2
3
1
( 3 1 ) a b
2

1
,
( 1 + )a b

2
2
2 1
(
)

3
2

0

2
2
2 1
( 1 ) b
3
2

1
(1 + )a b
2

0
0

1
= 0
4 2 + ( 1 ) b 2
3

1
0
( 3 1 ) a b

1
( 3 1) a b ,
2

2 2
2
( 1 ) a

3
0

and

a
,
b

b
.
a

(10.74)

243

10. PLATE BENDING

The remaining submatrices of (10.74) are given by relationships

corresponding to (10.52).
Substituting (10.73) into (10.71) and the resulting matrices into (10.67)
gives the element stiffness matrix due to shear

[k ]
S

[ ] [ k ] [ k ] [ k ]
[ k ] [ k ] [ k ] ,
[ k ] [ k ]
[ k ]

kS
11

E h3

=
48 S a b

SYM

12

13

14

22

23

24

S
34

33

(10.75)

44

where S = E h 3 12 G b 2 is a shear parameter similar to (5.97) and

[k ]
S

11

1 + 2 2b

= 2b 2 b 2
a
0

[k ]
S

13

0 ,
a2

1 2 2b

= 2b 2 b 2
a
0

[k ]
S

12

0 ,
a2

[k ]
S

14

1 + 2 2b

= 2b
2 b2
a
0

1 2 2b

= 2b 2 b 2
a
0

0 ,
a2

0 .
a2

The remaining submatrices of (10.75) are given by relationships

corresponding to (10.52).
The above expressions are presented in reference [87].
The vector of equivalent nodal forces is
pz

f = N 0 d A
(10.76)

A
0
For pz = constant, substituting the shape functions from (10.63) and
(10.61) into (10.76) and integrating gives

{ }
e

{ f }= p a b 1
e

0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 T

(10.77)

which means that one quarter of the total force is concentrated at each node.
The bending and twisting moments per unit length are given by

244

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

Mx

My
M
xy

h3
[ I3 ] [ D ] B B
=

12

[ ]{q },
e

(10.78)

where [ I 3 ] is defined by (10.53). The most accurate values are at the Gauss points
of a (2 2) numerical integration scheme.
The shear forces per unit length are
Qx

= h
Qy

[ D ][ B ]{q }.
S

(10.79)

The most accurate values are at the centre of the element.

Benchmark problems have shown that the HTK element yields accurate
solutions for simply supported or clamped plates. However, large errors can occur
in the case of cantilever plates.
The above analysis can be easily extended to 8-node or higher-order plate
elements. The bending strains in the 8-node version are recovered accurately if
sampled at the reduced (2 2) Gauss points. In very thin plates, the shear strains
become very small and near-zero values in (10.26) thus imply a dependent
relationship between w , x and y which is not true for thick plates. This is
avoided by selective integration, lowering the integration order for the stiffness
matrix due to shear. However, the standard (2 2) integration is reported to give
good results for width-to-thickness ratios up to 50.
There is no perfect rectangular plate-bending element. There are different
formulations using mixtures of corner and mid-side freedoms in order to achieve
near complete polynomials. Alternative methods, considering rather difficult to
generate a displacement function valid over the entire rectangular element, suggest
to subdivide the element into regions (e.g., into four triangles) and work with
different displacement functions over each region. Obviously, the individual
functions must be continuous (up to the first derivatives) across the interior
boundaries as well as the exterior boundaries.

10.4 Triangular plate bending elements

In this section we outline the development of some plate-bending
triangular elements.

245

10. PLATE BENDING

10.4.1 Thin triangular element (non-conforming)

Figure 10.6 shows the T element (Tocher - 1962). The local x-axis lies
along the side 1-2 and the local y-axis is perpendicular to it. Nodes 1, 2 and 3 have
coordinates (0,0) , (x2 ,0) and (x3 , y3 ) . There are three degrees of freedom at each
w
node, namely, the transverse displacement w , and the two rotations x =
and
y

y =

w
with respect to the local axes.
x

Since the element has 9 degrees of freedom, the displacement function can
be represented by a polynomial having nine terms, that is
w = 1 + 2 x + 3 y + 4 x 2 + 5 x y + 6 y 2 +

+ 7 x3 + 8 x 2 y + x y 2 + 9 y 3 .

(10.80)

Note that a complete cubic has ten terms so that the polynomial (10.80) is
incomplete. In order to maintain symmetry, the coefficients of x 2 y and x y 2 are
taken to be equal.

Fig. 10.6
The expression (10.80) can be written in the following matrix form

w= 1 x

x2

xy

y2

x3

(x

y + x y2

w = P ( x , y ) { } ,

y3

{ } ,

(10.81)
(10.81, a)

where

{ }T = 1

2 3 L 9 .

Differentiating (10.81) gives

(10.82)

246
w

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

1 x y x2
x y y2
x3

0
0
x 2y
=0 0 1
0 1 0 2 x y 0 3x 2

x2 y + x y2
x2 + 2x y
2x y y2

y3
3y2
0

{ }. (10.83)

Evaluating (10.83) at the nodal points gives

{ q } = [ A ] { } ,
e

(10.84)

where

{ q } = w
e T

x1 y1 L w3 x 3 y 3 ,

(10.85)

and the matrix

[A ]
e

1 0 0
0 0 1

0 1 0

1 x2 0
=0 0 1

0 1 0
1 x
y3
3

0 0 1

0 1 0

0
0
0
x22
0
2 x2
x32

0
2 x3

0
0
0

0
0
0

0
x2

0
0
0
y32
2 y3

0
x3 y3
x3
y3

0
0
0
x23
0
3x22

0
0
0

0
x22

0
0
0
y33
3 y32

x33

x32 y3 + x3 y32
x32 + 2 x3 y3
2 x3 y3 y32

0
3x32

0
0
0

. (10.86)

Solving (10.84) for { } gives

{ } = [ Ae ]

{q } .
e

(10.87)

Substituting (10.87) into (10.81, a) yields

[ ] { q }.
Unfortunately, the matrix [ A ] is singular whenever
w = P (x , y ) Ae

(10.88)

x2 2 x3 y3 = 0

(10.89)

and, therefore, cannot be inverted. If this occurs, the locations of the nodes should
be altered to avoid this condition.
This element is non-conforming. Evaluating (10.83) along the side 1-2, of
equation y = 0 , gives

247

10. PLATE BENDING

1 x 0 x2 0 0

x3

0
x 0
0
=0 0 1

0 1 0 2 x 0 0 3x 2
1 2

0
x2
0

0 { } .
0

(10.90)

The rotation x is a quadratic function having coefficients 3 , 5 and

8 . These cannot be determined using the values of x at nodes 1 and 2 only.
Therefore the normal slope is not continuous between elements. Moreover, the
assumed function (10.80) is not invariant with respect to the choice of coordinate
axes, due to the x 2 y and x y 2 terms.
The edge 1-2 was taken along the x-axis. In this case x is a tangential
component and y is a normal component of rotation. The transverse displacement

w and the normal component y are continuous between elements, while the
tangential component x is not. To alleviate this, in some plate-bending elements a
linear variation of the tangential component of rotation is adopted.
Substituting (10.88) into (10.4) and (10.8) gives
Ue =

1
2

{ q } [ k ]{ q }
e T

(10.91)

where the element stiffness matrix in the local coordinate system is

[ k ] = [ A ] 12h [ B ]
e

e T

[ D ] [ B ]d A

[A ]

e 1

(10.92)

and the strain-displacement matrix is

2y
0
0 0 0 2 0 0 6x

[ B ] = 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 2 x 6 y .
0 0 0 0 2 0 0 4 ( x + y ) 0
A typical element of the integrand in (10.92) is of the form

(10.93)

m n

y dA ,

which can be evaluated analytically.

The vector of consistent nodal forces is given by

{ f }= [ A ]
e

e T

T
P p z d A .

(10.94)

Note that nodal coordinates are usually given in global axes. Calculation of
the element stiffness matrix referred to local axes requires the local coordinates of

248

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

nodes 2 and 3. These can be obtained from their global coordinates using the
corresponding transformation matrix.
In order to assemble the global stiffness matrix, the element matrices have
to be first transformed from local to global axes through a matrix triple product
which is one of the more time-consuming procedures in finite element analysis.

10.4.2 Thick triangular element (conforming)

Consider a thick triangular element (THT element Henschel, Tocher,
1969) referred to a global coordinate system. Nodes 1, 2 and 3 have area
coordinates 1 , 2 and 3 (8.35). There are three independent degrees of freedom
at each node, namely, the transverse displacement w , and the two rotations X
and Y with respect to the global axes.
The displacement functions are assumed to be
3

i =1

i =1

i =1

w = i wi , X = i X i , Y = i Y i ,

(10.95)

where wi , X i and Y i are the degrees of freedom at node i. They ensure that w ,

X and Y are continuous between elements.

In matrix form, expressions (10.95) are written
w

=[N

]{ q e },

(10.96)

where the vector of nodal displacements is

{ q } = w
e T

X 1 Y 1 L w3 X 3 Y 3 ,

(10.97)

and
1 0 0 2 0 0 3 0 0
[ N ] = 0 1 0 0 2 0 0 3 0 .
0 0 1 0 0 2 0 0 3

(10.98)

Functions expressed in area coordinates can be differentiated with respect

to Cartesian coordinates using

249

10. PLATE BENDING

1 3

=
i
,

x 2 A i =1
i

1 3

=
i
,

y 2 A i =1 i

(10.99)

where i and i are defined in (8.8).

Substituting (10.96) into (10.24) and using (10.99) gives the straindisplacement matrix due to bending

[B ]
B

0 0 1 0 0
1
=
0 1
0
0 2
2 A
0 1 1 0 2

2
0
2

0 0
0 3
0 3

0 .
3

(10.100)

As this matrix is constant, the stiffness matrix due to bending is

[ k ] = 12h A [ B ]
3

[ D ] [ B B ].

(10.101)

Substituting (10.96) into (10.24) and using (10.99) shows that the straindisplacement matrix due to shear is

[B ]
S

1
2A

2A

0
1

1
0

2
2A

2A

0
2

2
0

3
2A

2A

0
3

(10.102)

Substituting (10.102) into (10.67) and integrating using the formula

m n p
1 2 3 dA =

m ! n!p !
2A
(m + n + p + 2)!

(10.103)

gives the stiffness matrix due to shear

[k ]
S

where

[ ] [ k ] [ k ]
[ k ] [ k ] ,
[ k ]

kS
11
= G h

SYM

12

13

22

23

33

(10.104)

250

[k ]
S

11

[k ]
S

13

[k ]
S

23

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

12 + 12

4A
1

=
6

1

0 ,

A
6

6
A
6
0

3 1 + 3 1

4A

3 2 + 3 2

4A

6
A
12
0

6
A
12
0

[k ]
S

12

0 ,

A
12

[k ]
S

22

0 ,

A
12

[k ]
S

33

2 1 + 2 1

4A

22 + 22

4A
2

=
6

2

23 + 32

4A
3

=
6

3

6
A
12
0

2
6
A
6
0

3
6
A
6
0

0 ,

A
12

0 ,

A
6

0 .

A
6

The complete element stiffness matrix is the sum (10.65).

The above relationships are presented in reference [87].
For pz = constant, substituting the shape functions from (10.98) into
(10.76) and integrating gives the vector of equivalent nodal forces

{ f }= p
e

A
1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 T

(10.105)

which shows that one third of the total force is concentrated at each node.

10.4.3 Discrete Kirchhoff triangles (DKT)

The difficulties to formulate simple (minimum degrees of freedom) and
high-performing elements based on the Kirchhoff theory at the continuum level
(which requires a C1 continuity for w ) led to the development of the so-called
Discrete Kirchhoff (DK) technique (Wempner-1969, Stricklin et al.-1969, Dhatt1967).

251

10. PLATE BENDING

In the formulation of various DK plate elements, only the bending strain

energy is considered, in which the curvatures are expressed, as in the ReissnerMindlin plate theory, in terms of the first derivatives of the rotations (10.24). In
this case only C 0 approximations of these rotations can be considered. The shear
strain energy is neglected.
The Kirchhoff constraints are imposed in a discrete manner on the element
or/and on the sides. For instance, the transverse shear strains are either taken equal
to zero at the mid-side points (collocation on sides) or their integral along each
edge is taken equal to zero. The aim is to preserve the C 0 continuity of the
tangential components of rotations (normal slopes). Constant curvature patch-tests
are needed to check the validity of the elements.
The T element presented in section 10.4.1 can be called a continuous
Kirchhoff triangle. It was shown that, along a side, the rotations vary quadratically
and their tangential component (normal slope) is not continuous between elements.
To remedy this, in the discrete Kirchhoff triangles the two components of
rotations are assumed independent of one another. The tangential component s is
assumed to vary linearly along each edge, while the normal component n varies
quadratically (Fig. 10.7, a). The latter condition means that the transverse
displacement w can vary cubically.

b
Fig. 10.7

For a side i j , of length l k , the tangential and normal components of

rotations s k and n k at the mid-side node k, are defined in terms of the
components along the coordinate axes by
s k ck
=
n k sk
where

sk x k

ck y k

(10.106)

252

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

ck = x j x i l k ,

sk = y j y i l k .

(10.107)

Consider a discrete Kirchhoff triangle (DKT) with three nodes and three
degrees of freedom per node (sometimes called DKT9).
Initially, it is assumed that it has six nodes (Fig. 10.7, b). Then, the degrees
of freedom at mid-side nodes are eliminated.
The rotation n varies parabolically (Fig. 10.8, a). Its expression in terms
of the dimensionless coordinate

s = s l k

can be written as

n = ( 1 s ) ni + s n j + 4s ( 1 s ) k .
At the mid-side node k

nk =

1
ni + n j + k ,
2

where the first term in the right hand side is expressed in terms of the rotations at
the corner nodes. The parameter k has to be eliminated.
The rotation s is assumed to vary linearly (Fig. 10.8, b)

s = ( 1 s ) s i + s s j .

Fig. 10.8
In order to eliminate the degrees of freedom at mid-side nodes, the three
parameters 4 , 5 , 6 must be expressed in terms of the degrees of freedom at
the corner nodes. This is done requiring the shear strains s z to vanish along each
side. One kind of discrete Kirchhoff constraint is formulated in integral form as
j

s z ds =

+ n d s = 0 .
s

(10.108)

253

10. PLATE BENDING

Equation (10.108) can be written

lk

dw +

ds = 0 ,

(w j wi ) + l k [ ( 1 s ) ni + s n j + 4s ( 1 s ) k ] d s = 0 ,
0

wherefrom we obtain

k =

) (

3
3
wi w j n i + n j ,
2l k
4

or, in terms of the degrees of freedom of the corner points

k =

) (

3
3
wi w j s k x i + c k y i s k x j + c k y j .
2l k
4

(10.109)

The equation (10.109) can also be obtained by adopting a Hermitian cubic

polynomial for w (s ) and using the discrete Kirchhoff collocation constraint (zero
w
shear strain) s z =
+ n = 0 at points i, j, k. Then, the condition s z = 0 will be
s
satisfied at all points along the contour, because w is cubical and n is quadratic.
The rotations x and y can be expressed as

x = N { x } + Px { },

(10.110)

y = N { y }+ Py { },

where

N = N1 N 2 N3 = 1 ,

{ x } = x1

x 2 x3 T ,

{ } = 4

{ y }= y1

y 2 y 3 T ,

5 6 T ,

Px = P4 s4 P5 s5 P6 s6 ,

Py = P4c4

(10.111)

P5c5

P6 c6 ,

P4 P5 P6 = 4 ( 1 ) 4 4 ( 1 ) .
Substituting (10.109) into (10.110) we obtain the explicit expressions of

x and y in terms of the corner nodal variables

254

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

x
=[N
y
where

{ q } = w
e T

] {q e },

(10.112)

x1 y1 L w3 x 3 y 3 ,

(10.113)

N 2x N3x ,
y
y
y
N1 N 2 N 3

(10.114)

Nx
1

[ N ] =

N1x = N ix1

N ix2

N ix3 ,

N1y = Niy1

N iy2

N iy3 .

(10.115)

In (10.115), the shape functions have the following expressions

N ix1 =

3
3
Pk sk +
Pm sm ,
2l k
2l m

3
3
Pk ck
Pm cm ,
2l k
2l m

3
3
Pk sk2 Pm sm2 ,
4
4

N iy2 = N ix3 ,

3
3
Pk sk ck + Pm sm cm ,
4
4

N iy3 = N i

N ix2 = N i
N ix3 =

N iy1 =

(10.116)
3
3
Pk ck2 Pm cm2 .
4
4

In the above expressions the indices k and m relate to the two edges having
the common corner point i, as shown in Table 10.1.
Taking into account the hypotheses adopted in formulating the DKT, the
nodal rotations x i and y i have the expressions used in Kirchhoffs theory
w

,
x i =
y i

( i = 1, 2, 3 )

,
y i =
x i

allowing the introduction of Kirchhoff-type boundary conditions.

Table 10.1
Corner point, i
1
2
3

Side k ( i j )

Side m ( i j )

5 (23 )

4 (1 2 )

4 (1 2 )
6 (3 1 )

6 (3 1 )

5 (23 )

255

10. PLATE BENDING

Because the parameters k are eliminated using an expression which is a

function of the nodal variables of the side k only, the continuity C 0 of n is
maintained.
The stiffness matrix of the DKT element can be expressed in explicit form,
in a local coordinate system [18], using a Hammer integration rule. In the
following, it will be derived in global coordinates as in [68].
Equation (10.112) can be split as

{ }

{ }

x = G q e ,

y = H q e .

(10.117)

The shape function row vectors G and H , presented explicitly in

terms of the local oblique coordinates and , can be rewritten as

G = 1
H = 1

2 2 [ G ] ,

(10.118)

2 2 [ H ] .

The curvature vector (10.24) is written for convenience as

{ }= y
x

x y

x
y

x
y

= 1

12 T .

(10.119)

The elements of the curvature vector can be expressed in terms of the rows
of the ( 6 9 ) matrices [ G ] and [ H ] as follows

}{ q e },

1 =

1
1 { X
2A

2 =

1
e
1 {Y } q ,
2A

12 =

1
e
1 { Z } q ,
2A

{ }

(10.120)

{ }

where A is the area of the triangle with vertices (x1 , y1 ) , (x2 , y2 ) and (x3 , y3 ) .
In (10.120)
2 G + 3 G
2
3

{ X } = 2 2 G 4 + 3 G 5 ,
G + 2 G
3 6
2 5

2 H + 3 H
2
3

{Y } = 2 2 H 4 + 3 H 5 ,
H + 2 H
3 6
2 5

256

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

2 G + 3 G + 2 H + 3 H
2
3
2
3

{ Z } = 2 2 G 4 + 3 G 5 + 2 2 H 4 + 3 H 5 ,
G + 2 G + H + 2 H
3 6
2 5
3 6
2 5

(10.121)

where G i and H i represent the ith row of [ G ] and [ H ] , respectively, and

i = y j yk and i = xk x j as in (8.8), with i, j, k taking values 1, 2, 3

cyclically.
Substituting for the curvature terms into the bending strain energy
expression
1
{ }T [ D ] { }d x d y ,
Ue =
(10.122)
2

where the material matrix [ D

Ue =

1
2

[ ]

has the form (10.13), U e can be written as

{ q } [ K ]{ q },
e T

where K e is the element stiffness matrix in global coordinates, given by

[K ]
e

[ X ]
1
=
[ Y ]

2A
[ Z ]

D11 [ R ] D12 [ R ] D16 [ R ] [ X ]

D22 [ R ] D26 [ R ] [ Y ] ,

SYM
D66 [ R ] [ Z ]

(10.123)

with
12 4 4
1
[ R ] = 4 2 1 .
24
4 1 2

(10.124)

[ ]

The matrix K e is of rank 6, so there are 3 deformation modes with zero

strain energy.
The integrations in (10.122) have the form
1

0 0

m n d d ==

m ! n!
.
(m + n + 2)!

The presented procedure avoids the matrix triple products needed when the
element stiffness matrix is given in the local coordinate system.

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Index
ACM plate-bending element
Admissible functions 144
Area coordinates 180
Aspect ratio 178
Assembly of global matrices
Axial effects 97

232

100, 151

Band storage 38
Bars 47
Bar element 47
Beams 79
Beam element 83
stiffness matrix 87
vector of nodal forces 89
Bernoulli-Euler beam theory 79
BFS plate-bending element 238
Compatibility 28, 150, 187
Conforming elements 150, 238, 248
Consistent nodal forces 214
Consistent vector of nodal forces 89
Constant strain triangle 153
Continuity 132
Convergence 97, 187
Coordinate transformation 19, 98
Deep beam 117
Direct method 26
Direct stiffness method 17
Discrete Kirchhoff constraints 252
Discrete Kirchhoff triangle 250
Displacement method 9
Effective shear area 118
Eight-node quad 208
Eight-node rectangle 178
Energy methods 131
Equation of equilibrium 199
Equivalent nodal forces, vector of
beam 90, 95
frame 98
constant strain triangle 160
linear quad 199

8-node quad 214

ACM plate-bending element 237
T plate-bending element 247
THT plate-bending element 249
Expanded stiffness matrix 29
External potential energy 140
Force transformation 20
Four-node rectangle 176
Frame element 97
Gauss points 200
Gauss quadrature 200
one-dimensional 200
two-dimensional 203
Gravity loading 217
Grids 111
Hermitian polynomials 85
HTK plate-bending element 239
Initial strain effects 59
Internal forces 35
Inverse of Jacobian matrix 196
Isoparametric elements 191
Jacobian matrix 195
Jacobian positiveness 223
Joint force equilibrium equations

31

Kinematic equivalent forces 47

Kirchhoffs hypotheses 225
Lagrange polynomials 220
Linear elasticity 123
Linear strain triangle 182
Master element

192

Natural coordinates 192

Nine-node quad 219
Nodal approximation 155
Nodal forces 55
Node numbering 37
Non-conforming elements 232, 245
Numerical integration 200

266
Object of FEA

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

1

Pascals triangle 220

Patch test 190
Plate bending elements 225
rectangular 232
triangular 244
Polynomial approximation 154
Principle of
minimum total potential energy
virtual displacements 134
virtual work 131
Quadratic strain triangle 185
triangle 222
Quadrilateral membrane element
eight-node 208
linear 191
nine-node 219

139

191

Rayleigh-Ritz method 143

Reactions 35
Rectangular membrane element 176
thin plate element 232
thick plate elements 239
Reduced global stiffness matrix 33
integration 205
Reference element 192
Reissner-Mindlin plate theory 229
Serendipity elements 209
Shaft elements 60
Shape functions
bars 50, 53
shaft 62
beam 85, 107, 120
constant strain triangle 157
four-node rectangle 177
eight-node rectangle 179
linear strain triangle 182
quadratic strain triangle 186
linear quadrilateral 193
eight-node quad 209
nine-node quad 221
six-node triangle 221
ACM plate-bending element 234
BFS plate-bending element 238
HTK plate-bending element 240
THT plate-bending element 248
Shear correction factor 118, 230
Six-node triangle 221

Skyline storage 39
Stiffness matrix 17
bars 17, 22, 52
shaft 61
beam 87, 94, 122
constant strain triangle 159
frame 98
grid 113
linear strain triangle 183
linear quadrilateral 199
eight-node quad 211
T plate-bending element 247
ACM plate-bending element 236
HTK plate-bending element 242
THT plate-bending element 249
Strain-displacement matrix 158, 236
relations 121
Strain energy 124 ..139
bending 231
shear 232
Stress averaging 161
Stress-strain relations 122
Subparametric elements 191
T plate-bending element 245
Temperature effects 124
Thick plate theory 229
Thermal loads 36
Thin plate theory 225
Total potential energy 140
Transformation of
differential operators 195
infinitesimal area 197
Triangle area 156
quadratic strain triangle 185
Triangular membrane element 180
linear strain triangle 182
quadratic strain triangle 185
six-node 221
Triangular thin plate element 245
thick plate element 248
Two-dimensional elements 153
Two-point formula 202
Unreduced global stiffness matrix
Virtual displacements 131
work of external loads 133
work of internal forces 193
WB plate-bending element

239

30