Pe fo Preece one tructural Steel =a Drafting Mp.MIZANUR RAHMAN. Davip MacLauGHLin Ratan Kumar Sikdec 0: Delmar Publishers e en International Thomson Publishing company 1E)P Albany + Bonn + Boston + Cincinnati + Detroit + London + Madrid Melbourne « Mexico City + New York + PacificGrove + Paris + San Francisco Singapore + Tokyo + Toronto + Washington :i ne — ontents Preface Acknowledgment .murnnn PART 1: STRUCTURAL STEEL DESIGN DRAWINGS FOR STEEL CONSTRUCTION 1 Chapter 1 Steel: An Economical Choice for Commercial and Industrial Buildings 1.1 Introduction — 1.2 Steel-Frame Construction — 1.3 The Economy of Steel-Frame Construction — 1.4 Fast-Track Scheduling — 1.5 Load Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) — 1.6 Summary — 1.7 Study Questions Chapter2 ‘The World of Structural Steel, 2.1 Introduction — 2.2 Steel as a Structural Material — 2.3 Common Structural Stee! Rolled Shapes — 2.4 The Manual of Steel Construction — 2.5 Open-Web Stee! Joists — 2.6 Stee! Joist Institute Load Tables —2.7 Summary — Study Questions Chapter3 The Structural Drafter at Work vs 3.1 Introduction — 3.2 Structural Engineering — 3.3 Desirable Characteristics in a Structural Drafter — 3.4 Essential Skills for a Structural Drafter — 3.5 Engineering Office Organization — 3.6 Summary — Study Questions Chapter 4 Reading Architectural Drawings for Steel-Frame Buildings .. eee 4.1 Introduction — 4.2 Architectural Symbols and Abbreviations — 4.3 Floor Plans — 4.4 Exterior Ele- vations — 4.5 Building Sections — 4.6 Wall Sections and Details — 4.7 Summary — Study Questions Chapter S An Overview of Basic Structural Steel Design Calculations ‘5.1 Introduction — 5.2 Basic Structural Design Considerations and Terminology — 5.3 The Design and Selection of Open-Web Stee! Joists — 5.4 The Design and Selection of W-Shape Beams and Girders —~ 5.5 The Design of Bear Bearing Plates — 5.6 The Design of Structural Steel Columns — 5.7 The Design of Column Baseplates — 5.8 Summary — Study Questions Chapter 6 ‘The Preparation of Structural Steel Design Drawings and Details 6.1 Introduction — 6.2 The Basic Objectives of Structural Design — 6.3 The Structural Grid System — 64 Structural Stecl Framing Plans — 6.5 Structural Stec! Sections — 6,7 Structural Steel Details — 6.7 Information Required on Structural Steel Design Drawings — 6.8 Summary — Study Questions Chapter 7 Structural Steel Sections and Details = 7.1 Introduction — 7.2 Common Features of Sections and Details — 7.3 Column-to-Baseplate Connec- tions — 7.4 Column Schedules — 7.5 Beam-to-Column Connections — 7.6 Beam-to-Girder Connections 17.7 Steel Joist-to-Column and Joist-to-Beam Connections — 7.8 Beam and Joist Pocket Details — 7.9 Summary — Study Questions — Student Activity PART 2: STRUCTURAL STEEL FABRICATION DRAWINGS FOR STEEL CONSTRUCTION 153 Chapter 8 An Introduction to Structural Steel Shop Drawings. 8.1 Introduction — 8.2 The Structural Designer/Fabricator Relationship — 8.3 Important Considerations in Structural Steel — Shop Drafting — 8.4 General Rules for Preparing Structural Steel — Shop Drawings —8.5 Summary — Study Questions 29 36 18 ut 155 liIv. Contents Chapter 9 Chapter 10 Chapter IL Chapter 12 Appendix A: Index: ‘Structural Connections.. soe 9.1 Introduction — 9.2 Structural Bolts — 9.3 Bolted Connections — Symbols — 9.5 The Design of Simple Fillet Welds — 9.6 Shop-Welded and Field-Bolted Framing Con- ‘nections — 9.7 Seated Connections — 9.8 Summary — Study Questions. Structural Steet Column Detailing .. 10.1 Introduction — 10.2 Initial Steps in Shop Detailing —- 10.3 Standard Procedures in Structural Sect Column — Detailing — 10.4 Features of a Typical Column Detail — 10.5 Example of Column Detail Drawings — 10,6 Summary — 10.7 Study Questions — Student Activity 207 Steel Beam and Miscellaneous Steet Detailing Structurs eee 11.1 [nroduetion— 11.2 Beam Detailing — 11.3 Detailing Pracices for Various Beam Types — 114 Mis- cellaneous Structural Steel — 11.5 Summary — 11.6 Study Questions — Student Activity Anchor Bolt Details, Anchor Bolt Plans, Steel Erection Plans, and the Field Bolt List. as 12.1 Introduction — 12.2 Anchor Bolt Details — 12.3 Anchor Bolt Plans — 12.4 Steel Erection Plans — 125 The Field Bolt List — 12.6 Summary — Study Questions Selected Steel Section Table. 249 267reface —— Structural steel is a very important part of architecture ‘The primary purpose of Structural Steel Drafting is to pro- vide students at both the associate and bachelor's degree levels with @ fundamental and practical knowledge of how structural stee! is used to construct support frames for modern commercial and industrial buildings. Special emphasis is placed on how structural drafters in both struc- tural design and fabrication offices prepare the working ‘drawings required to help transform the architect's vision into reality, The topics and illustrations presented in this text have been carefully chosen for students enrolled in their initial structural steel drafting and/or design course as part of an architectural, construction, or civil engineering related cur- riculum, An important and unique feature of Structural Steel Drafting is that it ties together in one book the relationship and interdependence between the types of drawings made in design offices and those prepared in structural fabrication offices. With this in mind, many practical examples of draw- ings produced by structural drafters in either career setting are provided throughout the text. The examples illustrate both manual and computer-aided (CAD) drafting methods to reflect the use of both techniques throughout the industry. ‘The author believes that, although the production of bath structural design and fabrication drawings will continue to move increasingly toward CAD, the computer, no matter how sophisticated, will always be a tool designed to enable drafters and designers who already know what they are doing to work more efficiently. Thus, itis strongly recom- mended that students of structural drafting, especially in the beginning, earn by the proven, methodical, manual method, which requires that they (the students), not the machine, do all the thinking. For this reason, considerable time is taken to acquaint the student with tables and reference information found in the American Institute of Steet Con- struction’s Manual of Steel Construction and Detailing for Steel Construction as well as Standard Specifications Load Tables for Steel Joists and Joist Girders published by the Steel Joist Institute Examples of typical design calculations presented in this text demonstrate the type of routine technical mathe- matics the entry-level structural drafter can expect to ‘encounter on the job. They are presented using the Allow- able Stress Design (ASD) method because the author believes ASD is most suitable for illustrating to the begin- ning structural drafting and/or design student “here the numbers are coming from" when determining the required sizes for structural components. The merits of Load und Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) are discussed, Because Saructural Steet Drafting is first and foremost a drafting book, complex structural design theory has been purposely avoided. It is assumed, however, that the student has had some exposure to basic drafting, algebra, trigonometry, structural and analysis, and/or strength of materials course work. The primary objective of this book is to broadly cover the subject of structural stecl drafting, emphasizing the process of preparing structural steel design and fabrication drawings for commercial and industrial building applica- ‘ions. To that end, the student is introduced to a wide varity of practical drafting examples and assignments that a siruc- tural steel design or detail drafter might expect lo encounter in an on-the-job situation, To whatever extent possible, itis also strongly recom- ‘mended that students supplement the material in Structural Steel Drafting by observing the erection of stecl-frame structures in their own communities. Developing an aware- ness of how the components of a steel-frame structure arrive, al the job site and are erected to become the support frame- work for a modern commercial or industrial building cannot bbe oversiressed for those training for a career in the reward- ing fields of structural steel drafting, design, and construction. David C. MacLaughlinro cknowledgments Charles Carter, American Institute of Stee! Construction John H. Crigler, PE, Bishop State Community College, Mobile, AL Reynold S, Davenport, Sandhills Community College, Pinehurst, NC James Dye, Houston, TX J. Ingram, Alexander, AR Bill Lawson, Rock Valley College, Rockford, IL Donald Liou, UNCC Department of Engineering Technology, Charlotte, NC Fithugh Miller, Pensacola Junior College, Pensacola, FL Raymond J. Nolan, PE, Middlesex County College, Edison, NJ Edward E, Talley, Pinson, AL vilart i - Structural Steel - Design Drawings for ~ Steel Construction[- — hapter 1 Steel: An Economical Choice for Commercial and Industrial Buildings OBJECTIVES Upon completion ofthis chapter, you should be able to: ‘+ understand the history and economy of stecl-frame constru + differentiate between fast-track and conventional, or linear, construction. ‘+ know why fast-track scheduling is usually more economical than linear scheduling. + identify the two design methods currently used to design structural stee! suppost systems for commercial and industrial buildings: allowable stress design (ASD) and load resistance factor design (LRED). 1.1. INTRODUCTION American architecture has historically evinced great- ness in form, function, size, beauty, and innovation. ‘The results have been as breathtaking as they are obvious. How many people have shielded their eyes from the sun as they stared up at the reflect facede of a tall office tower in one of America’s major cities? Who could help but be awed by the sheer size and beauty of the nation’s largest retail center, the 2.6-million square-foot Mall of America Bloomington, Minnesota? It would be a mistake to think that such architectural wonders are rare in modern-day America ‘The truth is that, in recent years, the skylines of eount- less cities and towns all over America have experienced tremendous change. Extremely dramatic, graceful, and exciting buildings of every imaginable size and description have become almost commonplace in cities such as New York, Chicago, Atlanta, Dallas, Detroit, Pittsburgh, and oth- ers foo numerous to mention. And, whether low-rise or high- rise, whether granite, brick, reflective glass, or insulated panel, the overwhelming majority of these showcase struc. tures are evidence of both architectural achievement and structural engineering largely made possible by the flexibil- ity, strength, and cost-effectiveness of structural steel 1.2 STEEL-FRAME CONSTRUCTION Steel-frame construction, in which a skeleton frame- work of structural steel supports the walls, floors, and roofs, is commonly used today in commercial and industrial buildings—not only in small one or two-story office build- ings and shopping malls, but even in such mammoth struc~ tures as the World Trade Center in New York and the Sears ‘Tower in Chicago. In fact, steelframe construction has made possible the moder multistory structures we so admire today. ‘As recently as the late nineteenth century, the height of buildings in the business districts of American cities was usually limited to four to six stories. That was because even though cast iron columns and wrought iron beams could be used for interior framing, the exterior walls of multistory buildings were still being constructed of heavy loadbearing masonry designed to support themselves as well as the adja~ cent floor and roof loads. With the acceptance of the passenger elevator in the late 1870s, taller buildings became more feasible, and by the early 1890s, buildings of ten stories and more were not ‘uncommon. However, as the structures grew in height, the loadbearing walls, of necessity, became ever thicker. ‘The 34 Part 1 Structural Steol Dealgn Drawings for Steel Construction economical limits of loadbearing wall construction were reached in 1891 with Chicago's sixteen-story Monadnock Block, whose external loadbearing walls were an astounding, six feet thick. Ironically, te first steel-frame structute, the ninestory Home Insurance Building, had been erected seven ycars before the Monadnock Block was built. Chicago architect iMiam LeBaron Jenny and civil engineer George Whitney had designed an innovative support system for the Home Insurance Building. The entice structure—floors, roof, and walls—was borne on a skeleton structural framework of beams, girders, and columns. FA. Randall's book, History Of the Development of Building Construction in Chicago, ‘contains the following quote from the July 25, 1896, issue of Engineering Record: ‘The principle of carrying the entte structure on a carefully balanced and braced metal frame, pro- tected from fire, is precisely what Mr. William LeBaron Jenny worked out. No ont anticipated him in it, and he deserves the entire credit belong- ing to the engineering feat which he waste frst to accomplish. ‘And so the structural steel skeleton frame was born. Structurai ste! had made possible a new way 10 support structures, and the potential was truly mind-boggling. No longer dependent upon heavy loadbcaring wals, tall build- ings suddenly beeame technically very feasible. Structural steel had quite simply revolutionized building construction, not only reducing load-carrying members (such as beams or columns) {0 minimum sizes, which made possible longer spans and lighter weights, but also creating a clear distine- tion betwen the siructural and nonstructural components of a building. Because exterior walls were no longer required to carry loads, the exterior facade could be a curtain wall of ‘glass, brick, or insulated metal building panels, with the ‘main function of protecting the interior ofthe building from outside elements. Led by the vision of architects such as ‘Mies Van Der Rohe, I. M. Pei, Helmut Jahn, and others, the Use of structural stee! frameworks to support beautiful and functional buildings of every size, shape, and description has become commonplace throughout the world, 4.3 THE ECONOMY OF STEEL. FRAME CONSTRUCTION From the very beginning, structural steelframe con- ‘avetion proved to be the mos! economical sitpport system for multisiory high-rise structures. But does this economy carry over into low-rise commercial and industhl facilites? ‘The answer is yes. Up until bout 1970, cost Sfaies found that low-rise commercial structures such as office buildings, schools, and department stores with superstructure of con- vemtionally formed concrete were often as economical as steel-frame construction, But in the early 1970s, rising labor ‘tosts made structural steel-framing systems even more eco- rnomical because they could be prefabricated in the shop and then quickly erected by relatively small field crews. By con- trast, cast-inplace concrete supersiractures requited more labor. When comparing the two methods, it was common to find savings of $1.50 f0 $2.00 per square foot or more by Using structural steel. For example, in 1975 the cost-per- ssquate-foot of floors and roofs framed in structural steel was an average of 12 percent cheaper than the cost of reinforced concrete, And by the 1980s, the cost savings had widened to fan average of more thar. 20 percent. To the present, structural stet framing systems con- tinue to be economical for virtually all ypes of commercial and industrial building structures. The two primary reasons, are: (I) increased speed of production made possible ‘through @ construction method called fast-track scheduling, and (2) lower cost of materials due to the implementation of 4 design method known as load resistance factor design 1.4 FAST-TRACK SCHEDULING Cerainly one ofthe major advantages of structural steel framing systems is speed of construction. Even on smaller, low-rise projects, steel framing systems can often be installed in 75 percent of the time required for castincplace concrete. Thus, ashopping mall or office building that might take 400 calendar days to complete using concrete framing could be completed in 300 days ifthe structural system were fabricated in stel. How is this possible? The answer lies in fasrsrack scheduling, also known as phased design and construction. Fast-track scheduling is more economical because various ‘phases ofthe construction process can be overlapped or con- Gensed, thus shortening the overall time required. This is an extremely important consideration in. multi-million-dollar construction projects because the owaer or developer must epay money borrowed for construction and the project can- ‘not begin to pay off until the property is leased. How can the fast-track method save time and money over conventional linear construction? Abrief comparison of the two methods will quickly ilustrate the financial advantages of fast-track scheduling for muli-million-dotlar commercial and indus- trial projects Linear Construction In linear design and construction, the phases of woik for a building project are arranged end-to-end, and eachChapter 1 Steel: An Economical Cholce for Commercial and Industrial Bulldings 5 jp DocuMENrs DETALED RWS: oo a CONSTRUCTION eemacroks $ T PRAGRRTRING | SCRENATE | [DEBIN raving ||beveLonwent Sez FouNDanoN ErROar Frawe rE Genera NECTRNER. ‘IME SaveD FAST TRACK z ROGER [SCHEMATE] [DEON [CONTENT BO] [CONSTRUCTION Pravin ||evexorwenr ||pocunenrs $ OTTERS LINEAR, Fig. 1-1 Fast-track diagram phase must be essentially completed before the next can begin. For example, the bidding package must be developed before construction can start. First the completed architec- tural, structural, and mechanical drawings must be sent out to contractors and subcontractors, each of whom then comes, up with a price (bid) specifying the exact charge for doing, the work. After that, the owner reviews the bids and selects the contractors. All of this takes time, during which the owner already has large sums of money invested in the building site, is paying interest on a substantial loan, and has not even been able to start the actual construction phase. Fast-Track Construction ‘The primary advantage of fast-track construction is that many activities can take place simultaneously, saving both time and money in the end because the construction period is held to a minimum. For example, in fast-track construc- tion, portions of the structural steel contract may have been awarded several weeks prior to the general contract. Thus, the first structural steel is being fabricated away from the job site while or before the foundations are being dug, and by the time the foundation is completed, the steel is at the job site, ready for erection, All this happens well before final decisions about some of the upper stories or roof framing have been made. With the structural steel and steel deck in place at the earliest possible date, the mechanical trades can ‘get an earlier start installing piping, ductwork, and elect ‘conduit. Such final decisions as the placement of partitions, lighting, and finishes are made at he appropriate times with- cout holding up construction of the building shell or exterior walls. This Keeps design options open longer and many times results in better design solutions. Figure 1-1 illus- ‘rates how overlapping various phases of design and con- struction using the fast-track method can result in substan- tial savings of time and money. Such savings can often ‘determine whether or not to actually go ahead with a project. Like any other design-build method, fast-track schedul- ing is not perfect. Problems can arise when construction starts before the owner knows the total cost of the building. For example, the owner or developer might overspend on the earlier stages of the project and have less money avail- able for later contracts. Design changes can also become very expensive if they affect structural or mechanical com- ponents already in place or already being fabricated. But generally, for all of its potential problems, a steel-frame structure put up with fast-track scheduling can be completed6 Part 1 Structural Stes! Design Drawings for Stee! Construction the earliest possible date, saving the owner or developer 35 much as hundreds of thousands of dollars 3 month in interest charges while at the same time bringing in earl rent receipts. The casvtime analysis of construction financ- ing has time and again led to the selection of a stel-frame superstructure for many of today's most’modem and imagi- native buildings. 1.5 LOAD RESISTANCE FACTOR DESIGN (LRFD) In recent years, many structural steel skeleton frame buildings have become even more economical asa result of ‘a new design procedure known as load resistance factor design (LRED). Although it seems unlikely that LRFD will replace the traditional allowable stress design method (ASD) for at least another decade, it has already proven to be @ rational design method that can result in a more economical structure under certain conditions, Perhaps the best way to discuss the economy of LRED is to compare it to the ASD method. Inallowable stress design, loads on a structural member (beam, girder, column, etc.) are analyzed, and the member selected is one with a cross-sectional area large enough so thatthe actual stresses produced by the load do not exceed allowable stresses specified in the AISC Specification. ‘These allowable or safe stresses are percentages of either the yield stress (F,) or the ultimate stress (F,) ofa particular grade of structural steel. For example, for grade A36 steel, historically the most common grade, the F, value is 36 ksi and the F, is 58 ksi. For ASTM AS72 grade'50 steels, which are becoming more common because of higher strength 2t an often minimal cost difference, the F, value of the most frequently used steel is 50 ksi and the F, is 65 to 70 ksi. The AISC Specification lists the allowable bending stress in a ‘notmally loaded, compact, braced structural member as 0.66 F, and the allowable shear stress as 0.40 F,, Thus, when designing a beam of A36 steel, for example, the allowable bending stress is 0.66 x 36 ksi, or 24 ksi, and the allowable shear stress is 0.40 x 36 ksi, of 14.5 ksi. These and other allowable stress values are found in te AISC Specification. ‘When designing structural members using the ASD method, engineers usually select the most economical structural shape, which keeps the computed or actual stresses within the allowable limits for tension, shear, bending, and so on. Load resistance factor design, also called the strength ‘method, uses a probability-based rationale in which working ‘ads are multiplied by load factors. The load factors are then applied individually for various loads such as Jead load, live load, wind load, and s0 on. The resulting factored Toads are used to design the structure, LRFD design meth- ods are widely used in the design of mid-rise and high-rise buildings. ‘The purpose of load facors in the LRFD procedure is to increase the loads to compensate for uncertainties in esti- mating their magnitudes. The value of load factors varies. For example, the load factor used for dead loads is smaller than that used for live loads because the weights of gravity dead loads, such as concrete floors, concrete block, brick, steel deck, steel partitions, and so on, can be much more accurately estimated than the weights of live loads such as, human occupants, stored material, and furniture, generally specified by building codes in pounds per square foot. This is especially true when attempting to estimate the greatest possible combinations of live loads likely to occur simulta neously. Determination of a critical design load using @ ‘combination of typical LRED load factors might be written: U (critical design or ultimate load) = 1.2D (dead load) + 1.6L (live load) + 0.55 (snow load) “The resistance factor part of LRFD is essentiaily an attempt by the designer to allow for inconsistencies oF luneertainties in design theory and construction practices, including steel production and fabrication. This is done by multiplying the strength of a structural member by a resis- tance factor (@). The values of resistance factors for various structural members, which are typically less than 1.0, are found in the. AISC Specification and vary depending upon the type of structurat member being designed, For example, $ is 0.90 for bending or shear in sicuctural beams, but 0.85 for columns. ‘When using the LRFD method, the designet essentially multiplies various loads by load factors that are usually ‘greater than 1.0 and compares these factored loads to the factored resistance in which the theoretical strength of the structural member has been reduced by an appropriate resi tance factor. The fundamental concept of the LRFD method is that the sum of the loads multiplied by their appropriate oad factors must be equal to or less than the member's the- ‘oretical strength (or resistance) multiplied by the appropri- ate resistance factor. 4 (loads x load factors) < resistance X resistance factor Much of the economy of LRFD derives from the fact that a smaller safety factor can be used for dead loads because they are more accurately determined, while in ASD the same safety factor is used for both dead and live loads. ‘Asa result the weight of siructural stel for LRFD-designed structures, especially in floor systems when live loads ate small compared to dead loads, is more costeffective than similar steel systems designed by the ASD method, For example, a study reported in the November 1991 issue of Modern Steel Construction found that using LRFD for typical office floor beams spanning 30 to 46 fect resulted in beams onie to two sizes lighter than those obtained using ASD procedures, and this was true for both grade A36 and A572 grade 50 high-strength steel, The same issueco Chapter 1 SI reported that builders of the Newport Office Tower, which is one of the tallest buildings in New Jersey and was designed using the LRFD method, realized a $2 million savings in steel costs, primarily by reducing beam and ‘irder sizes, Based on studies made as recently as 1994 by Thornton- ‘Tomasetti Engineers of New York City, which show that LRFD can often save an average of 5 percent of total steel tonnage on mid- and high-rise projects, it seems inevitable that LRED procedures witl be more widely accepted with the passage of time. However, in all fairness, it must be pointed out that steel weight economies between buildings designed by the ASD and LRFD methods depend heavily, "upon the ratio of live loads to dead loads, and in structures, with high dead-load to live-load ratios, almost no cost sav- ings result with LRFD compared to ASD. 1.6 SUMMARY This chapter has attempted to point out not only that structural steel framing systems have resulted in the design and construction of many of America’s most exciting and imaginative structures, but also that structural steel has been and will most certainly continue to be an economical choice for future commercial and industrial buildings. For design- ‘rs and drafters in structural design and fabrication offices, (or for people training for such employment, the best is yet to come due to the economy, flexibility, and strength of struc tural steel STUDY QUESTIONS 1, What is the relationship between the acceptance of the passenger elevator in the late 1870s and structural steel-frame construction? An Economical Choice for Commercial and Industrial Buildings 7 2, The economical limits of loadbearing wall construction were reached in 1891 in Chicago withthe construction of the Monadnock Block. How many stories high was the Monadnock Block? 3. At their thickest part, how thick were the loadbearing. exterior walls ofthe Monadnock Block? 4, Name the Chicago architect and engincer credited with designing the frst stee-frame structure, 5. When was the fist stel-rame structure erected? 6. Name an advantage of steel-frame structures over traditional foadbearing wall structures. Why have steel-frame superstructures proven more economical than conventionally formed concrete structures, especially since the 1970s? 8, Fast-track construction is generally considered an economical way to design and erect steel-frame buildings. How is this economy achieved? 9. Two structural stel design methods discussed in this chapter are the ASD and LRFD methods. What do the letters ASD and LRFD sland for? 10. In ASD design, the allowable (or safe) stresses are percentages of either the stress or the stress of a particular grade of structural 1 Steel 11. In the LRED procedure, what is the purpose of load factors? 12, Name three examples of dead loads. 13. Name three examples of live loads. 14, In the LRED method of design, why are the load factors for live loads a larger number than those for dead loads? 15. For people working as or training to become structural drafters and/or designers, the future looks very bright duc to the : and of structural steel.hapter 2 The World of Structural Steel OBJECTIVES Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to + understand steel as a structural materi \cluding its availability in various grades and shapes. “= properly use the Manual of Stee! Construction published by the American Institute of Stee! Construction, and know why this important publication is so widely used as a reference for designing structural steel buildings: and preparing structural steel design drawings. ‘+ describe the characteristics of open-sveb steel joists and the Steel Joist Institute load tables. INTRODUCTION The primary day-to-day responsibilty of the structural ‘rafter in any engineering office is to produce drawings that depict the structural framework of 2 building. Structural drawings must show the framing plans and details com- pletely enough that the ironworkers can understand what they are to do. Thus, drafting is realy a language the struc- tural drafting student myst master in order to make mean ingful drawings. Before attempting to make structural drawings, the suc- cessful drafter should have a basic knowledge of structural sleel. He or she must know the various strength grades of structural steel and the common structural stee} rolled shapes. A familiarity with the Manual of Steel Construction is also a prerequisite for a competent structural drafter or designer, as is an understanding of open-web steel joists and their uses in commercial construction, This chapter witl Provide the structural drafting student with this essential information 24 2.2. STEEL AS A STRUCTURAL MATERIAL Steel is a man-made material consisting primarily of iron (about 98 percent) and small quantities of carbon, sili con, manganese, sulphur, and other elements. Historically in the United States, molten iron was converted into steel by either open-hearth, basic oxygen, ar elecitic arc furnaces. Huge ladles of fluid steel were poured into ingots, rectangu. lar shapes with rounded corners that were immediately stored and seheated in underground furnaces called soaking. pits. The soft, white-hot ingots were then passed between heavy rollers in the primary rolling mills where they were converted into semifinished products called blooms, billets, and slabs. Next the blooms, billets, and slabs were sent to ‘other secondary rolling mills to be transformed into struc- tural shapes such as pipe, tube, bar, rod, and wire. In recent years, modern technological advances have highly automated steel-making. The continuous slab casting, process has eliminated both the conventional ingot opera~ tion and the primary rolling operation by producing a con- tinuous length of steel that can be cut into slabs. These slabs are then cut into various lengths for further processing at the secondary rolling mills, which still produce the various structural shapes. Figure 2-1 illustrates how the continuous ‘casting process is accomplished by the cvrved mold process at Bethlehem Steel Corporation, Grades of Structural Steel Structural stet is produced in a variety of grades and standard rolled shapes suitable for a wide spectrum of con- ditions encountered by architects and engineers throughout the United States and the world. Because the chemical eom-cm LADLE OF MOLTEN STEEL Chapter 2 Tho World of Structural Steel 9 STEEL SLAB IS. FORMED IN MOLD WATER SPRAY CHAMBER SLAB COOLS AS ITIS WITHDRAWN SLAB IS FLAME-CUT SLAB IS STRAIGHTENED Figure 2-1 Illustration of the continuous slab casting process at Bethlehem Steel Corporation (Courtesy of Bethichem Stee!) position of steel is directly related to its physical properties, steel producers are constantly striving to develop new grades of sieel with such qualities as higher strength, Breater corrosion resistance, and better welding capabilities, ‘hile still keeping the cost reasonable. As a result of this, research, several different grades of structural steel are available to the design professions, each having a unique ‘combination of properties and economy appropriate for a specific application, Carbon steels are the most economical grades, but they also have the lowest sirength or yield point, which is usually ‘measured in kips per square inch of eross section (ksi) (In structural engincering a kip is 1,000 pounds.) Higher strength, low-alloy steels are stronger than carbon steels, but they may be more expensive. For example, AS88 self weathering steel is a high-strength, low-alloy steel with about four to six times the corrosion resistance of all- purpose carbon stecl. It is not necessary to paint sclf- ‘weathering steel because the rust that forms on its surface acts as a cove, like paint, preventing deeper corrosion. This, grade of steel is considerably more expensive (about 30 per ‘eent more) than carbon steel, but life-cycle cost analysis often shows weathering steel to be more economical than painted carbon steel because it does not require painting or maintenance, The various grades of structural steel are Society of Testing and Materials, commonly referred to as the ASTM, ASTM A36. An all-purpose carbon stecl, is the most widely used structural steel for commercial and industrial building construction. This grade of stecl, which has a yield stress level of 36 ksi, has excellent welding and machining characteristics, thus is ideal for making welded and/or bolted connections. A36 is also the most economical ofall structural steels on a cost-per-pound basis. At least 50 per~ cent of the structural steel presently used for commercial and industrial building construction in the United States is ASTM A386, ASTM A572. A higherstrength steel, is another popular grade of structural steel used in building construction. Like A36, this high-strength, lownalloy steel may be bolted or ‘welded. It is available in four minumum stress levels: 42 ksi, 50 ksi, 60 ks, and 65 ksi grades. Since AS72is stronger than ‘A36, using it often results in lower costs because heavier loads may be carried at longer spans by lighter beams. This translates into cost savings because fewer footings are required, and erection time ean be eut down. ASTM A5BB. A corrosion-resistant, high-strength, low- alloy steel with a yield stress level of 50 ksi, is a self- vate10 Part 1 Structural Stee! Design Drawings for Steel Construction — [x my ee a | | oo 0 concen Figure 2-2. Common structural steel shape: weathering grade of steel. The “weathering” characteristic is brought about because this type of steel contains a smal! amount of copper that, when exposed to the atmosphere, oxidizes to produce a thin film of reddish-brown rust, called a patina, on the surface. This film of rust, which is only a few thousandths of an inch thick, prevents further oxidation and eliminates the need for paint. However, this steel does not wear well if subjected to saltwater, continually sub- ‘merged in water, or exposed to very dry desert conditions because wet and dry cycles are needed in order for the pro- tective coating of rust to form. ASTM A514. Is an extremely strong quenched and tem- pered alloy steel with minimum yield stresses in the 90 to 1100 ksi range, but itis produced only in plates and bars. ASTM A242. Is a corrosion-resistant, high-strength, low alloy steel available with minimum yield stesses of 42, 46, and 50 ksi. ASTMAS29. Isa carbon ste! with a minimum yield stress level of 42 ksi, but its availability is limited to certain shapes ‘of plates and bars one-half-inch thick or les. A discussion of structural stel shapes would be incom- plete without mentioning ASTM A7, a rade of carbon stee! now obsolete but used very frequently during the 1940s and 1950s when a great many connections were riveted. This steel, which had a minimum yield stress of 33 ksi, was excellent for bolted and riveted connections, but it did not hhave good welding characteristics, especially when mem- bbers were more than one inch in thickness. With the advent ‘of more advanced and economical welding techniques, ‘especially shop welding, it became necessary to develop grades of siructural steel with better welding properties. ‘This led to the development and use of A36 steel, which is stronger than the old A7 and has excellent welding and ‘machining properties. However, structural steel draflers and designers should be aware of grade A7 steel because many structures constructed of this grade of steel during and after ‘World War 11 are still in use. Thus, if an older structure is being remodeled, a load that required an 18”-deep wide- flange beam of A7 steel in the 1950s can now be supported by a smaller and much lighter W-shape of high-strength AST2 steel. 2.3 COMMON STRUCTURAL STEEL ROLLED SHAPES Having looked at the various grades of modern struc- tural stel availabe to the structural drafter and designer, we will now discuss the common shapes or sections in which structural stel is produced. It is important to know these shapes because the design and erection of structural stee! frames to support commercial and industrial building essentially a matter of developing the most economical assembly of these standard rolled shapes. ‘Structural steel shapes are designated by the shapes of their cross-sections, and these designations are used to ‘cate structural steel members (beams, columns, etc:)on both design and shop drawings. Figure 2-2 illustrates many of the most commonly used structural steel rolled shapes.S-Shape ‘The S-shape, commonly called American Standard ‘Beam or L-beam, is rolled section with two parallel flanges connected by a web. These sections were the first beam sec- tions rolled in America, but they are no longer widely used in building construction, S-shape beams have relatively nar- row flanges whose inner surfaces are sloped at a pitch of 2 to 12, The designation S15 x 42.9 would indicate an $ sec- tion exactly 15” deep and weighing 42.9 pounds per foot of length. W-Shape ‘The W-shape is the most commonly used structural shape, The W-shape has all but replaced the S-shape in the construction of commercial and industrial buildings because very efficient and economical due in large part to its design. W-shapes have large moments of inertia around their principal axcs, making them ideal for flexure as, for exam ple, a beam supporting floor loads. Also, most of the areas of Weshapes arc in their flanges, which arc more laterally stable because they are thicker and wider than S-shape flanges. The inner and outer surfaces of the top and bottom flanges of a W-shape, unlike the S-shape, are essentially par- allel. The top and bottom flanges are connected by a thin web designed to provide resistance to shear. Like the S- shape, the W-shape is designated by ts depth and weight per linear foot, but the depth designation is usually approximate. For example, while a W16 x 40 is actually 16” deep and weighs 40 pounds per foot of length, a W16 x 26 is actually 15.69” deep, and a W16 x 89 is actually 16.75” deep. The variation in actual depth of W-shapes is a feature structural Grafters and designers must always keep in mind when designing or drawing structural steel support systems. HP-Shape ‘The HP.shape is similar to the W-shape except that itis much heavier and the web and flange thicknesses are equal. Also, with HP-shapes, the width of the flange and the depth of the section are approximately equal. HP-shapes are made with very thick webs and flanges to resist the impact of pile- driving hammers because they are used primarily in pile foundations and only occasionally as building columns. C-Shape ‘The C-shape, or American Standard Channel, consists of a web similar to a W-shape and two tapering parallel flanges, However, with C-shapes, the flanges extend on only ‘one side ofthe web, making them ideal fo use as stringers for steel stairs or for framing floor openings and stairwells. The flanges are also very narrow. The flange ofa C15 40, which is exactly 15° deep and weighs 40 pounds per linear foot, is only 3 1/2” wide, Chapter 2 The World of Structural St M-Shape and MC-Shape Meshapes are essentially lightweight W-shapes, and (MC shapes are miscellaneous channel sections that cannot be classified as American Standard Channels, For example, an MCI2 x 10.6 isa very light channel shape often used for stair treads in industrial buildings. M- and MC-shapes are often not as readily available as other shapes, so the drafter or designer should make sure they can be obtained before specitying their use. L-Shape ‘The L-shape is a rolled ste! section called an angle. ‘The angle is shaped like an L with horizontal and vertical “legs” at right angles (90°) to each other. The inner and outer surfaces of each leg are parallel, and an angle section ‘may have legs of either equal or unequal length. L-shapes| are designated first by the length of cach leg and then by the leg thickness. For example, and L-shape designated as L4 x 4x 1/2 indicates both legs ace 4” long:and 1/2” thick. The designation LS x3 x 1/2 indicates an unequal-leg angle with the long leg 5” long, the short leg 3” long, and the thickness of cach leg 1/2”. When specifying an unequal-leg angle, the longer leg is always specified First. Angles are commonly used for framing connections, erass-bracing, and construct ing lintels over doors and windows. WT-, MT-, and ST-Shapes Ctied siractral tes, these shapes are made by split ting a We, Me, or Sshape longitudinally, usually at id= depih, Thus, the designation WT9 x 25 indicates a structural tee et from a WIS x50 witha stem depth fom tip of stem to the top of the flange surface of 9” and a weight of 25 pounds per linear foot, Structural tee shapes are sometimes used as lintels and often as the top and bottom chords of pre~ fabricated trusses, P- and TS-Shapes Steel pipe and tube steel (TS-shapes) are widely used as columns, although rectangular TS-shapes are also used as beams. Pipe is designated as Pipe 3 Std., which would mean a standard 3” (nominal diameter) steel pipe. The TS shapes are rolled in square and rectangular shapes. The designation ‘TS4 x 4 x 375 indicates a square structural tube 4” x 4” with a wall thickness of 375”. A designation of ST10 x 4 x 250 would indicate a structural tube section 10” wide on ‘one side and 4” wide on the other, with a wall thickness of 250”. For one-story structures such as offices or restaurants, 3” steel pipe and TS4 x 4 tubes make excellent columns because they can be easily hidden within interior and exte- rior walls,12 Part t Structural Stee! Dosign Drawings for Stee! Construction PL-Shapes and Bars Plates and bars are rectangular shapes .250° or more in thickness. Bars are usually classified as 6” of less in width, and plates as 8” of more in width, The American Institute of Steel Construction recommends specifying plate size first, by the thickness and then by the width. Bar size should be expressed by the Width followed by the thickness. Thus, a 16"-square x 1/2"‘thick column baseplate would be speci- fied as PL. 1/2 x 16 x 16, while a beam-bearing plate made of flat bar stock would be designated as 6 x 1/2 10. 2.4 THE MANUAL OF STEEL CONSTRUCTION The Manual of Steel Construction, published by the American Institut of Steel Construction (AISO), isthe most widely used source of information for designing and draft ing steel-framed buildings. A thorough acquaintance with this invaluable handbook is absotutely necessary for anyone smployed in a siructural design or fabrication office. The ‘manual is essentially a reference book that gives detailed information on how to make design calculations and design of shop drawings in siructural steel. Divided into six parts, the manual contains charts, tables, and other drafing and design aids that will be discussed throughout this text. The AISC now publishes two versions of its manual: cone based on ASD (Allowable Stress Design) and another based on LRFD (Load Resistance Factor Design). For this text, we have chosen to use illustrations from the ninth edi- tion of the ASD Manual of Sizet Construction, Although both the ASD and LRFD methods are used in design offices, ASD is the most prevalent at present and is sufficient forthe routine calculations performed by entry-level drafters, espe- cially on smaller projects. Also, familiarity with ASD design methods provides an excellent background from which to progress on to LRFD concepts, “The following discussion of the organization of the Manual of Stee! Construction is intended as an overview of the wealth of material available in either the ASD or the LRFD edition of this important book. Part 1 Part 1 of the manual contains tables of dimensions and properties for all the standard structural steel shapes supplied by the industry. Tables designated W-Shapes Dimensions, Channels American Standard Dimensions, ele, list all the dimensional information necessary for making design of shop drawings of structural steel systems. Tables designated W-Shapes Properties or Channels American Standard Properties, etc. list properties such as se modulus, moment of inestia, and radius of gyration, which are important factors in designing and selecting structural components capable of resisting the forces that act on a steuctural support system. Jn Part 1 of the manual, tables giving the dimensions and properties of structural shapes are placed on facing ages. Thus, a drafter or designer tentatively selecting a 'WIB x 50 beam to carty a given load may quickly check the ‘manual to find that this structural W-shape is 18” deep and has a web thickness of 3/8°, with top and bottom flanges ‘each 7 1/2" wide and 9/16” thick. Scanning across to the table of properties on the adjacent page, the designercan see that the section modulus of a WI8 x 50 is 88.9 in? and the moment of inertia is 800 in' ‘Appendix A of this text contains selected Allowable Stress Design Selection Tables and Steel Section Tables for use with design problems in subsequent chapters of this book. However, any structural drafting or design student should also have access to the latest Manua! of Steel Con- struction, Table 2-1 shows one of the Dimension and Prop- erties Tables for W-shapes found in Part 1 of the AISC Man- tual, which has similar tables for M-shapes, S-shapes, HP shapes, American Standard and Miscellaneous Channels (Card MC-shapes), angles (L-shapes), structural tees, com- bination sections, stel pipe, and structural tubing. Table 2-1 shows a few key features of the dimension table. First, notice that the W-shape dimensions are given in both decimal and fractional forms. The fractional dimensions are accurate enough for making structural drawings, while the decimal dimensions are tobe used with the hand caleula- tor or computer when performing design calculations. For instance, in designing a beam for vertical shear, it is important to know the actual unit shear stress on the web of the beam because, according to the AISC specification, the vertical shear stress on a beam made of A36 steel should not exceed 14,400 psi (pounds per square inch). To show how to use the dimension table, we wil! assume that a W18 x $0 beam has a shear-producing reaction at one ‘end of 45,000 pounds and that we want to investigate the beam for shear. From the dimension table, we can see that the actual depth (d) of a W18 x 50 W-shape is 17.99", while the thick- ness of the web (t,) is 0.355". The atea of the web (A,,) is. the product of the actual beam depth times the web thick= ness. Thus, the area of the beam web can be expressed: Ay = ly £17.99" x 0.355" « 6.38 intco Chapter 2_ The World of Structur Hae Table 2-1 Table of dimensions and properties of structural steel shapes Y 4 ‘ hy jk T ¢) xt-x |r W SHAPES Dimensions web ame Dstane Desior | area | depth | Thickness | | wisn | tcmness | T] x | & tration A a 4 2 4 u ne [in [| on ca wisxsiry a1 |z232| zu | vszo li [x | r2008]12 | aro fan [r51 fom | waa 452 | 2185 | 2% | 1400 [1 | | 11800] 1% | 2500 | 2% | ts | Sv | x2ae| 753 | at45| 01 | 2m [tn | | H1770| t1% | 2300 | ave | 15 x2oee 3 | 21.08| 26° | 60 tem | 12090 114 | atta lene | 15% seire eB | boar | 0m | tae | | ‘ea xiga| 54 | 2035] 20m | 0360 1 | 1% xi7s| 513 | 2008 | 20" | 0800 | % | % 15% iss | 483 | f972| f9¥ | caro | a) me isn vias 42 | ta4a| ton [ao| | 15h xerme| 982 | 1925] 19% [0870] tal 13% wraxtsa] 351 | raa7| 19 | osss! x |e | 14205 | tr | s000 fave | 57] | ve ~ios | 311 | 1873] s8% [0500 | se ve | 1200] tH | 00 | el tse | | oe x'ar| 255 | soso] tom [050s | ¥2| ¥ | tas |e eave | | ex re | 16 x 66 | 253 | ta30| ten faao| x’ [inom [tin or] a |tsaline | 76} 223 | 192i | ser [0405 |v [995/11 | 0560] | 8M [1H | ie wiex 71 208 6% |ouss | |x | res] m%/ 0810] ys) 5 [rm | % 65 | 191 | 1835] se% [0450 | vel % | 7600) 7m | 0750) x | tsa tm | x 00] 17 | 1926] tov [oais| vel x | 7555) | 0005| onl isi| tm | se x 85] 162 | 1811 | tox [0990 | | | 7590] 7% | 0800 | w "| ts] tm | x80 | 147 | 1799] 18" Joass| % | He | 495] 7a | 0570 | ou | 130 [100 | wrax a6] sas | 06 | 18 |oa00| x |v | e060] 6 |asos| x | sx) 1 x40 | 118 | 1790 | 47% [oats | ve) | oors| 8 loses] o¢ | ism [ime = 35] 103 | 1770| 47% [0300 | va) 30 | ooo] 6 | o4as| gu | ten [ise wrsxtoo| 204 | 1697] 17 | 0585] ve! xe | 10425 | 10% [oes |1 | rv | ie | v'a9| 262 | 1675 | x | osas| | | soaes| tom faars| m [am t4e | 1 x7 | 226 | 4052 | 16% | 0455 | | | to2es | ton | 0700 | 3b % x &| 197 | 1020] tom [0295 | | Hs |tozas ton | o9es | © ee Wrox 57] 168 | 1043] 10% | 0400] 2% | r120) | o718| 17 10m | % 60 | 447 | 1828] ter | 0360 3 | | Taro] 7% | ogso | 5 | tan | 9h x43] 183 | sora] tom [0306 | % [yu | 7a25] 7] 0965 | au | axel ne x40 / 18 | 1801 | 18" [0305 | S| | ame] 7 loans | or | aml ae x 35] 105 | 1505] 15% | 0205] | % | 6565) 7 | 0490 | Ye | Som [TH (Courtesy of the American Institute of Steel Construction Ine.) Steal 1314. Part 1 Structural Steel Design Drawings for Steel Construction Table 2-1 Continued ea wsHapes of x-f-x |r Properties te y | te a Baste Popertis wae |g eK a 4 Ts ttitst a In. tat [in | in| | in? | in, [ in? | nd 303 = jaro ‘uge | 27500 | 1450 | 15 1730 [208 | 390 | 1660 | 325 359 = |ou 4.11 | zeae } 1320 | 15.4 | 1570 [188 | 3.67 1510 | 252 38 = | 64 1121 | 22500 | 1210] 15.3] 420) 179 | 2.8 | 1300 | 265 300 = | x9 4131 | 20300 | s410 152 | 1300 | 156. | aan] 1260} 21 200 = Jas 4449 | 18000 | 1020 | 15:1 | 1200] 144 | 81 | 1170 0 = [az 1152 | 17300 | 959 60 1090] 132 | 3.78 | 1080 | 204 25, = hss 1182 | 16100 roi0} 123. | 375 | 1010 | 190 Zo <|a2 7s) sean | a7 | 149] o1o]sta 3.79] 049 | 176 26 | as} — |oe0|4a4[ar4| 177 | 16900 | 295 | 149] sae] 065] 265 | vos )s37 zzz | a9 | — [x27 [36a | a11| 195| 15000 | 00} 148) a8) 772] 262] G06 | 122 20 | ag | — | 42 [338/200 | 22% | ra200] rio] s45| a] 675/250] 839 | 107 aoe } aa | — | 477 |290| 307 | 230]| 12100 | ee4| r48] 375] o19] 286] 767| 97.7 a2 | 51 | — | 501] 253) 305] 285 | 11900 | 2s| r45| 347] 576] 285) 716] 907| 470 | 55 | — |se2|za3|304| 273 ] 10800] s80| 145) so | so2| 255] 666! eas) te | 59 | — [554] 215 | 302] 204| 9750 | se2| 144] 295) a1} 230) sae | 775 130 | 64 | — | 524] 0 | 290/318 | 9040 | 504 | 143/ 270| 45:1] 247] 581] 709 435 | 76 | — |503| 188] 200 | 3:77 | 7000] 439140) 25) 37.7/ 298] S00] S07The actual shear stress on the web of the beam (f,) is qual to the magnitude of the reaction (V) divided by the area of the web (A,,), as shown in the following equation: £, = VAy = 45,000 pounds/6.38 sq. in. = 7,053 psi Because the allowable shear stress on a W-shape of A36 steel is 14,400 psi, the beam is adequate for shear. ‘This is only one example of how the dimension table in Part 1 of the Manual of Steel Construction is used to per- form design calculations, Another point the student might notice is that a W18 beam is not always 18” deep; it might bbe more or less than 18”. This type of information is vitally important to structural drafters and engineers as they draw structural steel support systems that must fit together cor- rectly atthe job site. Part 2 Part 2 of the manual is specifically intended to help the drafter/designer design and select beams, bear-bearing plates, and girders. Included are tables, charts, and other information needed to determine the most economical beam ‘or girder for a given foad. An example of one of the tables found in Part 2 of the manual is the Allowable Stress Design Selection Table for shapes used as beams. Using this table, the most economical beam for a given condition can be quickly chosen once the designer has determined either the maximum bending moment produced by a beam’s loading, or the required section modulus. Table 2-2.is portion of the Allowable Stress Design Selection Table from the ninth edi- tion of the Manual of Steel Construction. In examining Table 2-2, the student should note the col- umn on the far right, which lists the M, (maximum resisting ‘moment in kip-ft) that a particular rolled W-shape beam can develop. This is important because most of the time, the ‘governing factor in beam selection is to choose a beam that has a section modulus equal to or greater than the required section modulus and is capable of developing a moment of resistance greater than the calculated maximum bending moment, Two exceptions to this general nile might be (1) the design of roof support systems where relatively light, foads may be supported on relatively long spans, often caus- ing the beam deflection to become the governing design fac- tor, or (2)the design of a beam to support a very heavy, superimposed load on a very short span. For this latter con- On, the allowable vertical shear stress of the beam could well be the governing factor in the design and selection of the beam. Chapter 2 The World of Structural Stes! 15, Tr illustrate the practical use of the Allowable Stress Design Selection Table, we will assume structural analysis has indicated that the maximum bending moment imposed ‘on a beam by a load is 164 kip-ft. and that we will be using A36 (F, = 36 ksi) steel. Looking at the M, column in Table 2-2, we see in the lower right-hand comer of the right-hand page that a W14 x 48 is capable of developing an M, of 139 kip-ft, which is not adequate to resist the 164-kip-ft. bending moment. By reading up the M, column, we find that the M, values grad- wally increase. For example, atthe top of the frst group of Weshapes, we see that a W21 x 44 has an M, of 162 ki ‘This is still not equal to or greater than the 164-kip-ft. bend- ing moment, but we are getting closer. Continuing up the page, we see two beams grouped together, each of which has an M, greater than our 164 ft bending moment. Obviously, either ofthese beams would bee suitable, but the WI8 x 50 is 15 pounds per linear foot lighter than the W12 x 65, thus is more economical and would normally be the beam selected. On the other hand, if space considerations should require more room to run HVAC ducts or pipe between the underside of a floor and a suspended ceiling below, the W12 x 65 would be the better choice. It should also be pointed out that the section modu- lus column in this table (the S, column) lists the section ‘modulus value ofthe various beams in ascending order, sim- ilar to the M, column. Therefore, as previously stated, ‘beams could be sclected based either on the required section modulus of the maximum resisting moment. ‘The grouping of the W-shapes on the Allowable Stress Design Selection Table is also very important. Some group- ings consist only of one or two beams, while others contain as many as eight. But in every case, the Weshape in bold print at the top of the group is always the lightest and thus the most materially economical beam in its group since structural steel is sold by the pound, It should also be pointed out that other factors besides the weight of steel are involved in achieving true overall ‘economy. For example, connection cost is a function of labor, and labor cost is the driving force behind project cost in today’s construction industry. Thus, if selecting the light- est beam necessitates more complex connections, ceonomy has not been achieved, Or, to go back to a previous example, if selecting a W12 x 65 rather than a W18 x 50 would leave ‘more room for the mechanical piping and HVAC ducts, that ‘could result in a more economical HVAC system and a more ‘economical project overall,16 Pert Structural Steel Design Drawings for Steel Construction Table 2-2 Allowable stress design selection table ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN SELECTION TABLE For shapes used as beams Shape Ww t8xe0 Ww 10x60 w 16x40 ae wraxso [ran | — | as 128 wraxas [tam | — | 84 128 wioxse | 10% | 625 | 106 n9 wiaxas [12 | — | as. a5 wroxas [im | — | a3 6 wisxas | 18% | 640 | 74 a2 wraxas [tan | — oz 108 wioxas | 10 | sa0 | 108 108 wi2zxao [12 | — | 84 103 wioxas [tom] — | 85 7 wrxse [a | — | 71 [ 102] 06 wrexst | 15% se] 71] 99 wraxas | 12% 69 | 26 | 90 wioxas | oa| — | sa] is] 69 wraxso [asm | ssa] m1] a7] oa wiaxso [im | — | 69] 108] 76 wiex2e [ism | — | se| 60) 76 wrexze | 13% s3| 70] 70 wioxss | 9% aa] res | 69 wraxee [12% | 579] eo | 94] 66 wioxso [10%] — | er ]iar| 64 waxss | on | eee] 95 | 226) 62 wraxze [im | — | sa] 56] s7 wroxes [1% | — | er] ra] 55 wexar | 6 | soo] s4| 201] se wrx fim! — | 43] 64] 50 wax |e | — | 69] 175) 4 wroxee [1% | — | 61] 4] a6 wrx [12% | — sa] 42 wx ft | — ao] 4 wo axze | 7% | 64.4 sz] 4 wroxie | 10% 72| 37 woexat | om) — ne | 36 (Courtesy of the American Institute of Stee! Construction Inc.)Chapter 2 The World of Structural Steel 17 Table 2-2 Continued ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN SELECTION TABLE For shapes used as beams Ss, ey owe], ae ea tee | eine Shape oj }u ta Tm eRe] SAAS ORI || b> fo | ksi] [| kip ae! Wax 7 (zm | — | 95] uel oe ae | wiextoo | 17 | — ff iso | 2et | 347 E wraxros | 14% | 580 |] 154 | os | 343 waxes jam | — || aa | isi | 530 wiex es j tax | — | i7 | ats | 20 wrax 99 | 4% | 485 || 154 | 370 | ont wrx 69 | 1% | — | 109 | 250 | aor w 24x 68 95 | 102) s05 Watx 73 80 | 134 | 209 Wax 78 116 | 198 | 209 wiax 90 | 14 | 404 153 | 60 | 203 warx os fam | — | a7 | 326] az wiex 77 | 16%] — | 109 | are | 205 weex 62 [2am] — | 74] ar | ase watx 2 Jar | — |) ar] a2] ast wiex 71 | 1%] — || or] ass | ast Wise 32 107 | 201 | 206 Wi2x 87 128 | 362 | 234 Wit@x 65 80 | 144 | 22 Wi8% 67 105 | 199 | 22 Ww 24x 65 70 | 75 | 26 Wide 74 ros | aso | 202 wax 57 9 | 94 | 220 W18x 60 80 | 133] ais wrax 79 | t2% | e26 |} re | a3 | 212 wraxes [14 | — [tos | 239 | 204 wrx ss |r| — | zo | ia | sas wiax 72 | 12% | 523 || 127 | 205 | 190 warx 50 | 20% 18 | 107 wrex 57 | 16% | — 143 | 183 Wiax oF | 13% ais | 183 wiex so fie | — 110 | 176 wiax 6s | 12% | 430 arr | 174 warx 44 | 20%} — | 66} 70} 162 wiex so | tez| — | 75 | 127 | 160 wiex4e lia | — | os | 94 | 158 wiax se | 12m) — | 106 | 26a | te wrx sa [tse] — | as | iz7 | 54 wiex 45 | ve~| — | 74 | ina | sae Wiex ss | 12" | 559] 106 | 220 | 140 wiax 8 | iam] — | as | 160 | 19918 Part1 Structural Stee! Design Drawings for Stee! Construction OPEN-WEB STEEL JOISTS WELDED TO GIRDER AT 2-0°106-0" OC. CONC. FLOOR ‘STEEL DECK GIRDER () 3/4" DIA. SHEAR STUDS CONC. FLOOR STEEL DECK GIRDER ENCASED ~ GIRDER, IN CONCRETE © Figure 2-3 Methods of lateral beam support Another important feature of the Allowable Stress Design Selection Table is that data for W.shapes of higher- strength steel (F, = 50 ksi) is shown in shaded columns, In the example previously discussed, a bending moment of 164 kip-ft. could easily be resisted by a WI6 x 40 using the higher-strength steel, which would be 10 pounds per foot lighter than the required W18 x 50 of A36 steel, ‘The Allowable Stress Design Selection Table also has two columns listed L, and L,, respectively. Land L, refer to the tequired lateral support of a beam. (If the compression (top) flange is not properly supported, a beam may fail by lateral (sideways) buckling or deftection.) Most load tables in the manual assume that @ beam has adequate lateral sup- port. The L, factor is the maximum unbraced length of the compression flange of the W-shape at which the allowable bending stress may be taken at 0.66 F, (24 ksi for A36 stee!), and the L, factor is the maximum length at which the allow- able bending stress may be taken at 0.6 F, (22 ksi) Figure 2-2 illustrates three common methods of pro- viding lateral support to W-shape beams and girders. In steel joist construction, the open-web joists are welded to the top flange of the W-shape at 2'-0" to 6-0" on-center as shown in Figure 2~3a. Assuming the joist spacing does not exceed LL, concrete on steel deck that has been properly fastened to the top flange of the W-shape beam or girder below with puddle welds will generally provide the required lateral sup- port of the top flange and thus brace any beam. Figure 2-36 illustrates composite construction in which steel studs are Welded to the top flange of the W-shape beam or girder through the steel deck. Because the studs are spaced closely together along the length of the beam, continous lateral support is provided, In Figure 2-3c, the entire beam or Birder is encased in concrete, which again provides continu- (ous lateral support. This type of construction is very often found in heavy industrial buildings such as paper mills and power plans. Looking at the W18 x 50 previously discussed, it can be seen on the Allowable Stress Design Selection Table that, is listed at 7.9 ft. and L, at 12.0 ft. Thus, if joists are being welded to the top flange of the W18 x 50 a either 7-0" on- ‘center fora floor system or 4’-0" to 6'-0" for a roof system, the full value of 24 ksi in bending can be used ‘Another helpful table in Part 2 of the manuals entitled Allowable Uniform Loads in Kips for Beams Laterally Sup- ported. This table is illustrated in Table 2-3. Notice that, at a span of 16 feet, a W18 x 50 can support a load of 88 kips (88,000 pounds), while at a span of 24 feet, the allowabie tuniform load drops dramatically to less than 60 kips. ‘Also useful in Part 2 of the manual is the table called Allowable Moments in Beams. This table is for tentatively selecting a structural steel beam in which the unbraced length between lateral supports is greater than L., To illus- trate how this table is used, we will assume we have already determined that the maximum bending moment due 10 load is 164 kip-t. However, in this case, we will assume that the lateral supports along the beam are 12-0" center- to-center, and we will make a tentative beam selection using the Allowable Moments in Beams chart illustrated in Table 2-4. “To locate a point on the chart. find the 16¢-kip-f. ‘moment line on the left side of the chart and move horizon- {ally tothe right along that line until it intersects witha ver-Chapter 2 The World of Structural Stee! 19 Table 2-3 Allowable uniform loads for beams . wie BEAMS F, = 36 kal W Shapes : Allowable uniform loads in kips - for beams laterally supported For boars laterally unsupported, seepage 2-148 Desanaton Wis Wis = wa pA Te [oo [oe [me |e 1 1% | perecion Fanos Wa TH | TH | Lm TA |e |e |e ih Pa CC ee Gps [a] a3 | tea | tio | 940 [320 | 670 3 iss] é se | vee Fie] ts +| 250 | ca | ove | 20a | ree Ie tse | 130 | 97 fest] ase tae [iss | tre | ise | tas | ia | 00 cf 8| 220 | Sos | feo | tes | ie | tas | Ho | tor) 10) Sor | tes | am | ise | tar | tas | ioe | ‘ot | ta ; 11] 19a | 168 | 156 | s42 | rz | ts9 | 8 | as | 47 ia| fee | tee | 3 | 30 | tf ) toe | S| Be . 43) 85 | 18 | 12 | io | tm | ‘S| | mo] wa) ta | tae | ie | ae fae | as | | | a 43| i3¢ | tae | ta | toe | ‘oe | a] 2 | 8] 3 33) igo | 6 | iar | ‘Se | a | | & | SS w7| 11a | 109 | 11 | a2 | as | ro] oe | se] a8 ~ wa| te | tes | ‘ss | ar | te] 3] so | St] ae 18| 10 | ‘S| oo | a | | os] | &] % lis | | | %| me) 2] & |e] 8 ala| el ela| @) &] s/s) ae} & is glee) a) e&) we) a) al a) oe) a] oe alcl| a} 7 | nm} | es] 2] 3] 2] x elzi al 2) &) | #] 6) 2) 8) 2B i} gla| 2| |e | | 2) se] so |S] ve e282) 7) 8/5) 2) Fe) e) S) Ss) is L els) | 8) o) a) se) x) | io 3/8) 2) 8) 8) ao) 2) a) 1 ze] so| s: | 42] 43 | a] a5| 20 | a5 | 17 BS) 8) 8) 8) 2) 8) 2) 2) ie | @| | 3 | | ei] x | 2| B| 2k - 2] 2) &1 8) 2) Si] 2) 2) 2) ae @) 8) 2) 8) 8) 2] 8) 8) A] eet ‘Load above heavy ne limited by maximum allowable web ehear. (Courtesy of the American Institute of Steel Construction Inc.)20 Pert 1 Structural Steel Design Drawings for Steel Construction ALLOWABLE MOMENT (0.5 kip-ft. increments) 2000: 1978: 195.0. 1925. 190.0. vers. 1850} 1925 1800: 1775 1750 1728: W700 1675: 165.0. 1625 1600: ss7s ft ssf: Table 2-4 Allowable moments in beams LUNBRAGED LENGTH (0.5 ft. erements) (Courtesy of the American Institute of Stee! Construction Tne.)tical line going up from the 12’ unbraced length line at the bottom of the chart. Any beam whose graph lies above and to the right ofthat point will be able to resist the 164-kip-ft. bending moment. The nearest solid line graph designates the lightest or most economical shape, which in this instance turns out to be a W18 x 55. Notice that the graph line for the 'W18 x 50 beam, located to the left of the point, is no longer suitable to adequately resist the 164-kip-ft. bending moment now that the 12’ distance between points of lateral support exceeds the L, distance of the W18 x 50, Other useful charts, tables, and information in Part 2 of the Manual of Steal Construction include data on the design ‘of beam-bearing plates, which will be discussed later in this text, and information on plate girders, composite design for building construction, and beam diagrams and formulas. Part 3 Part 3 of the manual is intended to assist in designing structural steel columns and column base plates. Like Part 2 concerning beams, Part 3 contains helpful tables such as Allowable Stresses for Compression Members and several tables of Allowable Concentric Load on Columns, which are available for W- and S-shape columns, steel pipe columns, structural tubing columns, single and double angle columns, and columas made of structural tees. Table 2-5 shows the allowable concentric load in kips on standard stee! pipe columns. Part 4 Part 4 of the manual discusses the design of bolted and welded structural steel connections, which will be discussed in more detail in subsequent chapters, Again, the manual contains many helpful tables to simplify the design of stan- dard connections. Part 5 Part § of the manval is devoted tothe specifications and codes relating to structural steel design, fabrication, and erection, including the RCSC (Research Councit on Struc- tural Conaeetions) Specitcation for Structural Joins using ASTM A325 oF A490 Bolts, Part 6 Part 6 of the manual contains mathematical tables and data on miscetlancous subjects such as trigonometric for malas, engineering conversion factors, equivalent tables for Chapter 2 The World of Structural Stee! 21 decimals of an inch end decimals of a foot (which are very helpful for inserting feet and inch dimensions from draw- ings into design calculations), coefficients of linear expan- sion for various construction materials, and weights of ‘building materials for use in calculating loads on structural framing systems (Table 2-6), 2.5 OPEN-WEB STEEL JOISTS In structures such as office buildings, schools, and hotels where loads are moderate and spans between supporss, relatively long, itis not always economical to use the stan- dard roled structural W-shapes to directly support the floors or roof. This is because, if loads are very light, a standard W- shape will either be stressed exceptionally low and thus be inefficient or will be subject to unacceptable deflection at the longer spans. To solve this problem, special types of small, standard, prefabricated steel Warren trusses called open-web steel joists are often used to support floors and roofs, Open-web joists are generally made of light structural members such as angles, round bars, and channels. Figure 2-4 shows a detailed example of an open-web stee! joi with a double-angle top chord and web and a flat bar end bearing plate. Open-web steel joists are very economical structural members. Since the Webs of these joists are open they are able to span long distances with considerable less dead-load weight than a W-shape beam. Their strength is derived from the depth to which they can be fabricated, even though their chords and webs are relatively light. Another advantage of using steel joisis is that the open web often makes it possi- ble to run plumbing, electrical lines, and even small HVAC ‘ducts directly through the web itself, resulting in a savings of floor-to-floor height and weight. The cumulative effect of {his savings can be considerable in multistory buildings. Open-web steel joists are manufactured in a variety of shapes, For instance, they may be furnished with underslung fends, square ends to facilitate column bracing or ceiling applications, or extended ends beyond the bearing plate to support overhanging roofs (Figure 2-5) Joists used to support floors generally have parallel top and bottom chords to keep floors as level as possible. Open-web stecl joists are also available with the top chord pitched 1/8" per foot in one or two directions to facilitate roof drainage. It is common for steel joist manufacturers, {o provide their joists with an upward camber to compen- sate for deflection under load. The camber varies from22 Part Structural Stee! Design Drawings for Steel Construction. (Courtesy of the American In ‘Table 2-5 Allowable concentric loads on columns Fy = 36 kal COLUMNS Standard steel pipe Allowabie cancentric loads in kips ‘Nominal Oia. 42 a 6 5 4 3% 3 Tannese on [ae] we | obo wasr oa Pose wr [ow teatasterteetomt sts] t 2a opp pea sees slwfolmlwlelelels t}e lig) ml] w]e} a) e |e SRB RRL] ays S/B(B\S) Se els] s S|Ble lel else) s |e siml@lelelalelales E\S(Slel ele] s lee S)B\/B)e8/ele]e} 3s] 3 f /8)/B/ Ble) elels/e] s 3 18 | 276 | 220 | 145 oe | 8 | 3 2 4 Plelmlalwelels|a2le) 2 Blels| s/s] a) 3) 8 i BBE) Re) ells Bis | a) a)s a a B lalmlmlmlele s z 24 | 248 | se5 | 111 st) 2 | 13 2 )s/#/ Ble] s) se 4! : /8)8| 8) 2) | 2 # 2/2) 8] 2) 518 zlmlele]e|z g/m) S| 8) els ele] 8] 8 z)m) 8] 8) 2 e|@) a) a) 3 gle |e |g be glee] 8 Span |e ap hase A fin?) Tap] ts] 940 | 558] 400] 317 | 260] 223 mar” | a) el S| STS] Sy a] fie’ | 2B] ab] Bb) Bh) GLa] a] a}tentes — | osa0 | 0366 | osoo | o8s7 | a7 | aver) sxz | 120 ang ai7 | 239 | 108 | 421 | 226 | 108 | 0.717 | 0467 on rt 0 {_Note: Heavy tne ncceneg Art itute of Steel Construction Inc.)Chapter 2 The World of Structural Stee! ‘Table 2-6 Weights of building materials, WEIGHTS OF BUILDING MATERIALS, wi ween we onic Tens ATTN Te sede a Bie spumiee | soortoum| 2 g Pooch ee : 7 7 ie z po au oes ae tad | OFF o% ee 7 i widlowes 4 fat lasagna ; ae | Tae 7 al ; uae 5 Deambeceat || eee : wus ee sue Pee in s Lr ge eierece tata! ween 1 Fre aca : ie » roors an 7 ee it gues at er che | Mticroeaaet alse feos i oo. : i 7 aay aoe 3 i 2 os ‘Shingles {Load Bearing) wo ; 7 7 Lm ‘ 7 7 ae 7 ie 7 seeaneg Sea an $ ae aft eects ote cts Sain : Te * peta as vedsin th, eae _ ee eels “e aes ot | Seats: ae ai Eanes 3 For weights of ethor materials used in bulding construction, see pages 6-7 and 6-8 (Courtesy of the American Institute of Steel Construction Inc.) 2324 Part 1 Structural Stee! Design Drawings for St. Figure 2-4 K-series open-web steel joist (Courtesy of Bothiohem Steal) ~S Figure 2-5 Joist with extended toe chord (Courtesy of Bethiehem Stee!) approximately 1/4” for a top chord length to 20'-0" 0 81/2" for a top chord length of 144'-0" (Figure 2-6). ‘Open-web steel joists are manufactured in three cate- ‘gories. The standard K-series, which replaced HLseries joists in 1986, is available in depths from 8” to 30” and is recom- ‘mended for spans from 8’-O" to 60'-0" in length. Longspan steel joists the LH-series are manufactured in depths from 18” to 48” and may be used for spans of 25'-0" to 96'-0". Deep longspan joists, the DLH-series, ate available in depths of 52” to 72” for spans of 89'-0" to 144-0". The KCS joist, introduced in 1994, is a versatile K-series joist that can be specified for special loading conditions 40 sup- port uniform loads plus concentrated and non-uniform Toads. However, KCS joist selection requires the designer to calculate the maximum bending moment and shear stress imposed by load. In addition tothe standard categories of open-web stee} joists, joise girders, which are open-web steel trusses, heve become very popular in recent years. Joist girders are widely used to support equally spaced concentrated loads from standard open-web steel joists supporting floors or roofs. Standatd joist girders are manufactured in depths of 20” to 72" for span lengths of 20'-0" to 60'-0" between columns. However, deeper depths for longer spans may be specified, with joist girder spans of up to 100-0" and more not uncommon. 1 Construction When calling for open-web steel joists on structural design drawings. the proper convention isto list first the depth of the joist in inches, then the series of the joist, and finally a section number tht relates to a relative size chord For example, a joist specified as 24K10 would be a 24”- deep, Kcseties joist, with a #10 relative size chord. The chord size, denated by the last digit, is significant for the designer when determining bridging requirements The method of designating joist girders is somewhat different from that used for open-web steel joists. The stan- dard way to designate joist girder i to lst first the depth of the girder in inches, followed by the number of spaces between Toads, and then the kip load at each panel point Figure 2-7, taken from an actual project, calls for a joist girder 96” deep (96G). with 16 joist spaces at 6-2" center- to-center (I6N) and 2 9.6 kip load at each panel point (8.6K). Recommended loads for all open-web joists and joist girders aze based on a maximum allowable tensile stress of 30 ksi. 2.6 STEEL JOIST INSTITUTE LOAD TABLES ‘When open-web joists or joist girders are to be used, the designeridrafter usually consults the most current Standard Specifications Load Tables and Weight Tables for Steel ‘oists and Joist Girders, a publication of the Steel Joist insti tute (SID. The Steel Joist Insitute formed in 1928, isa non- profit organization of steel joist manufacturers whose main function is to establish cons'stent ste! joist standards based upon SII specifications Table 2-7 shows one of the many helpful tables found in the SJ oad tables the K-Series Economy Table. The fr three rows across the top ofthe table list the joist designa- tion (10K1, 12K1, 8K1), the joist depth in inches (10", 12", 8°), and the approximate weight of the joists in pounds per linear foe (5.0, 50, 5.1). The Ibs/ft. row is the most signit- icant part ofthis table because, reading across the table from left 10 right, the open-web stet joists are listed progres- sively, not by their depths but by their weights in pounds per Tinear foot. Because sructural ste! is usually sold on a cost- per-pound basis, the joists are listed—in progressive ‘order—by their costs, of “economy” “The far left column of the economy table shows the spans recommended for various joists, and the column under each joist lists two numbers in individual boxes that core- spond to a span length. The upper number in bold print is the total recommended uniform load capacity of the joist in pounds per linear foot (dead load + live load) that the joist can safely suppor. This number should never be exceeded. ‘The lower figure in each square denotes the live loads in pounds per linear foot the joist can support without exceedChapter 2 The World of Structural Steel 25 UNDERSLUNG: ‘SQUARE ENDS PARALLEL CHORDS Unoersuunc ‘SQUARE ENDS. ONE-WAY PITCHED TOP CHORD UROERSLUNG TWO-WAY PITCHED TOP CHORD Figure 2-6 Types of open-web steel joists JOIST GIRDER 96G IGN 9.66 16 SPACES @ 2" DEK BGK 9EK 9.6K 9.6 9.6K BGK 9.GK 9.6K BGK 8.6% BGK 9.6K 9.6K 9.65 | 8-8 NO SCALE Figure 2-7 Joist girder designation ing a deflection of 1/360 of the span. This is the maximum deflection permitted for floor loads. For example, the economy table tells us that, at a span of 24’, a 14K K-series joist can take a maximum total load of 295 Ibs/ft, but if the joist is to support a floor (maximum, deflection 1/360 span), the maximum live load should not, exceed 165 Ibs/ft. Methods for determining dead loads and live loads and properly writing up the design calculations for open-web steel joists will be discussed in subsequent chapters. Part of the selection process for steel joists includes specifying the number of rows of bridging required to stabi- lize the joists against lateral buckling at various spans. For this, the SJ Bridging Table is very helpful (Table 2-8). ‘To use the bridging table, the designer/drafter simply looks at the section number in the far left column. Reading down the column to #4, which corresponds to the last i (4) of the 14K¢ joist selected on the economy table, we sce that a span of over 19 thru 287 requires two rows of bridg- ing. Thus, if a 14K4 open-web steel joist had been selected26 Part1 Structural Steo! Design Drawings for Steal Construction Table 2-7 K-series economy table for steel joists K-SERIES ECONOMY TABLE 23, [ [an [oo [on [2 [we [wa [oe [00 [|e [oe [ime [ioe iow [ae wean [or [ae on [on] . er eee eae eed at et oo , ; mElarlivaceiee f . 8 330 : = oo He 550 480 +e ele = z acces: = i Bo - : See aetna — = ae a ago pa ee a phe ele . ae - oo. | a . =H ae - - . = a # i Hk as a ow ii bet 52g | 96 160, 276_| 138 130 402 = oe a 2 2 = ae aE - oS BES 3s = a: aces See # _ Ba ee a ie - grates 7 epee ee - me 79_| 106 58 181_| 103 | 149_| 138 221 cod 86. 96 | 123 vga | 2. iz6_| 79 # ee we iA @. e7_| i 138_| 101 130} ita ge s é tee ee tefon e ws = ay a isl my 405, az = re aH ae al Le to : : = 70. Es a2 303, 8 e a : = t Bo # = }-4$2- Bt ind ce (Courtesy of Stee! Joist Institute)Chapter 2 The World of Structural Steel 27 Table 2-8 Bridging table for K-series for open-web steel joist NUMBER OF ROWS OF BRIDGING** Foter to the K-Series Load Table and Specification Section 6, fr required bolted diagonal bridging Cistances are dost Span lengths ~ See "Definition of Spar" preceeding Load Table. "Section 1 2 3 4 5 Number Row Rows Rows Rows Rows “ Up thru 16’ | Over 16° thru 24" | Over 24" thru 28" 7 Up thru 17" | Over 17" thru 25" | Over 25" thru 32 8 Up thru 18" | Over 18° thru 28’ | Over 28" thru 38” | Over 38” thru 40” Up thru 19° | Over 19" thru 28’ | Over 28" thru 38” | Over 38° thru 43° 5 Up thru 19 | Over 19" thru 29° | Over 29" thru 39’ | Over 39° thru 50’ | Over 50° thru 52” #6 Up thru 19° | Over 19° thru 28° | Over 29° thru 39’ | Over 39 thru 81° | Over 51" thru 56? " Up thru 20' | Over 20" thru 33° | Over 33° thru 45” | Over 45° thru 58’ | Over 58° thru 60° #8 Up thru 20° | Over 20’ thru 83” | Over 33° thru 45’ | Over 45" thru 58’ | Over 58° thru 60! a Up thru 20" | Over 20’ thru 33” | Over 33° thru 46’ | Over 46° thru 59° | Over 59° thru 60° mo Up thru 20’ | Over 20" thru 37° | Over 37’ thru 51’ | Over 51! thru 60" a Up thru 20" | Over 20" thru 38° | Over 38° thru 63” | Over 53) thru 60’ #2 Up thru 20" | Over 20’ thru 39° | Over 39° thru 53° | Over 53) thru 60 * Last digit(s) of joist designation shown in Load Table “* See Section §.11 for additional bridging required for uplift design. (Courtesy of Steel Joist Institute) to support a load at a span of 24’, two rows of bridging would be required. 2.7 SUMMARY This chapter has acquainted the structural drafting stu- dent with structural steel as a material, introduced some of the more common structural steel shapes used to create steel support systems, and explained the American Institute of Steel Construction, the AISC Manual, the Stee! Joist Insti- tute, and the SII load tables. Open-web steel joists and joist agirders have also been discussed because they are often inte- gral parts of the support system for commercial, public, and industrial buildings. Subsequent chapters will go into more detail about designing and selecting shapes and joists for ‘workable steel support systems and preparing the necessary design and fabrication drawings for contractors, fabricators, and ironworkers. STUDY QUESTIONS 1. Structural steel is a man-made material consisting of about percent 2. In modern steel plants, steel is produced by a highly aulomated procedure that has eliminated both the conventional ingot and primary rolling operations. ‘This procedure is known as the process. 3, Sinictural steels are produced in a variety of grades. ___steels are the most economical on a cosi-perpound basis, but they have the lowest strength. 4. In structural engineering, a 4 1,000 pounds. 5. Various grades of structural see! are established by the , commonly referred to as the ASTM. 6. At least 50 percent of the structural steel specified for commercial and industrial building construction in the United States is ASTM grade 7. A grade of structural steel no longer produced but still supporting many commercial, public, and industrial buildings constructed during the 1940s and 1950s is grade ASTM 8. Corrosion-resistant, self-weathering steel oxidizes, ‘when exposed to the atmosphere, producing a thin, reddish-browe film of rust on its surface. This protective film is called the28 Part 1 Structural Stee! Design Drawings for Stee! Construction 9, 10. u. rr 13. 14, 18. 16. 7, 18. 19, 20. 21 22 How are S-shapes, W-shapes, and C-shapes designated on structural design and shop drawings? ‘What were the first beam sections or shapes rolted in America? ‘What is the most commonly used structural shape? Depth designations for S-shapes and C-shapes indicate the___depth. Depth designations for W-shapes usually designate the depth. How is the HP-shape different from the W-shape? ‘When specifying an L-shape with unequal legs, the leg is always specified first. ‘What is the actual depth of a W16 x 36 structural steel rolled shape? ‘What is the actual depth of a W16 x 77 structural steel rolled shape? ‘What is the flange width of a W18 x 76 structural steel rolled shape? ‘What is the web thickness of a W18 x 71 structural stecl rolled shape? ‘What is the section modulus on the x-x axis of a W16 X 57 structural steel rolled shape? ‘What maximum resisting moment can be developed in. a W21 x 44 made of grade A36 steel? ‘What maximum resisting moment can be developed in a W21 x 44 made of 50 ksi steel? 2, 24, 25. 2. 28. 29, 30. 31 ‘What is the L, distance of a W21 x 55? What does the Manual of Steel Construction list as the ‘maximum allowable load in kips on a W18 x 65 at @ span of 24-0"? What does the Manual of Steel Construction list as the allowable concentrated foad in kips on a 6” standard steel pipe column with an effective length of 16-0"? . What isthe weight in pounds-persquare-foot of lightweight (light aggregate) concrete block? ‘What is the weight per square foot of 3"-thick floor made of reinforced stone concrete? Standard K-series open-web stee! joists are available in depths from 10 for spans ranging, from to ‘| In addition to the standard K-series open-web steel joist, stel joists are also available in the LH-series and DLH-series. What do the letters LH and DLH signify? ‘What isthe live floor load in pounds-per-linear-foot that a 16KS open-web steel joist can support al a span of 26'-0"? The usual spacing of open-web steel joists for floor and roof framing systems is. ‘center-to-center for floor systems and center-to- center for roof systems.hapter a 3 The Structural Drafter At Work OBJECTIVES Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to: ‘+ understand the functions and responsibility of the structural engineering team, * mame some personal qualities that are useful for a person secking a career as a structural drafter, + describe the organi tion of a typical engineering office. * realize the career path advancement potential for structural drafters in engineering offices, 3.1 INTRODUCTION ‘This textbook is written primarily for the person seck- ing a career as a structural drafter in either a structural engi- neering design office or ina structural fabricators office. In an effort to help the student better understand the earecr, this chapter will discuss the roe of structural engineering inthe designétrafting process, desirable characteristics for those training to become structural drafters, the specific technical skills needed, and the organization of atypical engineering office. What types of people are most likely tobe successful in structural drafting? What skills should they have, and where will their entry-level opportunities be? What is their likely eateer advancement potential? 3.2 STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING Structural enginesring is a complex and exciting pro- fession that, due to advances in technology, is currently experiencing rapid and profound changes in design meth- ods, structural materials, and construction procedures. We say that itis a complex profession because structural engi- ‘neers do much more than simply design the “bones” of a structure. They constantly strive to maintain architectural form. They calculate the shapes and sizes of steel sections required to safely support the loads. They monitor the cost of building a structure, keeping in mind the factors that can ower cost without sacrificing strength and quality. Another concern of the structural engineer is that the structural system must be fire-resistant, able to maintain its structural integrity long enough for the occupants 10 evacue ate, Engineers must also make sure the structural system integrates with other systems, Sructural systems should not, for example, be in conflict withthe plumbing systems, ait handling systems, electric lighting or power systems, Fire protection systems, or the movement of people within the building ‘Thus, the structural engineering office or department is 4 vital part of the interdsciplinary design team, providing efficient structural solutions that help make the advances of ‘modern architecture a realty, 3.3 DESIRABLE CHARACTERISTICS IN A STRUCTURAL DRAFTER ‘The structural drafler is a very important part of ‘any structural design/drafting tcam, whether preparing. design/drawings in the structural engineering office or Preparing stcel detail or shop drawings and erection plans in the structural fabricator’ office. As a person whose primary responsibility is to produce accurate working drawings, the structural drafter needs to possess certain characteristics in ‘otder to be successful inthis career. Some important quali. ties include: 2930 1. The structural dratter must be reliable. As 2 key member of the design team, the structural drafter must be at work every day, ready to perform the requised tasks in an acceptable manrer. Chapter 1 discussed the importance of rmecting schedules and deadlines for various phases of any building project. The drafter who is habitually not there will ‘not only cause additional stress for the other members of the design/drafting team, but may even cause delays thal could be very expensive. Such a person will not {ong be tolerated in most structural design/drafting departments 2. The structural drafter must be able to concen- ‘hate, This profession requires a person to sit ata computer workstation or drafting board for long periods of time, solv- ing technical design problems. The structural drafter must have a genvine interest in the problem and a drive to solve it as completely as possible. A nervous, fighly person who ceannot sit quclly and work on a given assignment, or a per- son who habitually stays up partying night after night, should not even think ebout entering this field 3. The structural drafter must be patient and neat. ‘The sloppy, throw-it-all-together-quick person will not be successful in structural drafting. Working drawings for large, expensive, and complex buildings must be neat, clear, and easy 10 read. A drawing that is incorrect of cannot be easily understood by the tradespeople using it is virally useless. 4. The structural drafter must have Imagination ind the ability to visualize. Usually the draficr is not simply copying siuctures that already exist, but is imagin- ing and trying to visualize something yet 10 be built. For example, the drafter must be able to visualize how the com- ponent parts of a structural steel framing system wil be fas- ened together to support the building. He or she must clearly understand building techniques like how steel beams and columns connect or how a large W-shape beam or col- ‘umn should fit on a footing or foundation wall. 5. The structural drafter must be organtzed and orderly. In any engineering office, the drafter constanily uses reference books, reference tables, calculations and drawings trom previous projects, and various other sources Cf information. Thus, the successful drafter must be orga- nized enough to know what references ate availabie, where they are, how to find them, and when to use them, 6. The structural drafter must have a reasonable amount of mathematical ability. Every structural the maximum bending moment af 183.6 kip-f. AW21 x 50 has a section modulus of 94.5, the requited section modulus of 91.87 Since the joists ac framing into the girder at 2-0" on center and the L, is listed as 6.9" for a W21 x 50 on the Allowable Stress Design Selection Table, the 24-ksi allowable bending sess is obviously ©B ‘AW21 x 50 is Bor bending. Step 5 Check for shear. f, (actual shear stress) = V (maximum shear from reactions) ‘A, (gross atea of beam web) 27.43 kips_ = 3-467 ksi BOBS x38) “The acal shear sites is 3.467 ksi the allowable shear sress is 144 ks “The W250 is OB for vertical shear. ‘Step 6 Check for deflection. Allowable defection = 1/360 span =a = Beam span = 24° Beam depth = 1.75" Ratio of depth o span = x = 34, = 13.7 (Round upto 14) ‘The AISC Camber and Deflection Table ‘shows that, ata ratio of 1/14 and a 24 ksi maximum fiber stress, the tabulated coefficient is 029 Deflection = 28 span x 029: 696" ‘The actual deflection is .696"; the allowable deflection is 8". OB Use a W21 x 50 Weshape Girder. 5.5 THE DESIGN OF BEAM BEARING PLATES The steel members in a support system can be con- nected to each other and to the structure itself by a wide Variety of methods, known as framing connections. The design and selection of framing connections has long been considered a responsibilty of the structural fabricator, thus this work has traditionally been done in the fabricator’, structural drafting office. For this reason, design procedures for standard framing connections will be discussed in chap- Ser 12 ofthis book. However, on every commercial building project, certain special connections or connections requiring details must be shown on the design drawings. An example might be a si ation in which the end ofa ste] beam or girder must be sup- ported by cither a poured concrete or CMU (concrete masonry unit) wall. For this type of connection, itis often necessary to design a steel bearing plate that will transfer the load of the beam over a suitable area ofthe wall so the concrete will not be overstressed. The bearing plates are usally shipped separately to the job site and leveled and {routed in place. The beams and girders are then welded to the bearing plates during construction Figure 5-15 shows a beam bearing plate spreading a concentrated beam load over a CMU wall. Notice that the hollow cores in the upper three courses of conereie block have been filled with grout to distribute the beam load over a largerarea of the wall and thus reduce the unit stress.on the wall to an acceptable level. When designing beam bearing plates, the designer must determine the length of bearing plate parallel to the beam illustrated by N in Figure 5-16, the requited width of the bearing plate parallel 0 the wall, ilusrated by B in Figute 5-16, and the required thickness (of the bearing plate. Determining Dimensions ‘The N dimension is often dictated by the th makeup of the wall itself. For exampie, if a wide: beam were to be mounted in a beam pocket in a 12% or 14”- thick east-in-place concrete foundation wall, and if the wall had a 4” brick ledge on its exterior side, the N dimension might be limited to 6” or 8” unless the designer were to design a pilaster on the inside ofthe wal. Ifany event, N i usually a given, known before the besring plate calculations are begun. ‘The B dimension, the width of the bearing plate parat- lel tothe wall, is calculated dimension. Itis determined by calculating the width of plate cequired to make the toral area of the plate large enough that the allowable bearing pressure ‘on the wall is not exceeded. Note that dimensions N and B are usually rounded up 10 full inches. For example, requited B dimension is calculated as 7.61”, the designer always rounds up to the next larger inch, which in would be 8” ‘The required thickness of the beating plate (1 is ealeu- lated using the following formula based on the cantilever of the plate under uniform pressure from the concrete beneath it ness and thickness of the plate in inches cual bearing pressure of the plate on the wall in ksi llowable bending stress in the ‘bearing plate. (27 ksi for grade 36 steel) In this formula:Chapter 5 An Overview of Basic Structural St Design Calculations 65 , WIDE FLANGE OR TUBE STEEL BEAM (SEE ‘STRUCTURAL} PROVIOE FULL PLATE BEARING 1x 67 12" PLATE ‘CENTERED WN WALL W/ (2)576" @ x 6" LONG NELSONS AY 6” SPACING CENTERED WN PLATE. uy WALL cRouTED ‘SOUD A Manadust S cbutses at aor BELOW BEARING PLATE Figure 5-15 Beam bearing detail ~k, in inches k = distance from the center of the beam web to the toe of the fillet in inches. The k distance for various beams is found in Part 1 of the Manual ‘Steel Construction. Because structural plates are rolled in thickness incre- iments of 1/8", itis common to round up to the next eighth- inch of thickness. For example, a calculated thickness of .921" would be increased to 1”, ‘An important consideration in the design of beam bear- ing plates is the allowable bearing pressure on the masonry for cast-in-place concrete wall beneath the plate. These allowable bearing pressures, which are specified by code, may vary greatly depending on the loading condition and the composition of the supporting wall—that is, whether it is of solid brick, concrete block, 3,000 psi concrete, 4,000 psi concrete, or whatever. For example, the allowable bear- ing stress on an unreinforced concrete hollow block wall With type S mortar is 225 psi. The allowable bearing pres- sure on a 3,000-psi poured concrete wall is 750 psi ifthe ‘bearing plate covers the full area of the wall and 1,125 psi the bearing plate bears on one-third or less of the support area, Thus, as one of the very first steps in designing bear- ing plates for beams and girders, the drafter/designer must ‘check the proper code to verify the allowable bearing pres- sure om the concrete or masonry wall. General Procedure for Selecting a Bearing Plate We will now go step-by-step through the typical proce- dure for designing a bearing plate for a W-shape beam to be supported by a conerete wall, ‘We will assume a W18 x 46 beam is supported on one of its ends by a reinforced poured concrete wall made of 3 ksi concrete. The end reaction (R) is 48 kips. We will also, assume that both the beam and bearing plate are A36 steel for which the allowable bending stress in plate F, is 27 ksi. ‘And finally, we will assume that the length of the bearing plate parallel to the beam is 6” and the allowable bearing pressure on the wall (F.) is 75 ksi Solution Step 1 Solve for the minimum required area of the plate. The required area of the plate is: ound up to 11 in)66 Part 1 Structural Steel Design Drawings for Stee! Construction Figure 5-18 Dimensions for beam bearing plates (Figure $-16b and c, Courtesy of the American Institute of Steel Construction inc.) ‘Step 3 With the overall dimensions of the plate known, we can solve for the actual bearing pressure on the wall: f= Re AB Kips _ 20.727 ksi Gin. x11 ‘Step 4 Solve for the required thickness of the plate To do this, we must first determine the dimension as shown n Figure $~16c. From the Table of W-Shapes Dimensions in Part of the Manual of Stel Construction (Table 2-1), we find the value of k, for a WI8 x 46 10 be "% in. (0813): ~ UE 0.813 in, = 4.687 1 ‘The required plate thickness will be: 3x.727 x (4.687) 27 1.33 in ‘The messuremern 1.33" should be rounded up to 1.375", which is the text eight-inch increment. Thus, the required bearing plate size is 6” x 1K" x 11”. In an on- the-job situation, it night be most economical to select a plate thickness of 1" or even greater if that same plate thickness could be used for the majority of bearing plates fon a project, 5.6 THE DESIGN OF STRUCTURAL STEEL COLUMNS After the joists, beams, and girders have been designed and their reactions are known, the designer can design the steel columas. Columas may be defined as iong, slender ver- tical compression members that support the framing sys- tem’s structural beams and gitders and thus transfer the loads of floors and roofs down to the footings and founda- tion walls, Structural steel columns are usually HP-shapes, ‘Weshapes, P-shapes (steel pipe) and TS-shapes (square or rectangular structural tube). Because of their length and slenderness, the tendency of columns to bend of buckle under load 's ilustrated in Figure 5-17 becomes a major factor in structural see column design ‘The most common shapes for columns are W-shapes (such as W8 x 31, WI0 x 49, and W12 x 65) TS-shapesChapter 5 An Overview of Basic Structural Steel Design Calculations 67 Figure 5-17 Bending due to column stendernass under axial load. (Courtesy of the American Institute of Steel Construction Inc.) (particularly square structural tubes such as TS4 x 4 x .250 or TS6 x 6 x 375) and P-shapes (such as 3” std. or 4” x-strong steel pipe). Designing steel columns is essentially a trail-and-error Procedure because the allowable unit stress on the column depends upon the column's slenderness ratio (Which will be discussed shortly) and the distribution of the cross-sectional area, while the required area depends upon the allowable stress. Other important factors arc the grade of steel used, such as 36 ksi or 50 ksi, the effective unbraced length in inches, the location of the applied loads, and the effect of end conditions or the method of end restraint atthe top and bottom of the column. We will now review some of the major considerations of stee! column design. Factors Involved in Steel Column Design Slenderness Ratio. The slenderness ratio of a structural steel colunin isthe ratio ofthe unsupported length of the col- ‘umn (1) in inches, to the radius of gyration of the column section (r) in inches, with respect to the direction of poten- tial buckling, which may be either the strong or weak axis, The radius of gyration is the measure of a column's stiffness fo resistance to buckling. Values for r for various steel shapes can be found in the Tables of Dimensions and Prop- erties in Part 1 of the Manual of Steel Construction. These tables show that for W-shapes the valies ofr forthe strong axis (X-x axis) are always greater than the values for the weak axis (y-y axis) For symmetrical shapes such as round steel pipe or square structural tubing, the radius of gyration is the same for both the x-x and yey axis Some people believe that the least radius of gyration (,,) is always used when determining the slenderness ratio, ofa column, but this is often not true, Determining the slen- derness ratio for columns depends on how the loads are applied. For example, in determining the slenderness ratio for a WS x 31 column 13 feet in height supporting only an axial load from roof beams, the least radius of gyration would govern because the column is not braced against buckling on either the x-x or y-y axis (Figure 5-18). Ir however, the column was to be braced at mid-height fon only the minor (y-y) axis, as shown in Figure 5-19, it would be very possible that the slenderness ratio or the ten- dency to buckle would be greatest with respect to the major (-X) axis because on that axis the unsupported length would be 26° compared to 13" on the minor axis. ‘To illustrate this point, we will assume the W-shape col- umn in Figure $-19 is a W8 x31 and calculate the stender- ness ratio with respect to both the major and minor axes. From Part 1 of the Manual of Steel Construction, we would find that for a W8 x 31: 7, = 3.74" and 1, = 2.02" Because the columa is supported at mid-height perpen- Gicular to the y-y axis, the effective length for buckling68 Part 4 Structural St ROOF BEAMS f— COLUMN, BASE PLATE ANCHOR BOLTS: FOUNDATION Figure 5-18 Column buckling under axial load around that axis will be 13’, Thus, the slenderness ratio with respect to the y-y axis ist 1 x12" Hneoetser Because the column is only supported with respect to ‘the major (X-x) axis atthe top, the unsupported length of the column with respect to that axis is 26°. Thus, the slenderness. ratio with respect to thal axis would be: 26x12" Rnasanaee 7.22 In this case, the maximum slenderness ratio of 89.9 cal- culated for the major (x-x) axis would be used to design the column. ‘Types of Connections. Another consideration when designing a columr.is the manner in which itis anchored or restrained at the top and bottom ends. For example, Figure 5-18 illustrates a very common si whereby the col- ‘umn is welded at is bottom to a steel baseplate, which is in turn fastened 10 the foundation wall or footing by heavy steel bolts called anchor bolts. Because the holes through the baseplate for the anchor bolts are many times up to %4" or ‘more oversized. This type of connection will not restrain the ‘column from rotation. Nor will the roof beams, which are Design Drawings for Stee! Construction 3 BUCKLED. SHAFED\ / 1 \ (2) Minor Axis Buckling BUCKLED i} SHArEDN/ 7 ' t \ 1 w \ \, (0) Major Awe Buckling Figure 5-19 Column buckling at (a) major and (b) minor axis usually also bolted to the column, keep it from rotation at the top end. This results in what is called a pinned, or pin- ended, connection. Pin-ended connections are suitable for ‘most conditions in commercial and industrial construction, but other types of end restraint for columns are also poss ble. For example, on very tall stuctures where lateral wind forces may become the governing consideration for exterior columns, fixed moment-resiting connections are very com- mon. Effects of varying types of end restraint become a fac tor, called the K factor, in calculating the effective length of a steel column. Performing the Calculations The K factor is a modifying or compensating factor that takes into consideration the effects of various types of col-Chapter § An Overview of Basic Structural Steel Design Calculations 6£ ‘Table 5-3 Recommended K values for columns ) © © @ } Rt Vo, } tr P| int / } i‘ ' i ; } i Buckled shaped of column ‘ J ] | is shown by dashed ‘ i ) | 1 f ! 1 i tit to Theoretical value os | o7 | 10 | 10 | 20 | 20 Recommended design valle when ideal conditions oss | cso} 12 | 10 | 210 | 20 are approximated End condition code Rotation fixed and translation fixed Rotation free and translation fixed Rotation fixed and translation free Rotation fixed and translation free Courtesy of the American Institute of Steel Construction Inc. umn end restraint. This may result in either a reduced or ‘magnified value for J. Thus, the slenderness ratio is usually expressed as KI, although for common pin-ended connec tions, the factor of K is given as 1, so the slenderness ratio. is expressed as: Il 71a ‘Table 5-3, reprinted from Part $ of the Manual of Steet Construction, lists the theoretical K value for various types of column end restraint If the slenderness ratio has been determined and the ‘main building columns do not require a of more than 120, the designer then refers to Part 3 of the Manual of Steel Con struction where a table entitled Allowable Stress for Com- Pression Members lists the allowable unit compression stress in ksi for various slenderness ratios Table 5-3. Once the allowable unit stress for the column is known, the total allowable compression load can be easily calcu- lated by multiplying the allowable unit stress (F,) from the table by the cross-sectional area of the trial column. For example, assume a structural drafter/designer is supporting two roof beams with a W-shape steel column similar to the loading condition shown in Figure 5-18. Eack roof beam has a reaction of 42 kips, and the unsupported length is 20” Would a W8 x31 be adequate? Patt 1 of the Manual of Steel Construction shows that the area of a W8 x31 is 9.13 in’, the r, is 3.47 in, and the 1, is 2.02 in, Since the end restraint is pinned, the K factor will be 1. Solution 1. The total load on the column is 42 kips x 2 = 84 kips. 2. Since the loading condition show in Figure 5-18 would allow the column to buckle in either direction, the least radius of gyration, r,, would govern. Thus, the slenderness rat ALAR G0 217). 118.8 Round up 10 119)70 Part 1 Structural Steel Design Drawings for Steet Construction 3 8 nN ‘Table 54 Allowable stresses for compression members —_——————— Table C-36 Allowable Stress For Compression Members of 36-ks! Specified Yield Strese Stee!* EEE a sc 7 7 arse] at tear [ar war 78 2 psa} a2 2 tee 162 a nae] 48 a 12 163 4 2a] me ry ry 184 5 2133 | 45 85 125 165, eats | 48 ry 128 168 7 2130| 47 a7 ra 167 8 22s | 48 8 1 168 aia) 4 29 128 169 atte | 0 % 130 170 1 ato] st 3 131 m 12 295) 8 9 132 sid 43 2100 | 58 2 133 173 “4 & Py 13 174 8 5 95 135 175 18 6 8 138 176 7 a 97 w v7 ia so % 136 173 1 2 98 139 179 2 Cs wo 0 160 2 6 101 1 rT) a e s02 1a 182 23 3 193 1% 183 24 ao 104 148 188 Ey 65 105 Ms 105 2 8 108 148 188 27 or 107 a8 187 26 cy 108 3 183 23 a 109 19 189 30 7 0 150 190 y n a 151 a 32 R M2 152 192 33 3 a 153 199 34 ™ 14 138 194 35 78 45 155 195, 36 7 16 156 196 37 7 7 ‘87 197 38 a 18 158 18 2 a 419 159 198 “ © 1m 160 20 | “hg loner ive Raa ao eciade noe scene Sak BE, Nota: Ge = 126, ee Courtesy of the American Institute of Stee! Construction Inc.Chapter 5 An Overview of Basic Structural Steel Design Calculations 71 3, The Allowable Stress Table shows that for a slenderness ratio of 119, the allowable unit stress on the W8 x 31 is 10.43 ksi 4, The allowable column load is equal to the allowable unit stress multiplied by the number of square inches of steet in the W-shape. Thus, for the W8 x 31 column with an effective length of 20, the allowable Toad is: (actual load) AW8 x31 is adequate, It should be pointed out that, prior fo selecting the W8 x 31 for a tral sclection, the structural drafter/designer would have consulted the Manual of Steet Construction and found in the Table of Allowable Concentric Loads on Columns that a WB x 31 W-shape column of A36 steel is capable of supporting 93 Kips. Thus, the calculation process previously described is mainly a way to make sure the designer did not misread the table, Most structural design offices require that calculations be performed because the time involved in doing so is minimal compared to the potential catastrophic consequences of misreading the AISC table. (allowable load) Dealing with Combinations of Stresses ‘One mote consideration should be discussed in relation to steel column design. In actual practice, steel columns arc often simultaneously subjected to combinations of stresses. For example, in exterior columns of astee! framing system, the floor or roof beams might frame into the web of a Weshape structural steel column, causing an axial or con- centric load on the member (Figure 5-20). Atthe same time, an interior girder supporting the reactions of beams or joists, ‘might frame into the flange face, delivering a moment to the column that would cause bending at the X-X axis. Inspection reveals that the two 20-kip loads framing into the columa web from either side would cause axial oF concentric loads that would not develop significant bending stresses on the YY axis of the column, However, the 40-kip, load is an eccentric load, which would cause a bending stress because its connection point at the face of the flange is several inches away from the column's X-X axis, as, shown in Figure S21. ‘The usual method of designing W-shape ste! columns for eccentric loading is to convert the eccentric loads into an equivalent axial toad by multiplying the bending moment resulting from the eccentric load by the appropriate bending 20-K1FS 20-K1FS, aon Figure 5-20 Example of eccentric loading on exterior column 40-KIP ECCENTRIC LoAD 40-KIP Lead WE COLUMN Figure 5-21 Eccentrically loaded column {factor found in Part 3 of the Manual of Steel Construction. ‘This equivalent axial load is then added to the actual eccen- trie load and any concentric Toads to come up with the total ‘equivalent load for the column. Table 5-5, reprinted from the Manual of Stee! Construction, illustrates the B, and B, bending factors for several different W8 columns.72 Part 1 Structural Stoo! Design Drawings for Stee! Construction ‘The Band B, bending factors listed at the bottom of the table are found by dividing the cross-sectional area of the shape by the section moduli of both the X-X and Y~ axes. For example, the two bending factors for a W8 x 31 column are found by taking the area of a W8 x 31, which is 9.13 in*, and dividing it by the section moduli of 27.5 and 9.27 in’, respectively: 1332 0.985 985 correspondie the bending factors listed in Table 5-5 for a W8 x 31 column. Applying the Procedure We will now select a WS column of A36 steel for the toading condition illustrated in Figure 5-20. By inspection. we see an axial load of 40 kips created by the two 20-kip reactions of beams fastening into either side of the column ‘web. We also see a 40-kip eccentric load being applied at the face ofthe flange, which would be approximately 4 inches from the X-X asis on a W8 column. Solution ‘Step 1 The loads applied by the beam reactions are: 20 kips + 20 kips + 40 kips = 80 kips. Step 2 The bending moment produced by the ‘eccentric load is: M = 40 kips x 4 in = 160 kip-in. ‘Step 3 Table S~S shows that the average bending. factor listed foc W8 x 31 through W8 x 67 columns is approximately 03333 for B,. ‘Thus, the bending moment multiplied by the average bending factor is: 160 x 0.333 = 53.28 kips So we assume 54 kips as the equivalent axial load for the eccentric load. Step 4 The total equivalent load on the column is then: 20 kips + 20 kips + 40 kips + 54 kips = 134 kips ‘Step 5 Referring again to Table 5-5, we see that, st & 13-foot unsupported height, a W8 x 31 \Weshape columa is adequate fo support an axial load of 143 kips 134 kips (equivatent axial load) @ A.W8 x 31 column is sufficient to support the loading ‘condition illustrated in Figure 5-20. AaB kips {allowable load) 5.7_ THE DESIGN OF COLUMN BASEPLATES After the columas have been designed, the drafterldesigner must select the column baseplates, Base- pilates ate ste) plats, usually welded tothe bottom of the coluri and fastened to the top of the footing ot foundation wall with heavy anchor bolis as shown in Figures 7-1 through 7-9. Baseplates ate necessary to distribute the col- umn load over a sufficient area ofa concrete wall or footing 0 shat the allowable compressive strength of the concrete, which is considerably lower than thal of steel, is not exceeded The AISC specifiestion recommends two allowable pressures (F.) for concrete suppons, These allowable pres- sutes are baled on the compressive strength of the concrcte (and the percentage of support area covered by the base- plate Ifthe area ofthe baseplate (A, is equal to the area of the supgort (AJ, the allowable compressive stress on the concrete is: F,= 356, If the area of the baseplate (A) is less than the area of the concrete support (Ay, the allowable stress is increased because the mass of concrete beyond the contact area pro= vides considerable confinement to the ditecily loaded area of concrete. A common example is when a 10” x 10” base plate under a structural steel column tests on & 3-0" square concrete footing. For this condition, the allowable bearing, stress becomes: Raat When fully loaded, the bearing pressure between the baseplate and the footing or foundation wall is assumed to be uniformly distributed within a rectangle of dimen- sions 0,95d and 0:80b, as shown by the dashed lines in Figure 5-222. However, the reaction ofthe footing pushing back against the cantilevered parts of the plate outside the column tend to cause the plate to curl upward as illustrated in Figure 5-226.ie Chapter 5 An Overview of Basic Structural Steel Design Calculations 73 COLUMNS x x W shapes oe Allowable axial loads in kips jae a Designation ca 7% 5 36 Foe] 3 ai : : = ‘ 5 = f ; S 2 ale 2 El 2 ” 289 |f ie u a Bole a E gi a Fea g 16 240 ti | Biv 228 fave g 18 ae i) ss |# ay B 3 | 2 ig Pa Hole He i Fis s = if ii B |g al . 8 4 3 fs Ed 7 ose | os tan | San | 3S ae | ao | “ae a Fae (Ke Le)"/10% (Kips) 14 198 135, Foy (KG PIO (Kips)] 46.6 457, ry Wo: new nates Rr ‘Table 5-5 Allowable Axial Loads on Columns Courtesy of the American Institute of Steel Construction Inc.74 Part Structural Stee! Design Drawings for Steel Construction Total column load, Kips BX N= Area of plate, in? Ap Full cross-sectional area of concrete support, in? Aibwabie bending stress in baseplate, ksi ‘Allowable bearing pressure on support, kei ‘Actual bearing pressure, ksi Compressive strength of concrete, koi Thickness of baseplate, in, (2) (Courtesy of the American institute of Stee! Construction inc.) ® Figure 5-22 Column baseplate di “To resist this tendency to curl, the AISC has developed formulas to calculate required baseplate thickness based ‘upon m and ry the cantilevered distances of the plate beyond the rectangular dimensions of 0.95d and 0.805. Using the larger value of m and 1, the thickness of the plate is detet- mined by either of the two formulas: fh The following example will demonstrate how the previ- ously discussed equations are used 10 design a typical baseplate, COLUMN BASEPLATE "CURL FOOTING ign consideration Sample Problem Design a column baseplate for a W8 x 40 catuma to support a (oral column load of 180 kips. The column is to rest on a 7-0" x 7-0" square footing to be made of ff = 3 ksi concrete Solution 1. Since the concrete support area is considerably larger than the baseplate area, the minimum number of square inches in the baseplate could be: P__WBOKIDS 5 95.7 jn? A= TET Gks)Chapter 5 An Overview of Basic Structural Steel Design Calculations 75 112" iver 14" Figure 5-23 Baseplate for We x 40 column 2. AWS x 40 is essentiaily a square column, and the ‘column is resting on a square footing. Thus, the baseplate should be square and should equal or exceed 85.7 in? OSHA requirements presently dictate that all column baseplates be fastened to their footings with four anchor bolts. The anchor bolts are usually, but not always, placed outside the column, as shown in Figure 5-23. The edge distance from the ‘end of the baseplate to the center of the anchor bolt hote is usually a minimum of 14”. Thus, the baseplate should extend a minimum of 3” beyond the column in all directions. This means the dimensions of the baseplate, for erection purposes, should be 14” x 14” square, The area of the baseplate will then be 14” x 14” = 196 in’, and the actual stress on the baseplate will be: 180 kips 196 in = 09 ksi 3. Based upon the dimensions of a WS x 40 steel column centered on a 14” x 14" baseplate, determine the dimensions of m and n. See Figure 5-24, m= 14" — ex 825) = 3.085” roar OXBIN sarge 4, Solving for the required thickness of the plate, use the largest value found in step 3 in the equation: [et ne n\fny-20.7m VBE asx Because structure! plat is roled AIF inclement, the baseplate should be 1%" (1.25") thick, ‘The required size and thickness of the column baseplate as designed should be: 14” x 1" x 14”, 5.8 SUMMARY This chapter has presented an overview of basic struc- tural design concepts and the types of design considerations routinely encountered and performed by structural drafters ‘under the supervision of design engineers in most structural design offices. Emphasis has been placed on the basic con- cepts and load conditions thal arise as the component paris, ofa structural steel support frame are assembled. The chap- ter shows how the structural drafter can use design tables and/or simple algebra to help design and select a variety of, structural members, including open-web steel joists to sup- port floor or roof loads, beams and girders to support the Joists, columns to support the beams and girders, and beam bearing plates and column baseplates to fasten beams to ‘walls and columns to walls or footings. ‘This chapter is not intended to substitute for a course in structural analysis or structural design. Rather it has been an attempt to illustrate to the structural drafting student "where the numbers are coming from” or, in other words, methods by which experienced structural drafters, designers, and ‘engineers use algebraic formulas to determine the required physical sizes of structural steel beams, columns, base- plates, etc., which taken together become structural steel Support frames for commercial and industrial buildings. The primary purpose has been to illustrate why structural steel Figure 6-15 Partial structural steel framing plan and detail ule, For each type of lintel, a lintel schedule shows the lintel ‘number, a small section view of the makeup and sizes of the beams, angles, and plates from which the lintel will be con- structed, the length of wall bearing required for the lintel if itis to be placed on a wall and, usually, the elevation at the bottom of the lintel after it is installed. Note that, for steel lintels, unlike steel beams, the bottom-of-steel elevation is the most important and must be held if the door and window frames under them are to fit properly. Most linte! schedules, will also have a column for special remarks such as “Bear on solid masonry.” An example of a lintel schedule is shown in Figure 6-18. Now that we have discussed structural steel shapes and the symbols used to represent them on framing plans, we will examine several specific types of structural steel fram- ing plans. Types of Structural Stee! Framing Plans Good structural framing plans, like all construction drawings, must be easily understood, accurate, neat, orderly, complete, informative, and instructive. Thus, the structural drafter must take care not to clutter the drawing with unnec- essary lines. Foundation Plans. Usually the first plan drawn in the structural framing set is the foun dation plan is a plan view of the bui foundation walls that also shows the grid system and all the structural steel columns setting on top of the walls or ‘extending down to the continuous wall footings or indepen dent column footings. Top- or bottom-of-footing elevations94 Par\1 Structural Stee! Design Drawings for Steel Construction 43g continuous WELD PLATE EMBEDOED i BonD BEAM EL. 855-6 EL. ass’ Bond BEAM? 8” LINTEL Buock wire (2) #4 CONTINUOUSRE-BARS IN 2,500 Psi ConeRETE Fiey Bl cme Detain & Figure 6-16 Partial structural steel framing plan and det Face Brick are noted, and the independent column footings, which are _slab-on-grade or basement slab) is noted on the foundation usually square in shape, are identified with a reference num- plan, Figure 6-19 illustrates how information is shown on a ber such as F-1, F-2, ee etc. These numbers refer to 2 foundation plan. {footing schedule, which gives complete information about tach pe of foting, Including siz. ceph, and size nd Small Floor Framing | ‘quantity of reinforcing bars. The floor stab thickness (either floor framing plan. N in. Figure 6-20 shows a small that the intermediate beams inChapter 6 The Preparation of Structural Steel Design Drawings and Details 95 [pee ; cal 2a ERA pe une, Sheps beth, PRUE @) HEAD: [vats |-ot 8 KT ATUL DIMEN HON eccaee MU epee vie CHAM Ax pert Sees ® HEAD + Vet ato" HEAD «+ V2" =1bo" (2) Hepes tet aot Figure 6-17 Structural steel lintels for masonry walls96 Part 1 Structural Steol Design Drawings for Stee! Construction LINTEL SCHEDULE wo secton [| wensens [no | ona evens [ onae | newanrs cele a e woo 4 | 1 ee maa re 3 a ere nae cele ware z Tao | anon LD SORT I ae 1 ioe ~ wax 7 a | nemo SoD See Pole tee 7 Tea | pan ons wsoue | Z ere nase Figure 6-18 Structural steel lintel schedule each bay are W14 x 26 wideclange beams spaced at 6-0"on center rather than open-web steel joists spaced at 2-0" centers. The concrete floor slab depth. the welded wire fabric reinforcing for the slab, and the top of slab elevation are all given by notation. Columns are shown, but column information is not given, which indicates it can be found on a column schedule on another sheet. Notice atso how all beams, girders, and columns are shown with the single-line symbolic representation previously described If the structural drafter were preparing a floor framing plan for composite floor construction, as illustrated in rc 5-6, it would be prepared very much like the oni Figure 6-20 except that the quantity of shear studs required for each beam and girder would be called out as shown in Figure 6-21. Partial First-Floor Framing Plan. Figure 6-2: jal first-floor framing plan for a commercial office buil ‘This is an open-web steel joist floor framing system as illus: trated in Figure 5-4. Notice thatthe office building has tube columns on the side walls, but all interior and end wall ‘columns are W-shape columns. Column sizes are not given,Chapter 6 The Preparation of Structural Steel Design Drawings and Detalls 97 Figure 6-19 Typical foundation plan —_) aoe eee eee See98 Part 1 Structural Stee! Design Drawings for Stee! Construction W14x26 yy ° 9) x W14x26 2 3} 2 = S}3 z wi4x26 W14X26 W14x26 o| 4 W14x26 g z| x 4 ee = 7 W14x26 W18x40 W14Xx26. W14X26 W14X26 W14x26, W14Xx26 W14x26 Figure 6-20 Structural steel framing plan - Wi8K 3G WI8X 36Chapter 6 The Proparation of Structural Steel Design Drawings and Details 99 4 + Fane aejm—pexnim q Bae aterdgee y ¢ i : cotl(wematt Figure 6-21 Structural steel floor framing plan100. Part 1 Structurat Steet Design Drawings for Stoo! Construction ete Figure 6-22 Structural stee! floor framing planChapter 6 The Preparation of Structural Stee! Design Drawings and Detalls 101 | I i i W16x31, 2 ROWS OF BRIDGING — 16K2 0 2f oc. Wi 4x54 Figure 6-23 Partial structural steel floor framing plan which means they will be fisted on a column schedule, A column schedule is really a table showing such items as ol- umn size, baseplate sizc, floor-to-floor elevations, and sometimes even the quantity of anchor bolts required forthe colurmn Columa schedules will be discussed in more detail in Chapter 7. Notice on this lor framing plan that all columns are located on the structural grid. The open-web steel joists are to be spaced at 2-0” on center, The number of rows of bridging required for the open-web joists is indicated, and shelf angles are shown on the end walls 1 support the floor deck. Notice between grid lines © and E) and @ and @ how the sleet framing around a sairweil is shown. The enlarged view of this framing in Figure 6-23 shows that the siairwelis surrounded by wide-lange beams set very close to the walls. These beams, the webs of which are only 4” from the walls of the stairvell, support the see! decking and the ond of several C5 x 9 jost substitutes along one wall Second Floor Framing Pian, Structural steel framing systems can support various types of floors. Figure 6-24 shows @ framing plan for the second floor of a building in Which the structural steel beams support a floor composed of 8" hollowcore precast concrete slabs with 2” of cast-in- place concrete topping, Like steel joist and deck systems, precast concrete slabs or plank make very efficient floor sys- tems for apartment buildings, office buildings, and schools. Notice on this framing plan that the hollowcore precast plank are given an identification number such as PC1, PC2, PCG, etc., and a double arrow indicates the direction in ‘which the precast plank will span between support beams. ‘The W-shape beams supporting the hollowcore precast plank, such as the W24 x 55 and WIS x 35, are the largest beams. ‘The W14 x 22 and W12 x 16 beams arc basically rnon-loadbearing and are used primarily to help stabilize the columns. Figure 6-25, showing Detail G5) on the floor plan, illustrates how weld plates embedded it the bottom of the102 Part 1 Structural Steel Design Drawings for Steel Construction oO © © O© © Figure 6-24 Partial structural steel floor framing planeaeeaetee Coeeeeee (ea | saiestuses, t0ik co Chapter 6 The Preparation of Structural Stee! Design Drawings and Detalls 103 TYP. PLANKS ON BEAM DETAIL & SME ator Figure 6-25 Typical plank-on-beam detail104 Part 1 Structural Stee! Design Drawings for Stee! Construction Oo OO @O wee 2 ut Mast # £47 Of ur mu pt ft j i gt ; f t ew = wa me 10 51 66 OF an a vst of | Figure 6-26 Structural steel root framing plan hollowcore plank can be used to secure the plank to their supporting beams, Roof Framing Plans. Figure 6-26 shows a roof framing system for a small commercial building. Notice that the ‘apen-web roof joists are spaced at 4-0" centers. The required bridging is again shown by dashed lines. The build- ing. walls below the roof ate indicated, and lintels are iden- tified over the windows. Figure 6-27 illustrates a roof framing plan for a com- mercial building. Notice that this plan shows 90 columns and thus has no grid system. That is because the roof joists ‘ae supported by bond beams on Joadbearing walls. Window ‘openings and lintels are indicated and the 22K5 steel joistsChapter 6 The Preparation of Structural Steel Design Drawings 'and Detalls 105 ae ROOF FRAMING PLAN Figure 6-27 Structural stee! roof framing plan con the lower part of the building are shown starting right at the end walls, eliminating the need for deck support angles. 6.5 STRUCTURAL STEEL SECTIONS On large projects itis often necessary to make section drawings to clavify how the components of a structure fit together and to establish important height information such 8 op-of-seel elevations for floor and roof framing systems. Jast as a framing plan cuts through the building in an image inary horizontal cutting plane, a section slices through the structure ata vertical plane, Framing plans are parallel to the floor, while sections are perpendicular to the floor. Struc- tural steel sections can be drawn either by single-line sym- bolic diagrams as in a framing plan or as larger-scale dou- biectine sections that clearly illustrate such features as bear and column sizes, top-of sel and bottom-of-baseplate ele- vations, anchor bolt information, and the location of columns on foundation walls. Figure 6-28 shows a larger scale double-line section, Such sections are usually drawn at scales of "= 1-0" or "= 1-0". One cardinal rule in structural drafting and design, in addition to the fact that the support system must safely carry all the loads, is that the structural components must fit together properly. Thus, it is much more desirable 10 find potential problems and interferences on the design drawings than to have them show up during the construc tion phase of the project. To that end, important to a set of structural design drawings are the structural building sec- tions. The steuetural building sections serve as a way to ver- ify that the various floor and roof framing. systems be compatible.106 Part 1 Structural Steal Design Drawings for Steel Construction WtoK 19 ev. 47-0 & w8 x 31 cou. fee. 321% Ey gnour [ecay-z'¢ ANeHeR Bours Ge SECTION AT EXTERIOR WALL Figure 6-28 Structural steel ‘These sections, also called full sections or cross-see- tions, are usually drawn to a small scale such as 4” = 1-0". ‘They are drawn in single-line symbolic representation and -are taken at right angles fo the major axes ofthe building “Typically, structural building sections cut through the entte length or wisth of a building and show only the main struc: tion tural components. Very few dimensions are given other than the column grid dimensions and the top-of-steel elevation at ‘cach floor above the bench mark. Fis building section through a commercial or industrial steel- framed building structure. Note that, while most sections cut through the building in a straight line, the building cut doesChapter 6 The Preparation of Structural Steol Design Drawings and Detalls 107 wiaxse Wwi2xs3 ones BL. S56" Ts 8x4 x2 wigxdo | wiex TaP oF Sreeu. EL. \43'-0" Leones Top oF Sreet EL. 182-8 onl TS 8 x88 wee Cwussso \ Tor oF sreeu TES gg | SS ole. ie-0 % 2 3 3 & 3 Bor./B.P- EL. 120-0" ex SECTION THROUGH BUILDING ®@ GRID LINE © Figure 6-28 Structural steel building section ‘ot necessarily have to run straight through the structure. It can jog back and forth as required to show interior space conditions that require clarification, 6.6 STRUCTURAL STEEL DETAILS Structural details are a very important part of a set of structural design drawings because it is the all important detail that shows the contractor exactly how various struc~ tural members are to be connected together on the job site. Details are usually drawn at scales of 1” = 1-0" to 14” 1-0". Some examples of what might be shown om a sti tural detail are how a steel column is to be connected to the top of a footing by anchor bolts through the column base- plate, how steel joists are fo be located and field welded 10 the top of a wide-tlange beam, or how a structural stee! tube column is fo be set ina columa pocket in a foundation wall Figure 6-25 fs a deal that illustrates how holloweore pre cast concrete plank were to he fastened to their supporting steel beams by weld plates, which would be cast into the bottom of the plank and then welded to the top flange of the beam. Figure 6-30 and 6-31 are two examples of structural details. Figure 6-30 illustrates that each of two anchos bolts supporting a W-shape steel column is to be furnished with two hexagon head nuts. The nut placed on the underside of the columa baseplate is to be used as a “setting nut" or “lev- cling nut” to level up the column. After the column is feve, {he nut on top of the baseplate can be tightened to secure the column in place. Figure 6-31 is a detail showing kow a K-series open-web steel joist is to be fastened to a bearing