European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) Aircraft Maintenance Licence Programme Module 11A Licence Category A and B1.1 Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems 11.1 Theory of FlightIntegrated Training System Designed in association with the ‘lubépro.com question pra 12 Intentionally Blank Module 11.1 Theory of Flight ‘TTS integrated Training System ‘© Copyright 2012Integrated Training System Designed in association with the clubpro.com quastlon practice ald Copyright Notice © Copyright. All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever: i.e. photocopy, electronic, mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of Total Training Support Ltd. Knowledge Levels — Category A, B1, B2, B3 and C Aircraft Maintenance Licence Basic knowledge for categories A, 81, B2 and B3 are indicated by the allocation of knowledge levels indicators (1, 2 or 3) against each applicable subject. Category C applicants must meet either the category B1 or the category B2 basic knowledge levels, ‘The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows: LEVEL 1 * A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject. Objectives: The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject. ‘The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words and examples. ‘+The applicant should be able to use typical terms. LEVEL 2 ‘* Ageneral knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject. An ability to apply that knowledge. Objectives: The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject. + The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical ‘examples. ‘+ The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws describing the subject. * The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing the subject. * The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures. LEVEL 3 * Adetailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject. * capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive manner. Objectives: The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects. ‘©The applicant should be able to give @ detailed description of the subject using theoretical fundamentals and specific examples. © The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject. * The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and schematics describing the subject. © The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's instructions. = The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply corrective action where approptiate, Module 11.1 Theory of Flight 13 ‘TTS integrated Training System © Copyright 2012Integrated Training System Designed in assaciation wit the lubESpro com question practice ad Intentionally Blank 14 Module 11.1 Theory of Flight ‘TTS integrated Training System (© Copyright 2012ow Table of Contents Integrated Training System Designed in associaton vith the clubsepre.com question practice ais Module 11.1 Theory of Flight 9 11.1.1 Aeroplane Aerodynamics and Flight Controls. 9 The Atmosphere 9 The Aeroplane Anatomy 13 Four Forces of Flight 7 Three Axes of Flight. 36 Turning Flight. 40 The Stall 4 Aircraft Stability 49 Aircraft Control 53 Control Configuration 57 High Lift Devices 65 Stall Strips 76 Vortex Generators 77 Spoilers, Lift Dumps and Speed Brakes 79 Secondary Control Surfaces 81 Other Control Surface Features, 87 V Speeds. 89 11.1.2 High Speed Flight 91 Introduction 91 Terminology 91 Speed of Sound 93 Shock Waves. 95 Wave Drag, 99 Effects of Compressibility on Lift 700 Aerodynamic Heating, 103 Area Rule. 103 Supersonic Intakes 105 Effects of Increasing Mach Number on Stability 109 Sweepback 111 Shock Stall 121 Module 11.1 Theory of Flight 15 — TTS Integrated Training System © Copyright 2012Integrated Training System Designed in association with the ‘lubBpro.com question practice aid Intentionally Blank 1.6 Module 11.1 Theory of Flight TS Integrated Teining System — “o Gonynght 2012Certification Statement These Study Notes comply with the syllabus of EASA Regulation (EC) No.2042/2003 Annex III (Part-66) Appendix |, as amended by Regulation (EC) No.1149/2011, and the associated Knowledge Levels as specified below: Integrated Training System Jesigned in asso jon withthe pro cam question practice aid Module 11.1 Enabling Objectives and Certification Statement Objective Part 66 Reference Licence Category A Bit ‘Aeroplane Aerodynamics and Flight Controls W414 7 2 Operation and effect of. = roll control: ailerons and spoilers - pitch control: elevators, stabilators, variable incidence ‘Stabilisers and canards = yaw control, rudder limiters Control using elevons, ruddervators; High lift devices, slots, slats, flaps, flaperons; Drag inducing devices, spoilers, lift dumpers, speed brakes: Effects of wing fences, saw tooth leading edges; Boundary layer control using, vortex generators, stall wedges or leading edge devices; Operation and effect of trim tabs, balance and anti- balance (leading) tabs, servo tabs, spring tabs, mass balance, control surface bias, aerodynamic balance panels; High Speed Flight 112 Speed of sound, subsonic flight, transonic fight, supersonic flight Mach number, critical Mach number, compressibility buffet, shock wave, aerodynamic heating, area rule; Factors affecting airflow in engine intakes of high speed airoraft Effects of sweepback on critical Mach number Module 11.1 Theory of Flight TIS Integrated Training System © Copyright 2012 ArIntegrated Training System Designed in association with the iubBpro.com question practice ald Intentionally Blank 18 Module 11.1 Theory of Flight ‘TTS Integrated Tiina Systern ‘© Gopyight 2012fs py Integrated Training System Design in svociton wih the ‘ub com question practice aid Module 11.1 Theory of Flight 11.1.1 Aeroplane Aerodynamics and Flight Controls The Atmosphere The earth's atmosphere is composed of about 78 percent nitrogen and 21 percent oxygen. The remaining 1 percent is made up of several other gases, primarily argon and carbon dioxide. The percentage of these gases remains constant regardless of their altitude. The atmosphere also contains some water vapour, but the amount varies from almost zero to about five percent by volume. In order to have a reference for all aerodynamic computations, the Intemational Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) has agreed upon a standard atmosphere. The pressures, temperatures, and densities in a standard atmosphere serve as a reference only. When all aerodynamic computations are related to this standard, a meaningful comparison of flight test data between aircraft can be made. Standard atmospheric conditions are based on a sea level temperature of 15€ or 59, and a barometric pressure of 29.92 inches of mercury or 1013.2 Millibars. Pressure and temperature normally decrease with increases in altitude. The standard pressure lapse rate for each 1,000 feet of altitude change is approximately 1.00 inch of mercury, whereas the standard temperature lapse rate per 1,000-foot change in altitude is 2 or 3.5F. Pressure Everything on the earth's surface is under pressure due to the weight of the atmosphere. The amount of pressure applied equals the weight of a column of air one square inch in cross sectional area that extends to the top of the atmosphere. There are three systems commonly used in aviation for measuring pressure. They are pounds per square inch, inches of mercury, and Miilibars. * Pounds Per Square Inch (PSI) The force in pounds that the air exerts on each square inch of area is expressed in pounds per square inch or PSI. At sea level, the air exerts a pressure of 14.69 PSI. Approximately one-half of the air in the atmosphere is below 18,000 feet. Therefore, the pressure at 18,000 feet is about 7.34 PSI, or half of that at sea level. Most pressures expressed in pounds per square inch generally do not account for atmospheric pressure and, therefore, indicate the pressure in excess of atmospheric pressure. These pressures are generally read from a gauge and are referred to as a gauge pressure (psig). Fuel and oil pressure are both measured in gauge pressure and indicate the amount a pump raises the pressure of the liquid above atmospheric pressure + Inches of Mercury When a tube is filled with mercury and inverted in a bowl, the mercury drops in the tube until the atmospheric pressure exerted on the mercury in the bowl equals the weight of Module 11.1 Theory of Flight 19 ‘TTS Iniegrates Training System © Copyright 2012Integrated Training System Designed in sssociation vith the ) ™a _— Glass tube 760 mam (29.92 in)| | Atmospheric pressure te Mercury Figure 1.1: Under standard atmospheric conditions, the atmosphere can support a column of mercury 29.92 inches tall Figure 1.2: An altimeter measures absolute pressure and displays the result in feet above sea level. 1.40 Module 11.1 Theory of Flight ‘TTS integrated Training System — {© Copyright 2012ing System Pressure that is referenced from zero pressure is called absolute pressure and is usually measured in inches of mercury. Absolute pressure in the induction system of a piston engine forces the fuel-air mixture into the cylinders. Thus, the pilot reads absolute pressure in inches of mercury on the manifold pressure gauge. Another instrument that displays absolute pressure is an altimeter. However, the scale is marked in feet rather than in units of pressure. When the barometric scale in an altimeter is set to the current barometric pressure, the altimeter displays its height above sea level. The barometric scale used in most altimeters in the UK and USA is calibrated in inches of mercury The metric unit of measure for barometric pressure is Millibars. One millibar is approximately equivalent to 0.0295 in.Hg, and, therefore, standard sea level pressure is equivalent to 1013.2 Millibars. Some altimeters have their barometric scale calibrated in Millibars. Air Temperature As it relates to the study of aerodynamics, there are two temperature scales you must be familiar with. They are the Fahrenheit scale and the Celsius scale. The Celsius scale has 100 divisions between the freezing and boiling points of pure water. Water freezes at zero degrees C and boils at 100 degrees C. The Fahrenheit scale is also based on the freezing and boiling points of water. However, water freezes at 32 degrees F and boils at 212 degrees F. The stan- dard temperature for all aerodynamic computations is 15°C or 59F-. Air Density By use of the general gas laws studied earlier, you can derive that for a particular gas, pressure and temperature determine density. Since standard pressures and temperatures are associated with each altitude, the density of the air at these standard temperatures and pressures is also considered standard. Therefore, a particular atmospheric density is associated with each altitude. This gives rise to the expression density altitude. A density altitude of 10,000 feet is the altitude at which the density is the same as that considered standard for 10,000 feet. However, density altitude is not always the same as true altitude. For example, on a day when the atmospheric pressure is higher than standard and the temperature is lower than standard, the standard air density at 10,000 feet might occur at 12,000 feet. In this case, at a true altitude of 12,000 feet, the air has the same density as standard air at 10,000 feet. Therefore, density altitude is 2 calculated altitude obtained by correcting pressure altitude for temperature. The water content of the air has a slight effect on the density of the air. It should be remembered that humid air at a given temperature and pressure is lighter than dry air at the same temperature and pressure. Module 11.1 Theory of Flight 444 ‘TTS Integrated Training System © Copyright 2012Integrated Training System Designed in association wih the ube com quetionprae ic Air Humidity As you know, the air is seldom completely dry. It contains water in the form of fog or water vapour. Fog consists of minute droplets of water held in suspension by the air. Clouds are composed of fog. As a result of evaporation, the atmosphere always contains some moisture in the form of water vapour. The moisture in the air is often referred to as humidity Fog and humidity both affect the performance of an aircraft. For example, since humid air is less dense than dry air, the allowable takeoff gross weight of an aircraft is generally reduced when operating in humid conditions. Secondly, since water vapour is incombustible, its presence in the atmosphere results in a loss of engine power output. The reason for this is that as the mixture of water vapour and air is drawn through the carburettor, fuel is metered into it as though it were all air. Since water vapour does not burn, the effective fuel/air ratio is enriched and the engine operates as though it were on an excessively rich mixture. The resulting power loss under humid conditions is therefore attributed to the loss in volumetric efficiency due to displaced air, and the incomplete combustion due to an excessively rich fuel/air mixture. The power loss on a piston engine can be as high as 12 percent, while a turbine seldom loses more than two or three percent © Absolute Humi Absolute humidity refers to the actual amount of water vapour in a mixture of air and water. The amount of water vapour the air can hold varies with air temperature. The higher the air temperature the more water vapour the air can hold. * Relative Humidity Relative humidity is the ratio between the amounts if moisture in the air to the amount : that would be present if the air were saturated. For example, a relative humidity of 75 percent means that the air is holding 75 percent of the total water vapour it is capable of holding. Relative humidity has a dramatic effect on aeroplane performance because of its effect on air density. In equal volumes, water vapour weighs 62 percent as much as air. This means that in high humidity conditions the density of the air is less than that of dry air. Dewpoint Dewpoint is the temperature at which air reaches a state where it can hold no more water. When the dewpoint is reached, the air contains 100 percent of the moisture it can hold at that temperature, and is said to be saturated. If the temperature drops below the dewpoint, condensation occurs. ~ 412 Module 11.1 Theory of Flight ‘TTS Integrated Training Syste — ‘© Copyright 2012Integrated Training System jon with he The Aeroplane Anatomy One of the first things you are likely to notice when you begin working on aircraft is the wide variety of aeroplane styles and designs. Although, at first glance, you may think that aeroplanes look quite different from one another, you will find that their major components are quite similar. The Fuselage The fuselage serves several functions. Besides being a common attachment point for the other major components, it houses a cockpit where a flight crew operates the aircraft and a cabin area for passengers or cargo. If the aircraft is meant to carry passengers, he cabin is typically equipped with seats, galleys, and lavatories. In this configuration, cargo and baggage are placed in a dedicated cargo area or pit in the lower part of the fuselage. The Wing When air flows around the wings of an aeroplane, it generates a force called “lift” that helps the aeroplane fly. Wings are contoured to take maximum advantage of this force. The wings have two types of control surfaces attached to the rear, or trailing, edges. They are referred to as ailerons and flaps. Ailerons extend from about the midpoint of each wing outward to the tip. They move in opposite directions — when one aileron goes up, the other goes down Flaps extend outward from the fuselage to the midpoint of each wing. They always move in the same direction. If one flap is down, the other is down. AILERON Figure 1.3: The ailerons are moved by turning the control wheel in the cockpit. When the wheel is turned to the left, the left aileron moves up and the right moves down. Turning the wheel to the right has the opposite effect. The flaps operate using @ switch or handle located in the cockpit. Module 11.1 Theory of Flight 1.13 TTS Integrated Training System: © Copyright 2012mie rate tatinglsysiem yp ‘lubE6pro.com Some larger aircraft employ spoilers on the top of the wing to disrupt the airflow and reduce lift Spoilers are used both as a flight control to aid the ailerons in rolling the aircraft, or as air brakes to slow the aircraft during landing and rollout. The Empennage The empennage consists of the vertical stabilizer, or fin, and the horizontal stabilizer. These two surfaces are stationary and act like the feathers on an arrow to steady the aeroplane and help you maintain a straight path through the air. Vertical Stabilizer Rudder Horizontal Stabilizer ‘Trim Tabs Elevator Figure 1.4: Besides the two fixed components, the empennage has two important movable surfaces called the rudder and the elevator. The rudder is attached to the back of the vertical stabilizer to move the aeroplane’s nose left and right. Actually, the rudder is used in combination with the ailerons during flight to initiate a tum. The rudder has the greatest control authority of all the control surfaces. Aggressive use of the rudder by the pilot has been known to cause catastrophic failure of the aircraft structure. For this reason, large transport category aircraft incorporate Rudder Limiters, which reduce the range of movement of the rudder as the aircraft speed increases. The elevator is attached to the back of the horizontal stabilizer. During flight, the elevator is used to move the nose up and down to direct the aeroplane to the desired altitude, or height above the ground. Stabilator Some empennage designs vary from the type of horizontal stabilizer just discussed. They have a one-piece horizontal stabilizer that pivots up and down from a central hinge point. This type of design, called a stabilator, requires no elevator. The stabilator is moved using the control wheel, 1.14 Module 11.1 Theory of Flight “TTS integrated Training Sytem © Copyright 2012Integrated Training System Designed in association withthe ‘lubsspro.com question practice aid just as you would the elevator. An anti-servo tab is mounted at the back of the stabilator, to provide a control “fee!” similar to what you experience with an elevator. Without the anti-servo tab, control forces from the stabilator would be very light and a pilot could “over control" the aeroplane. Stabilator Antiservo Tab Pivot Point Figure 4.5: The stabilator pivots up and down as the control wheel is moved. The anti-servo tab moves in the same direction as the trailing edge of the stabilator. Some aircraft merge two flight controls into one system. For example, some Beechcraft Bonanza models have ruddervators that combine rudders and elevators into one control surface. Depending on control inputs, the ruddervators move in the same direction for pitch control, and in opposite directions for yaw control. Still other aircraft combine spoilers and ailerons into spoilerons to provide roll. Furthermore, some delta-wing aircraft merge elevator and aileron functions through control surfaces called elevons. Trim Controls Trim tabs are small movable portions of the trailing edge of the control surface. These movable trim tabs are controlled from the cockpit and alter the control surface camber to create an aerodynamic force that deflects the control surface. Trim tabs can be installed on any of the primary control surfaces. If only one tab is used, it is normally on the elevator. This is used to adjust the tail load so the aeroplane can be flown hands-off at any given airspeed. A fixed trim tab is normally a piece of sheet metal attached to the trailing edge of a control surface. This fixed tab is adjusted on the ground by bending it in the appropriate direction to Module 11.1 Theory of Flight 4.15 “TTS Integrated Training System © Copan 2012Integrated Training System Designed in association with the IUBESpro com question practoe aid eliminate flight control forces for a specific flight condition. The fixed tab is normally adjusted for zero-control forces in cruise flight. Adjustment of the tab is a trial-and-error process where the aircraft must be flown and the trim tab adjusted based on the pilot's report. The aircraft must then be flown again to see if further adjustment is necessary. Fixed tabs, normally found on light aircraft, are used to adjust rudders and ailerons, Large aircraft obviously require larger control surfaces, and more force is required to move them. To assist in moving these larger surfaces, control tabs are mounted on the trailing edges of the control surfaces. For example, a servo tab is connected directly to an aircraft's flight controls and moves in a direction opposite the desired control surface movement. CONTROL HORN /_— CONTROL SURFACE ADJUSTABLE LINKAGE Figure 1.6: Trim tabs alter the camber of a control surface to create an aerodynamic force that deflects the control surface. As the tab deflects into the airstream, it forces the control surface in the opposite direction. Balance tabs receive no control inputs, but are connected to a main structure. When a control is activated, the balance tab deflects into the airstream and helps move the control surface. 1.16 Module 11.1 Theory of Flight ‘TTS integrated Training System 1© Copyright 2012Integrated Training System Four Forces of Flight ~ During flight, there are four forces acting on an aeroplane. They are lift, weight, thrust, and drag. Lift is the upward force created by the effect of airfiow as it passes over and under the wings. It supports the aeroplane in flight. Weight opposes lift. It is caused by the downward pull of gravity. Thrust is the forward force which propels the aeroplane through the aif. LiFT THRUST Figure 1.7: The four aerodynamic forces are in equilibrium during straight-and-level, unaccelerated flight. Lift is equal to and directly opposite weight and thrust is equal to and directly opposite drag. — It varies with the amount of engine power being used. Opposing thrust is drag, which is a backward or retarding force that limits the speed of the aeroplane. The arrows which show the forces acting on an aeroplane are often called vectors. The magnitude of a vector is indicated by the arrow’s length, while the direction is shown by the arrow’s orientation. When two or more forces act on an object at the same time, they combine to create a resultant. Lift Lift is the key aerodynamic force. It is the force that opposes weight. In straight-and-level, unaccelerated flight, when weight and lift are equal, an aeroplane is in a state of equilibrium. If the other aerodynamic factors remain constant, the aeroplane neither gains nor loses altitude. During flight, the pressures on the upper and lower surfaces of the wing are not the same. — Although several factors contribute to this difference, the shape of the wing is the principle one. The wing is designed to divide the airflow into areas of high pressure below the wing and areas of comparatively lower pressure above the wing. This pressure differential, which is created by movement of air about the wing, is the primary source of lift Module 11.1 Theory of Flight TIS Integrated Training System 18 Copyright 2012Integrated Training System Designed in association with the out RESULTANT 1S ZERO SO weichr Figure 1.8: When vertical and horizontal forces are applied, as shown on the left, the resultant acts in a diagonal direction. When opposing vertical forces are applied, as shown on the right, they tend to counteract one another. If the forces are equal in magnitude, the resultant is zero. Bernoulli's Principle The basic principle of pressure differential of subsonic airflow was discovered by Daniel Bemoulli, a Swiss physicist. Bernoulli's Principle, simply stated, says, “As the velocity of a fluid {air) increases, its internal pressure decreases.” Velocity Pressure Veloatty Pressure Velocity Pressure > Figure 1.9: As the air enters the tube, it is travelling at a known velocity and i: pressure. When the airflow enters the narrow portion, the velocity increases and the pressure decreases. Then, as the airflow continues through the tube to the wider portion, both the velocity and pressure return to their original values. One way you can visualize this principle is to imagine air flowing through a tube that is narrower in the middle than at the ends. This type of device is usually called a venturi. 1.18 Module 11.1 Theory of Flight “T78 inteorated Trini System "@ Copytght 2012Integrated Training System ect in a wit the ‘cam question practice ic It is not necessary for air to pass through an enclosed tube for Bernoulli's Principle to apply. Any surface that alters airflow causes a venturi effect. For example, if the upper portion of the tube is removed, the venturi effect applies to air flowing along the lower section of the tube. Velocity above the curvature is increased and pressure is decreased. You can begin to see how the venturi effect works on a wing, or aerofoil, if you picture an aerofoil inset in the curved part of the tube. Air flowing over the top of an aerofoil reaches the trailing edge in the same amount of time as air flowing along the relatively flat bottom. Since both the upper and lower surfaces pass through a block of air at the same speed, the air flowing over the curved upper surface travels, further. This means it must go faster, resulting in lower pressure above the aerofoil and a greater pressure below. An aerofoil is specially designed to produce a reaction with the air that passes over it. This difference in pressure is the main source of lift. Figure 1.10: An aerofoil changes the relationship between air pressure and velocity in the same way it is changed in a Venturi Module 11.1 Theory of Flight 41.19 TIS Integrated Teiring Systm © Copyngnt 2012Integrated Training System oy assocaton with the lub88pr0.com question p Newton’s Third Law of Motion The remaining lift is provided by the wing's lower surface as air striking the underside is deflected downward. According to Newton's Third Law of Motion, “for every action there is an equal am opposite reaction.” Therefore, the air that is deflected downward by the wing also produces an upward (lifting) reaction. Since air is much like water, the explanation for this source of lift may be compared to the planing effect of skis on water. The lift which supports the water skis (and the skier) is the force caused by the impact pressure and the deflection of water from the lower surfaces of the skis. Under most flying conditions, the impact pressure and the deflection of air from the lower surface of the wing provide a comparatively small percentage of the total lift. The majority of lift is the result of the decreased pressure above the wing rather than the increased pressure below it. Wingtip Vortices Wingtip vortices are caused by the air beneath the wing rolling up and around the wingtip. This causes a spiral or vortex that trails behind each wingtip whenever lift if being produced. It results in a type of drag which is associated with, and proportional to, the amount of lift, called induced drag (or ‘lift dependant drag’ or ‘vortex drag’). The effect is greatest at low speed with high lift devices deployed, and a high wing loading. It is discussed later in this section. Upwash and down-wash refer to the effect an aerofoil exerts on the free airstream. Upwash is the deflection of the oncoming airstream upward and over the wing. Downwash is the downward deflection of the airstream as it passes over the wing and past the trailing edge. NORMAL WINGTIP- VORTEX Figure 1.11: Whenever an aeroplane generates lift, air spills over the wingtips from the high pressure areas below the wings to the low pressure areas above them. This flow causes rapidly rotating whirlpools of air called wingtip vortices, or wake turbulence. The intensity of the turbulence depends on aircraft weight, speed, and configuration. 1.20 Module 11.1 Theory of Flight ‘TTS Integrated Training Systom ‘© Copyright 2012Integrated Training System Designed in astociaton with the celud66970.c2m question pra The Aerofoil An aerofoil is any surface, such as a wing or propeller that provides aerodynamic force when it interacts with a moving stream of air. Remember, an aeroplane’s wing generates a lifting force only when it is in motion about it. Some of the terms used to describe the wing, and the interaction of the airflow about it, are listed here. LEADING EDGE / UPPER CAMBER CHORD LINE LOWER ANGLE OF ATTACK: CAMBER Figure 1.12: This figure shows a cross-section of a wing in straight- and-level flight. Chord and camber are terms which help to define the wing's shape, while flight path and relative wind help define the movement of the wing with respect to the surrounding air. Angle of attack is determined by the wing’s chord line and the relative wind. Leading edge — This part of the aerofoil meets the airflow first. Trailing edge — This is the portion of the aerofoil where the airflow over the upper surface rejoins the lower surface airflow. Chord line — The chord line is an imaginary straight line drawn through an aerofoil from the leading edge to the trailing edge. Camber — The camber of an aerofoil is the characteristic curve of its upper and lower surfaces. The upper camber is more pronounced, while the lower camber is comparatively flat. This causes the velocity of the airflow immediately above the wing to be much higher than that below the wing. Relative wind — This is the direction of the airflow with respect to the wing. If a wing moves for- ward horizontally, the relative wind moves backward horizontally. Relative wind is parallel to and opposite the flight path of the aeroplane. Angle of attack — This is the angle between the chord line of the aerofoil and the direction of the relative wind, It is important in the production of lift. The angle formed by the wing chord line and relative wind is called the angle of attack. Module 11.1 Theory of Flight 1.24 ‘TTS Inlegrated Training System © Copyright 2012Integrated Training System i association with the pro.com question pra 4 pn 5° am, 18° Figure 1.13: As the angle of attack increases, lift also increases. Notice that lift acts perpendicular to the relative wind, regardless of angle of attack. 1.22 Module 11.1 Theory of Flight ‘TTS Integrated Training System “© Copyright 2012Integrated Training System Designed in asociton wit the clubéépr.cam quetion practoe ad 1.6 1.2) COEFFICIENT OF LIFT (C1) “4 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 ANGLE OF ATTACK IN DEGREES Figure 1.14: As angle of attack increases, C, also increases. This continues to a point where C, peaks. This point of maximum lift is called Cymax. In this example, Cmax OCCUFS at about 17° If the maximum lift angle is exceeded , lift decreases rapidly and the wing stalls. — Changing Angle of Attack Pilots have direct control over angle of attack. During flight at normal operating speeds, if a pilot increases the angle of attack, lift increases. The angle of attack is changed anytime the control column is moved fore or aft during flight. At the same time, the coefficient of lift is changed. The coefficient of lift (C_) is a way to measure lift as it relates to angle of attack. C, is determined by wind tunnel tests and is based on aerofoil shape and angle of attack. Every aeroplane has an angle of attack where maximum lift occurs. A stall is caused by the separation of airflow from the wing's upper surface. This results in a rapid decrease in lift. For a given aeroplane, a stall always occurs at the same angle of attack (known as the ‘critical angle’), regardless of airspeed, flight attitude, or weight. This is the stalling or critical angle of attack. It is important to remember that an aeroplane can stall at any airspeed, in any flight attitude, or at any weight. ~ To recover from a stall, smooth airflow must be restored. The only way to do this is to decrease the angle of attack to a point below the stalling or critical angle of attack. Module 11.1 Theory of Flight 1.23 TTS integrated Training System ©Copyright 2012Integrated Training System Desi ciation withthe clubéepro.com question practice ald Separation points a 0 Sse Turbulent wake ‘Separation point moves — slightly forward a _/ Blhtiy forwar ° i eres Maximum tift 416° = ‘Separation pointjumps (stall angle) SS forward et a ‘Separated flow region expands a ——_and reduces lift = 20° > ~ SS 5) > STF Large turbulent wake 22 0 > (reduced lift and large pressure drag) Figure 1.16: Increasing the angle of attack beyond Cimax causes progressive disruption of airflow from the upper surface of the wing. At first, the airflow begins to separate at the trailing edge. As angle of attack is further increased, the airflow separation progresses forward until the wing is fully stalled Changing Airspeed The faster the wing moves through the air, the greater the lift. Actually, lift is proportional to the square of the aeroplane’s speed. For example, at 200 knots, an aeroplane has four times the lift of the same aeroplane travelling at 100 knots if the angle of attack and other factors are constant. On the other hand, if the speed is reduced by one-half, lift is decreased to one-quarter of the previous value. Angle of Attack and Airspeed The relationship between angle of attack and airspeed in the production of lift is not as complex as it may seem. Angle of attack establishes the coefficient of lift for the aerofoil. At the same time, lift is proportional to the square of the aeroplane’s speed. Therefore, total lift depends on the combined effects if airspeed and angle of attack. In other words, when speed decreases, the angle of attack must increase to maintain the same amount of lift. Conversely, if the same amount of lift is maintained at a higher speed, the angle of attack must decrease. Using Flaps When properly used, flaps increase the lifting efficiency of the wing and decrease stall speed. This allows the aircraft to fly at a reduced speed while maintaining sufficient control and lift for sustained flight. 1.24 Module 11.1 Theory of Flight TTS intograted Training System {© Copyright 2012Integrated Training System jon vith the pro.cam question practice ac The ability to fly slowly is particularly important during the approach and landing phases. For example, an approach with full flaps allows the aircraft to fly slowly and at a fairly steep descent angle without gaining airspeed. This allows for touch down at slower speed In aeroplanes, “configuration” normally refers to the position of the landing gear and flaps. When the gear and flaps are up, an aeroplane is in a clean configuration. If the gear is fixed rather than retractable, the aeroplane is considered to be in a clean configuration when the flaps are in the up position. Flap position affects the chord line and angle of attack for that section of the wing where the flaps are attached. This causes an increase in camber for that section of the wing and greater production of lift and drag. There are several common types of flaps. The plain flap is attached to the wing by a hinge. When deflected downward, it increases the effective camber and changes the wing's chord line. ANGLE OF ATTACK 5° FLAPS UP CHORD LINE a es CHEE ANGLE OF ATTACK 10° CEERI FLAPS DOWN =e Une aos Figure 1.16: Flaps increase lift (and drag) by increasing the wing's effective camber and changing the chord line, which increases the angle of attack. In some cases, flaps also increase the area of the wing. Most flaps, when fully extended, form an angle of 35°to 40°relative to t he wing. Both of these factors increase the lifting capacity of the wing. The split flap is hinged only to the lower portion of the wing. This type of flap also increases lift, but it produces greater drag than the plain flap because of the turbulence it causes. The slotted flap is similar to the plain flap. In addition to changing the wing's camber and chord line, it also allows a portion of the higher pressure air beneath the wing to travel through a slot. This increases the velocity of the airflow over the flap and provides additional lift. Another type of flap is the Fowler flap. It is attached to the wing by a track and roller system. When extended, it moves rearward as well as down. This rearward motion increases the total wing area, as well as the camber and chord line. The Fowler flap is the most efficient of these systems. As you might expect, it also is the most expensive Module 11.1 Theory of Flight 1.25 ‘TTS Integrated Training Syetem © Copyright 2012Integrated Training System Designed in ion withthe clube jon practice ad PLAIN FLAP. SPLIT FLAP a SLOTTED FLAP FOWLER FLAP Figure 1.17: Flap types include plain, split, slotted, and Fowler. Although some flaps increase the wing's surface area, most change only the effective camber and the chord line. Using Leading Edge Devices Astall occurs when the angle of attack becomes so great that the energy in the air flowing over the wing can no longer pull air down to the surface. The boundary layer thickens and becomes turbulent, and airflow separates from the surface. This separation can be delayed until a higher angle of attack by increasing the energy of air flowing over the surface. One way to do this is by installing a slot in the leading edge of the wing. This slot is simply a duct for air to flow from below the wing to the top. Once there, it is directed over the surface in a high-velocity stream. Slots are typically placed ahead of the aileron to keep the outer portion of the wing flying after the root has stalled. This maintains aileron effectiveness and provides lateral control during most of the stall Many high-performance aircraft utilize slats which are mounted on the leading edge on tracks. These extend outward and create a duct to direct high-energy air down over the surface. This delays separation until a very high angle of attack In many aircraft these slats are actuated by aerodynamic forces and are entirely automatic in their operation. As the angle of attack increases, the low pressure just behind the leading edge on top of the wing increases. This pulls the slat out of the wing. When the slat moves out, it ducts the air from the high-pressure area below the wing to the upper surface and increases the velocity of air in the boundary layer. When the angle of attack is lowered, air pressure on the slat moves it back into the wing where it has no effect on airflow. 1.26 Module 11.1 Theory of Flight ‘TTS integrated Tisining System ‘© Copyright 2012Integrated Training System signed in association th th pro.com question practes Figure 1.18: A fixed slot ducts air over the top of the wing at high angles of attack. SLAT RETRACTED oS. SLAT EXTENDED Figure 1.19: A movable slat moves out of the leading edge of the wing at high angles of attack to form a duct for high energy air. — Some aircraft have slats operated by either hydraulic or electric actuators. They are lowered when the trailing edge flaps are lowered to prevent airflow from breaking away from the upper surface. Flaps used with slats are slotted and they duct high-energy air over the deflected flap sections so the air will not break away over their surface On some aircraft, the leading edge of the wing deflects downward to increase camber. These leading edge flaps are electrically or hydraulically actuated and are used in conjunction with the trailing edge flaps. The swept wings of large turbine-engined transports develop little lit at low speeds. To remedy this problem, leading edge devices called Krueger flaps are used to effectively increase a wing's camber and hence its lift. A Krueger fiap is hinged to a wing’s leading edge and lays flush to its __ lower surface when stowed. When the flap is deployed, it extends down and forward to alter the wing profile. Module 11.1 Theory of Flight 1.27 \_ TIS integrated Training System © Copyright 2012Integrated Training System op’ Designed in association withthe club86pro.com question practoe aid Wing Planforms Wing design is based on the anticipated use of the aeroplane, cost, and other factors. The main design considerations are wing planform, camber, aspect ratio, and total wing area. Planform refers to the shape of the aeroplane’s wing when viewed from above or below. Each planform design has advantages and disadvantages. The rectangular wing (straight wing) is used on most light aircraft because it has @ tendency to stall first at the root, providing adequate warning and aileron effectiveness. r+ RECTANGULAR WING ELLIPTICAL WING «MODERATE TAPER WING © SWEEPEACK WING Figure 1.20: The rectangular wing has excellent slow-flight characteristics in that a stall begins at the wing root providing adequate stall warning and aileron effectiveness throughout the stall. The elliptical and tapered wings, on the other hand, typically stall along the entire trailing edge providing little stall waming. The sweptback and delta wings used on higher performance aircraft are efficient at high speeds, but not at low speeds. Itis important that a wing begins to stall at the root first so the ailerons are able to provide lateral control throughout a stall. If a wing does not have this characteristic naturally, it can be obtained by installing small triangular stall strips at the root of the wing's leading edge. When the angle of attack is increased and a stall occurs, the strips disturb the air enough to hasten the stall on the section of wing behind them. This loss of lift causes the nose of the aeroplane to drop while the outer portion of the wing is still flying and the ailerons are still effective. If a stall strip is missing from a wing's leading edge, the aircraft will consequently have asymmetrical aileron control at or near stall angles of attack. In other words, as the aircraft approaches a stall, the wing lacking its stall strip loses its aileron effectiveness first. As a result, the aircraft will have uneven aileron control Camber, as noted earlier, affects the difference in the velocity of the airflow between the upper and lower surfaces of the wing. If the upper camber increases and the lower camber remains the same, the wing is said to be asymmetrical and the velocity differential increases. ‘Symmetrical wings, on the other hand, have the same curve on the top and bottom of the wing. This type of wing relies on a positive angle of attack to generate lift and is generally used on high performance, aerobatic aircraft. Fineness Ratio is the ratio of the wing chord to the wing thickness at its thickest point, for any given wing section. Thus a thin wing has a large fineness ratio. A wing with a large fineness ratio has a much lower amount of trailing turbulence and boundary layer (skin friction), and therefore has a reduced drag. Fineness ratio is the greatest controlling factor of turbulence and skin friction. Aspect ratio is the ratio of the wing span to the average chord, or mean chord. It is one of the primary factors in determining the three dimensional characteristics of a wing and its liftidrag 4.28 Module 11.1 Theory of Flight TTS Integrated Training Systom ‘©Copyright 20124 Integrated Training System characteristics. An increase in aspect ratio at a given velocity results in a decrease in drag, especially at high angles of attack. It does however result in a lower stall angle and a higher stall speed. ASYMMETRICAL AIRFOIL ae SYMMETRICAL AIRFOIL Figure 1.21: The asymmetrical wing has a greater camber across the wing's upper surface than the lower surface. This type of wing is primarily used on low speed aircraft. This symmetrical wing, on the other hand, is typically used on high performance aircraft and has identical upper and lower cambers. SPAN ASPECT RATIO= ———="SN __ AVERAGE CHORD + ) ASPECT RATIO = 4, _ ar CHORD WING AREA = 144 SQ. FT.. /-}_-——— 24 FT. SPAN +] ‘ASPECT RATIO =8 aFTLAVERD WING AREA = 144 SQ. FT._| CHORD -———— FT. PAE: oteeerentenmmentnsortil Figure 1.22: Aspect ratio is the span of the wing, wingtip to wingtip, divided by its average chord. In general, the higher the aspect ratio the higher the lifting efficiency of the wing. For example, gliders may have an aspect ratio of 20 to 30, while typical light aircraft have an aspect ratio of about seven to nine. Aspect ratio is sometimes calculated by span” / wing area. This formula is derived by multiplying the top and bottom of the span/average chord, by span. This negates the requirement to calculate the average chord (which may be difficult on a wing which has many changes in chord or of tapering planform) Module 11.1 Theory of Flight 1.29 ‘TIS Integrated Training System © Copyright 2012Integrated Training System Designed in a watt ANGLE OF INCIDENCE Figure 1.23: Angle of incidence refers to the angle between the wing chord line and a line parallel to the longitudinal axis of the aeroplane. A slight positive angle of incidence provides a positive angle of attack while the aeroplane is in level flight at normal cruising speed. Wing area is the total surface area of the wings. Most wings do not produce a great amount of lift per square foot, so wing area must be sufficient to support the weight of the aeroplane. For example, in a light aircraft at normal operating speed, the wings produce about 10.5 pounds of lift for each square foot of wing area. This means a wing area of 200 square feet is required to support an aeroplane weight of 2,100 pounds during straight-and-level flight. Once the design of the wing is determined, the wing is mounted on the aeroplane. Usually it is attached to the fuselage with the chord line inclined upward at a slight angle, which is called the angle of incidence. Weight The weight of the aeroplane is not a constant. It varies with the equipment installed, passengers, cargo, and fuel load. During the course of a flight, the total weight of the aeroplane decreases as fuel is consumed. Additional weight reduction may also occur during some specialized flight activities, such as crop dusting, fire fighting, or sky diving flights. In contrast, the direction in which the force of weight acts is constant. It always acts straight down toward the centre of the earth. Thrust Thrust is the forward-acting force which opposes drag and propels the aeroplane. In some aeroplanes, this force is provided when the engine tums the propeller. Each propeller blade is cambered like the aerofoil shape of a wing. This shape, plus the angle of attack of the blades, produces reduced pressure in front of the propeller and increased pressure behind it. As is the case with the wing, this produces a reaction force in the direction of the lesser pressure. This is how the propeller produces thrust, the force which moves the aeroplane forward. Jet engines produce thrust by accelerating a relatively small mass of air to a high velocity. A jet engine draws air into its intake, compresses it, and then mixes it with fuel. When this mixture burns, the resulting heat expands the gas, which is expelled at high velocity from the engine’s exhaust, producing thrust. 1.30 Module 11.1 Theory of Flight ‘TTS Integrated Training System ‘© Copytight 2012Integrated Training System {ned in association with the __ Drag Drag is caused by any aircraft surface that deflects or interferes with the smooth airflow around the aeroplane. A highly cambered, large surface area wing creates more drag (and lift) than a small, moderately cambered wing. If you increase airspeed, or angle of attack, you increase drag (and lift). Drag acts in opposition to the direction of flight, opposes the forward-acting force of thrust, and limits the forward speed of the aeroplane. Drag is broadly classified as either profile or induced. Profile Drag Profile drag includes all drag created by the aeroplane, except that drag directly associated with the production of lift. It is created by the disruption of the flow of air around the aeroplane's surfaces. Profile drag normally is divided into three types: ca * form drag, © skin friction drag, and © interference drag. Form drag is created by any structure which protrudes into the relative wind. The amount of drag created is related to both the size and shape of the structure. For example, a square strut creates substantially more drag than a smooth or rounded strut. Streamlining reduces form drag. Skin friction drag is caused by the roughness of the aeroplane’s surfaces. Even though these surfaces may appear smooth, under a microscope they may be quite rough. A thin layer of air clings to these rough surfaces and creates small eddies which contribute to drag, Interference drag occurs when varied currents of air over an aeroplane meet and interact. This — interaction creates additional drag. One example of this type of drag is the mixing of the air where the wing and fuselage join Each type of profile drag varies with the speed of the aeroplane. The combined effect of all profile drag varies proportionately to the square of the air speed. In other words, if airspeed is doubled, profile drag increases by a factor of four. Module 11.1 Theory of Flight 131 —~ TTS Integrated Training System © Copyright 2012Integrated Training System Designed in esscciation with the elubapr. practice ald 490 @ 300 g = 5 200 SY 100 PROFILE DRAG 0 40 80 120 160 200 SPEED Figure 1.24: If airspeed is doubled, profile drag increases fourfold. This is the same formula that applies to lift. Because of its rapid increase with increasing airspeed, profile drag is predominant at high speeds 400 300 DRAG. 4088 INDUCED DRAG 0 4 80 120 160 200 SPEED Figure 1.25: Induced drag is inversely proportional to the square of the speed. If speed is decreased by half, induced drag increases fourfold. It is the major cause of drag at reduced speeds near the stall; but, as speed increases, induced drag decreases. 1.32 Module 11.1 Theory of Flight TTS Integrated Training System — — ‘© Copyright 2012Designed in association with the cy Integrated Training System clubespro.com uo Boundary Layer The boundary layer is a very thin layer of air flowing over the surface of an aircraft wing, or aerofoil, (as well as other surfaces of the aircraft). The molecules directly touching the surface of the wing are virtually motionless due to friction with the aerofoil surface. Each layer of molecules within the boundary layer moves faster than the layer that is closer to the surface of the wing, At the top of the boundary layer, the molecules move at the same speed as the molecules outside the boundary layer. This speed is called the free-stream velocity. The actual speed at which the molecules move depends upon the shape of the wing, the viscosity, or stickiness, of the air, and its compressibility (how much it can be compacted) Further, boundary layers may be either laminar (layered), or turbulent (disordered). As the boundary layer moves toward the centre of the wing, it begins to lose speed due to skin friction drag. At its ‘transition region’ (or transition ‘point’), the boundary layer changes from laminar, where the velocity changes uniformly with distance from the object's surface increases, to — turbulent, where the velocity is characterized by unsteady (changing with time) swirling flows inside the boundary layer. Distance from Surface 0.7in Distance from tion Surface 07 Testo Velocity Profile Turbulent Laminar Sub-Layer Figure 1.26: A boundary layer profile A turbulent boundary layer contains an increased airflow speed (although not all airflow is in the rearwards direction) and contains a greater amount of energy as a consequence of this. For this reason, a turbulent boundary layer produces more skin friction drag. The positive effect of a turbulent boundary layer’s increased energy content is that it will stick to a cambered surface for longer before it breaks away (i.e. delays the stall). For this reason, flow tripping devices such as vortex generators are strategically placed on the wing ahead of flaps to trip the laminar boundary layer into a turbulent boundary layer and thus maintain the boundary layer adhesion as the flap deployment increases the camber. This will be at the expense of some skin friction drag, but is often outweighed by a reduced form drag The dimples on a goff ball perform this “flow-tripping” function. The dimples advance the transition point (i.e. move it forward), thus creating a turbulent boundary layer which allows the airflow to adhere further around the back of golf ball, which much reduces the form drag, at the Module 11.1 Theory of Flight 1.33 TTS Integrated Training System © Copyright 2012Integrated Training System Designed in association with the ‘lub®Spro.com question practice add ‘expense of a small amount of skin friction drag. This allows the goff ball to travel further for any given strike from the club. ‘Separation Figure 1.27: Moving the transition point forward delays the separation point and thus reduces the form drag The flow outside of the boundary layer reacts to the shape of the edge of the boundary layer just as it would to the physical surface of an object. So the boundary layer gives any object an "effective" shape that is usually slightly different from the physical shape. The boundary layer may also lift off or separate from the body, creating an effective shape much different from the physical shape of the object and causing a dramatic decrease in lift and increase in drag. When this happens, the aerofoil has stalled. 1.34 Module 11.1 Theory of Flight TTS Integrated Training System © Copyright 2012Integrated Training System pro-com quastion practes a Induced Drag Induced drag is the main by-product of the production of lift. It is directly related to the angle of attack of the wing. The greater the angle, the greater the induced drag. Since the wing usually is at a low angle, of attack at high speed, and a high angle of attack at low speed, the relationship of induced drag to speed also can be plotted. An increase in aircraft weight will result in an increase in induced drag because the aircraft has to fly at an increased angle of attack (for any given speed) in order to support the weight. Over the past several years the winglet has been developed and used to reduce induced drag. As discussed earlier in this section, the high pressure air beneath the wing tends to spill over to the low pressure area above the wing, producing a strong secondary flow. If a winglet of the correct orientation and design is fitted to a wing tip, a rise in both total lift and drag is produced. However, with a properly designed winglet the amount of lift produced is greater than the additional drag, resulting in a net reduction in total drag, Total Drag Total drag for an aeroplane is the sum of profile and induced drag. The total drag curve represents these combined forces and is plotted against airspeed 400 TOTAL DRAG MiNiMUM DRAG OR 300 UD ee DRAG PROFILE DRAG INDUCED ce DRAG 0 40 80 120 160 200 SPEED 200. 100. Figure 1.28: The low point on the total drag curve shows the airspeed at which drag is minimized. This is the point where the lift-to-drag ratio is greatest. It is referred to as LIDMax. At this speed, the total lift capacity of the aeroplane, when compared to the total drag of the aeroplane, is most favourable. This is important in aeroplane performance. Module 11.1 Theory of Flight 1.35 ‘TTS integrated Training System © Copyight 2012Integrated Training System Designed in association with the oe a TAB Figure 1.85: A spring tab deflects only when the control forces are great enough to distort the torsion rod or collapse the spring capsule. Module 11.1 Theory of Flight 1.85 TS integrated Training System © Copyright 2012Integrated Training System Designed in association wth the HINGE LINE a BALANCE SURFACE ae Figure 1.86: The overhang on the control surface ahead of the hinge line aids the pilot in the movement of the surface. 1.86 Module 11.1 Theory of Flight ‘TTS Inegrated Training System ‘© Copyright 2012Integrated Training System oe In association vith the jn question practice aid clubs; Other Control Surface Features Balanced Control Surface Even on small, light aeroplanes, aerodynamic assistance in the movement of the controls has been used. The simplest form of this assistance is the balanced control surface. In the case of the rudder, the balance portion, or overhang, deflects to the opposite side of the fuselage from the main rudder surface to produce an aerodynamic force that aids the pilot in moving the surface. Aerodynamic Balance Panel The aerodynamic boost provided by the overhanging balance surface does not provide an increasing amount of assistance as the need increases. But an aerodynamic balance panel connected to the leading edge of the control surface may be built in such a way that it will provide very litfle help when the surface is deflected a small amount, but will increase the amount of assistance that it gives as the surface deflection is increased. The compartment ahead of the aileron is divided by a hinged lightweight, rigid balance panel which has a relatively large area. The panel divides this space into two smaller compartments, with one connected through a vent to the gap in the upper surface between the wing and the aileron, and the other through a vent to the same gap in the lower surface. When the aileron is deflected upward, the high velocity air over the lower vent gap decreases the air pressure under the balance panel and pulls it down. |] HINGE BALANCE PANEL VENT GAP ‘CONTROL “\ AILERON “ILERON HINGE POINT Figure 1.87: An aerodynamic balance panel aids the pilot in the movement of the control. The amount of aid increases as the deflection of the surface increases. This downward force on the leading edge of the aileron causes the trailing edge to move up. The greater the deflection, the lower the pressure, and the more assistance will be provided by the balance panel. When the aileron is moved downward, the high-velocity air over the top of the aileron will produce a pressure drop that will cause the balance panel to assist in moving the aileron down. Module 11.1 Theory of Flight 1.87 ‘TTS integrated Training System @ Copyright 2012Integrated Training System Designed in associ the clube pro.com question practice aid Control Surface Mass Balance A phenomenon known as control surface flutter occurs at specific speeds (usually high speeds) and can cause vibration of the airframe and in severe conditions can lead to structural divergence and catastrophic failure of the structure. The remedy for this is to set a specific mass some distance ahead of the control surface hinge- line, such that its moment about the control surface hinge is equal and opposite to the mass- moment of the control surface itself. Figure 1.88: The control surface mass balance can be seen on the Britten Norman Islander's aileron, on the end of a rod projecting forward of the hinge line. Most other manufacturers hide the mass balance within the wing structure. Figure 1.89: The overhang on this rudder houses a lead weight to move the centre of gravity of the surface ahead of its hinge line to prevent flutter 1.88 Module 11.1 Theory of Flight ‘TTS integrated Training System '@ Copyright 2012Integrated Training System Designed in associ club8pro.com question p V Speeds In aviation, V-speeds or Velocity-speeds are standard terms used to define airspeeds important or useful to the operation of aircraft These speeds are derived from data obtained by aircraft designers and manufacturers during flight testing and verified in most countries by government flight inspectors during aircraft type-certification testing. Using them is considered a best practice to maximize aviation safety, aircraft performance or both. The actual speeds represented by these designators are true airspeeds specific to a particular model of aircraft, and are expressed in terms of the aircraft's indicated airspeed, so that pilots may use them directly, without having to apply correction factors. In general aviation aircraft, the most commonly-used and most safety-critical airspeeds are displayed as colour-coded arcs and lines located on the face of an aircraft's airspeed indicator. The lower ends of the green arc and the white arc are the stalling speed with wing flaps retracted, and stalling speed with wing flaps fully extended, respectively. These are the stalling speeds for the aircraft at its maximum weight Having V speeds properly displayed is an airworthiness requirement for type-certificated aircraft in most parts of the world. V-speed designator V; Critical engine failure recognition speed. (See V; definitions below) \, Takeoff safety speed. The speed at which the aircraft may safely become airborne with one engine inoperative. Vomin Minimum takeoff safety speed Vs Flap retraction speed Steady initial climb speed. The all engines operating take-off climb speed used to Vs __ the point where acceleration to flap retraction speed is initiated. Should be attained by a gross height of 400 feet. Design manoeuvring speed, also known as the "Speed for maximum control deflection.” This is the speed above which it is unwise to make full application of Va any single flight control (or "pull to the stops") as it may generate a force greater than the aircraft's structural limitations. The heavier an aircraft is loaded the faster this speed Ve Design speed for maximum gust intensity. Design cruising speed, also known as the optimum cruise speed, is the most efficient speed in terms of distance, speed and fuel usage. Vo Design diving speed Vor — Demonstrated flight diving speed. Ver — The speed at which the Critical engine is assumed to fail during takeoff. Ve Designed flap speed. Vrc Maximum speed for stability characteristics. Vre Maximum flap extended speed Vero Final takeoff speed. Description Ve Module 11.1 Theory of Flight 1.89 ‘TTS integrated Training System (© Copynght 2012Designed in clubétpre, Integrated Training System ap’ Va Vie Vio VioF Vue Vinca Vinca Vuo View Vne Vo Ve Veet Vs Vso V1 Vsr Vsro Vort Vsw Vross Ww. 1.90 Maximum speed in level flight at maximum continuous power. Maximum landing gear extended speed. This is the maximum speed at which it is safe to fly a retractable gear aircraft with the landing gear extended. Maximum landing gear operating speed. This is the maximum speed at which it is safe to extend or retract the landing gear on a retractable gear aircraft. Lift-off speed Minimum control speed with Critical engine inoperative, Minimum control speed in the take-off configuration — the minimum calibrated airspeed at which the aircraft is directionally controllable in flight with a sudden Critical engine failure and takeoff power on the operative engine(s) Minimum control speed on the ground - the minimum airspeed at which the aircraft is directionally controllable during acceleration along the runway with one engine inoperative, takeoff power on the operative engine(s), and with nose wheel steering assumed inoperative. Maximum operating limit speed Minimum unstick speed. Never exceed speed Maximum structural cruising speed or maximum speed for normal operations. Rotation speed. The speed at which the aircraft's nosewheel leaves the ground. Landing reference speed or threshold crossing speed Stall speed or minimum steady flight speed for which the aircraft is still controllable. Stall speed or minimum flight speed in landing configuration. Stall speed or minimum steady flight speed for which the aircraft is still controllable in a specific configuration Reference stall speed. Reference stall speed in landing configuration. Reference stall speed in a specific configuration Speed at which the stall warning will occur. Category A rotorcraft takeoff safety speed Speed that will allow for best angle of climb. Speed that will allow for the best rate of climb. Module 11.1 Theory of Flight “TTS integrated Training System (© Copyright 2012ap’ Integrated Training System i Designed in association wth the ‘eubéépro.com 11.1.2 High Speed Flight Introduction Low speed aerodynamics is based on the assumption that air is incompressible; the attendant errors are negligible since at low speeds the amount of compression is negligible. At speeds approaching that of sound, however, compression and expansion in the vicinity of the aircraft are sufficiently marked to affect the streamline pattern about the aircraft. At low subsonic speeds a flow pattem is established about the aircraft, but at high subsonic and supersonic speeds the flow around a given wing can be controlled, and its behaviour predicted. In the transonic range where a mixture of subsonic and supersonic flow exists, marked problems of control and stability arise, necessitating special design features to minimize the effects of compressibility. Terminology (a) Speed of Sound - The speed at which a very small pressure disturbance is propagated in a fluid under certain conditions. Speed of sound is proportional to the absolute temperature (K) and can be calculated from the formula: Local speed of sound (LSS) = 39 x Absolute Temperature Therefore, the higher the temperature, the higher the LSS. In fact, at MSL at ISA LSS = 661 kts, and at 30,000 ft LSS = 589 Kts. Derivation of the formula for ISA conditions is as follows: LSS =Cx ¥288K = 661 Therefore 661 38.95° 288K For practical purposes, the figure of 39 may be used (b) | Mach Number (M) - The ratio of True Airspeed (TAS) to the local speed of sound applicable to air temperature. Thus Mach No (M)= 88 therefore at sea level temperature 15°C TAS = 5 29 kt. Lss iss = 66tkt, m= 522 - 9.20 661 Module 11.1 Theory of Flight 1.91 TTS integrated Training System (® Copyright 2012Integrated Training System os in association withthe o.com question practice ld (c) Free Stream Mach No (Mrs): The Mach number of the flow at a point unaffected by the presence of the aircraft. (d) Local Mach Number (M,): When an aerofoil is placed in a subsonic airflow, the flow is accelerated in some places, and slowed down in others. The local Mach number is the speed at some specified region of flow, and may be greater than, the same as, or lower than Mes. (e) Critical Mach Number (Meri): This is the lowest Mrs which for a given aerofoil and angle of attack, gives rise to a M, of 1.0 on the aerofoil. As will be seen, Mem for a wing varies with angle of attack. (f) Compressibility Mach Number: The Mach number at which, because of compressibility effects, control of an aircraft becomes difficult, and beyond which loss of control is probable. (g) Critical Drag Rise Mach Number: This relates the Mach number to an appreciable increase of drag associated with compressibility effects, usually 10 -15% higher than Meat (h) Subsonic Region: Aircraft speeds where flow everywhere around the aircraft is subsonic. Aircraft speeds up to Mach 0.75. (i) Transonic Region: Aircraft speeds where flow around the aircraft is mixed; some subsonic, some supersonic. Aircraft speeds from Mach 0.75 to Mach 1.2. (j) Supersonic Region: Aircraft speeds where flow everywhere around the aircraft is supersonic. Aircraft speeds Mach 1.2. (h) Hypersonic flow: Aircraft speeds greater than Mach 5.0. 1.92 Module 11.1 Theory of Flight TTS integrated Training System — ‘S Copyngnt 2072Integrated Training System Designed in assor inthe Bpr0.com question practice aid Speed of Sound Anything which moves through the air creates pressure waves and, what may not be generally realized, these waves not only travel out in all directions from the object but they radiate at the speed of sound. If the object is moving at a speed less than the speed of sound these pressure waves will be able to move away from the object. When considering aircraft moving at very high speed it is possible that the sound wave cannot get away from it, because the aircraft's speed is close to the radiation speed of the waves. It is this which gives rise to the problems of high speed flight. Figure 1.90 illustrates the situation of an aircraft fiying at less than the speed of sound. If its starting point is A, then the pressure waves set out in all directions from the aircraft are moving steadily away and by the time point B is reached they will be well clear of the aircraft. This should be contrasted with the situation illustrated in Figure 1.91 where the aircraft is traveling just at the speed of sound. The pressure waves are also traveling at the speed of sound with the result that they pile up ahead of the aircraft and form into a pressure wave, also called a shock wave. Figure 1.90: Pressure waves formed by object moving forward at less than local speed of sound. NORMAL WAVE Figure 1.91: Pressure waves formed by object moving forward at local speed of sound Module 11.1 Theory of Flight 1.93 ‘TTS Integrated Training Systern © Copyright 2012Integrated Training System Designed in associ the ‘eubetpro.com question practice aid M=20 Figure 1.92: Pressure waves forming Mach cone with object moving forward at speed greater than the local speed of sound ‘SHOCK WAVE Figure 1.93: Mach angle becoming more acute as speed increases An aircraft traveling substantially faster than the speed of sound will leave its own pressure waves behind and form a cone of pressure waves as illustrated in Figure 1.93. 1.94 Module 11.1 Theory of Flight ‘TTS integrated Training Systems ‘© Copyright 2012Integrated Training System coups com guestn proslee 2d Shock Waves When a shock wave is formed the pressure distribution over the wings is materially altered, causing considerable alterations in the values of lift and drag and also affecting control operation. It could be argued that few civil passenger transport aircraft are capable of reaching the speed of sound, however, the air over the upper surface of the wing is deliberately accelerated in order to produce lift and even though the aircraft itself may be flying below the speed of sound, some of the air flowing over the wings may be accelerated to Mach 1.0. When the airflow over the upper surfaces of the wing reaches Mach 1.0, the actual Speed of the aircraft is called the critical Mach Number or Me:. When this point is reached a shock wave forms over the upper surface of the wing because the pressure waves from the rear of the wing that are trying to move forward are meeting air traveling at exactly the same speed flowing backward. This is similar to trying to move along a moving walkway in the wrong direction at the same speed as the walkway is traveling. The point at which this shock wave usually forms is Just aft of the point of maximum camber of the wing where the acceleration of the air is greatest. In front of the shock wave the flow is at or higher than Mach 1 whilst behind the fiow itis stil subsonic. At the shock wave, the normal laws of physics seem to break down and as the air pass through the shock wave the pressure increases and the temperature increases. If the speed of the aircraft is increased still further the region of supersonic flow on top of the wing also increases and the shock wave will start to move back towards the trailing edge. On the undersurface the curvature of the wing is usually less than on the upper surface and the shock wave will form later. However, once having formed, if the actual speed of the aircraft is further increased, this shock wave will also move rearward and when the actual speed of the aircraft reaches Mach 1 both shock waves will have migrated to the trailing edge of the wing. At the same time another shock wave will form close to the leading edge of the wing, this is called the bow wave. If speed is further increased this bow wave will actually touch the leading edge of the wing and is then termed an ‘attached bow wave’. This is illustrated in Figure 1.94 and further speed increases will not change the relative positions of these two shock waves, but will just bend them backwards DETACHED AVE pow WE oy ATTACHED BOW WA Figure 1.94: Shock wave development Figure 1.95 illustrates the behaviour of the shock waves from a speed below Mach 1 to one well in excess of the speed of sound Module 11.1 Theory of Flight 1.95 ‘TTS Integrated Training System © Copyright 2012Integrated Training System Designed in association withthe clubé8pre.com question practice aid Boheorin Flos ‘Subsonic Flow ees eS ‘Subsonic Flow Incipient Shock Wave Suciden increase of Pressure and Density — Fallin Velocity ‘Subsonic Flow ()M=08 — _— Fully doveloped Shock Wave Increase of Pressure and Density Fallin Velocty Subsonic Flow Sonic Flow ()M=10 ———— Subsonic Flow Bow wave approaching nal Shook We ftom front = eeeaer oe Supersonic Flow (Mats 3 : ‘Supersonic Fully Developed Fuly Developed, bow wave tal wave, Supersonic Supersonic Supersonic Flow ()M=20 ca Supersonic Figure 1.95: Shock wave development 1.96 Module 11.1 Theory of Flight ‘TTS integrated Training System — — ‘© Copyright 2012Integrated Training System Designed in association with the ceunsepre cam quest pracioe ald ‘Shock waves can be: Normal: at 90°(perpendicular) to the shock medium’ s flow direction. Oblique: at an angle to the direction of flow. Bow: Occurs upstream of the front (bow) of a blunt object when the upstream velocity exceeds Mach 1. Normal Shock ‘A Normal Shock is created by a blunt body in supersonic flow. The same body in a subsonic flow produces waves of sound that propagate ahead of the body, basically ‘waming” the approaching air stream of the approaching body. These sound waves cause the molecules in the air stream to begin to diverge around the body well in advance of the actual body. When the object is traveling supersonically, however, these sound waves cannot outrun the object, and they pile up a short distance in front of the object. This stacking of sound waves is a Normal shock wave, and it serves to instantaneously force the air to change direction around the body. This effect is also referred to as a Bow Shock, and is shown in the Figure 1.96 and Figure 1.97, depicting a supersonic bullet. = se Corte) 7 Moch>1 = Mach <1 Figure 1.96: Formation of a bow shock ‘As a unit of air passes through the Normal shock wave, its temperature, pressure, and density dramatically rise as its velocity falls. In the case of the Normal Shock, the air flow downstream of the shock (and therefore seen by the bullet) is always subsonic. Figure 1.97: Bow wave and oblique waves on a bullet Module 11.1 Theory of Flight 1.97 ‘TTS integrated Training System (© Copyright 2012Integrated Training System Designed in association with the clubépro com question pracice aid Oblique Shock ‘An Oblique Shock is a sharp edged shock wave that is formed when supersonic flow is turned on itself. These shocks are weaker than Normal Shocks, and although the temperature, pressure, density, and air stream velocity are reduced across the shock similar to the Normal Shock, the air stream behind the shock is not necessarily subsonic. The Mach number behind the Oblique shock is calculated from the upstream Mach number, defined by the angle at which the flow is turned. Figure 4.98 shows a typical oblique shock formed by a sharp angle. Oblique Shock cy Figure 1.98: An oblique shock The Expansion Fan Figure 1.99 shows the companion of oblique shocks, the Expansion Fan. The expansion fan is essentially an infinite number of Mach Waves, and has the opposite effects of an oblique shock. When the airflow is turned around a corner, the temperature, pressure, and density fall as the Mach number rises. Figure 1.99: An expansion fan 1.98 Module 11.1 Theory of Flight TTS Integrated Training System = — ‘© Copyaight 2012Integrated Training System in association wih the ym question practice aid club85pr0. Wave Drag For aircraft not designed for transonic and supersonic flight, the formation of these shock waves will have a marked effect on lift, drag and also on the general stability of the aircraft and its control. The basic cause of the problems is the separation of the airflow behind the shock wave due to the rise in pressure. This causes the boundary layer to separate, reducing the amount of lift produced by the wing and an increase in drag. This increase in drag is very marked at Mert and produces ‘wave drag’ - as previously mentioned in the chapter on total drag. If speed can be increased further against this drag force the shock waves will move towards the trailing edge, thus reducing the amount of separated air and, in fact, the lift will start to increase again and the drag decrease. However, this will only occur in aircraft which are designed for transonic flight but the total developed lift at higher speeds is less than at subsonic speeds for the same angle of attack. This is because C_ is less for any given wing section and angle of attack at supersonic speeds. The change in both lift and drag are illustrated in the following graphs. It should be noted that this loss of lift which occurs as a result of the shock wave is not dissimilar in effect to that produced by a low speed stall. For this reason it is sometimes called a ‘high speed stall’ and gives rise to the first of the control difficulties encountered in flying an aircraft at or above Ment. Merit 0.7 1.0 M Figure 1.100: Wave Drag Wave drag arises from two sources, viz: energy drag and boundary layer separation Energy drag stems from the nature of changes occurring as a flow crosses a shock wave. Energy lost due to temperature rise across the shock wave becomes drag on the aerofoil. The more oblique the shock way the less energy they absorb, but since they become more extensive laterally and affect more air, energy drag rises as Mrs increases. Boundary layer separation; at certain stages of shock wave movement there is considerable flow separation. The turbulence represents lost energy and contributes to the drag. As MFS increases through the transonic range the shock waves move to the trailing edge and separation decreases, thus drag decreases. Module 11.1 Theory of Flight 1.99 ~ TTS Integrated Training Syste © Copyright 2012Designed in association with the Integrated Training System op’ {ubbdro com question prectoe ad The total effect on drag is shown Figure 1.100, the hump in the curve being caused by drag associated with the trailing edge shock arising from eneray loss, separation of the boundary layer and the formation of the bow shock wave above M 1.0. Reduction of Wave Drag To reduce the effect of wave drag, shock waves must be as weak as possible. Therefore, wings must have a sharp leading edge as well as a thin section to keep the deflection angle to a minimum so producing a weak bow shock wave. The thin wing will have a reduced camber, thus the adverse pressure gradient across the wing shock waves will be smaller, and the strength of the shack waves will be reduced. Fuselages may be treated in a similar manner, for a given minimum cross section, an increase in length (within reason) will reduce wave drag Effects of Compressibility on Lift To consider this aspect it is necessary to start at a speed where compressibility effects become significant and see how they vary with increasing Mach No. (a) Subsonic Rise in C, - An increase in velocity is always accompanied by a decrease in pressure, and since the velocity increase in a compressible flow is greater than that in an incompressible flow for the same wing, the pressure will be lower, thus lift is greater for a wing in a compressible flow. At low speed, where air can be considered incompressible, lift is proportional to V?, i.e. C_ can be assumed constant for the same angle of attack. At moderately high speeds density changes become significant, lift increases at a rate higher than indicated by V*. i.e. C, increases for the same angle of attack. Another factor affecting C. is the amount of warning the air gets of the wing's approach. As speed increases compressibility effects increase and the reduced upstream warning causes flow displacement to start closer to the wing. This effectively increases the angle of attack, so increasing C,. There is a slight loss of lift due to movement of the stagnation Point forward, but overall there is an increase in Cy. (b) Transonic Variations in Cr - In considering this aspect, five significant speeds are selected, A, B, C, D and E (Figure 1.101), and are used in the graph. 4.100 Module 11.1 Theory of Flight TTS Integrated Training System ‘© Copyright 2012Integrated Training System Designed in association wit the ‘lub86970.00m question practice sid i lem subsonic transonic om Mone MachNo. = 4 Figure 1.101: Variation in C, with Mach No. At A, Mrs = 0.75, the flow accelerates rapidly from the stagnation point along both upper and lower surfaces, giving a sharp drop in pressure, and the wing is above Mert. Over the top surface of the wing, as yet there is no shock wave, and C, has risen by 60% of its low speed value for the same angle of attack. Over the bottom surface flow is still subsonic. At B, Mrs = 0.81. With the acceleration to this speed, the shock wave has formed and is strengthened, and will be approximately 60% chord; there is no shock wave on the undersurface. Behind the shock wave on the rear part of the wing there is no real change in pressure differential between upper and lower surfaces; ahead of it and behind the 40% (approximately) chord, pressure differential has increased considerably due to supersonic acceleration up to the shock wave. This effectively increases the C, to roughly double its incompressible value. It also causes the Cp to move rearward to approximately 30% chord. Flow under the bottom surface becomes sonic. At C, Mes = 0.89. A shock wave has formed on the undersurface and moved to the trailing edge, while the upper shock wave has remained virtually stationary. The reason for the differing behaviour is the effect each shock wave has on the boundary layer. Such an arrangement of shock waves leads to a pressure distribution such that the wing behind the upper shock wave is producing negative lift, which has to be subtracted from the positive lift producing area. Lift coefficient has dropped to approximately 30% below its incompressible value and centre of pressure moves forward to approximately 30% chord. The reason for the slope between B and C is the relative movement between upper and lower shock waves. At D, Mrs = 0.98. The top surface shock wave is forced to the trailing edge; the area of negative lift is replaced by the orthodox pressure differential. The C. is approximately 10% above basic value, and the Cp has moved rearward to approximately 45% chord; this movement of the C» is experienced by all aircraft going through the transonic range Module 11.1 Theory of Flight 1.101 “TTS integrated Treining System © Copyright 2012Integrated Training System oy’ Designed in associston with the ‘lubeepre.com question practice ald AtE, Mrs = 1.4. Above M 1.0 the bow shock wave forms, and at M 1.4 is almost attached = — to the leading edge. The whole of the wing is producing lift, and the Cp is at approximately mid-chord position. The C; is reduced to a value of 30% less than its incompressible value due to the stagnation point moving to the most forward point on the leading edge, and to the loss of pressure energy through the bow shock wave. The shock wave positions for each station considered above are shown in Figure 1.102 << NS Mes = 0.75 Shock Wave Meg = 0.81 Mrs = 0.89 Mrs = 0.98 Bow Wave Meg= 1.4 Figure 1.102: Shock wave positions 1.102 Module 11.1 Theory of Flight TTS IntgiatedTeinng System — ‘© Copyaght 2012eS apy’ Integrated Training System = Designed n association wth the ‘lub6pre.com question practice aid Supersonic Fall in C The full explanation of this aspect is beyond the scope of these notes, but suffice it here to point ~ out that in practice, any decrease in lift between the upper limit of the transonic range and Mrs 1.4 would be masked by trim changes resulting from passing through the transonic range. The — practical result is that the lift curve slope becomes progressively gentler with an increase in Mes in the supersonic range. The variations in C, at supersonic speeds depend mainly on attendant compressibility problems with increase of speed, and adverse pressure gradient increases with speed increase. Aerodynamic Heating The heating of a body produced by passage of air or other gases over the body. It is caused by —._ friction and compression processes and is significant chiefly at high speeds. The increase in surface temperature is approximately proportional to the square of speed. This heating is prominent at supersonic speeds. The rise in temperature is the maximum at a point where the gaseous mass comes to rest on the surface. The aircraft skin temperature is about 120° at Mach 2 and about 315 at Mach 3, and it can rise to above 3000 at hypersonic speeds. ‘Aerodynamic heating is a concern for supersonic and hypersonic aircraft. The Concorde dealt —~ with the increased heat loads at its leading edges by the use of high temperature materials and the design of heat sinks into the aircraft structure at the leading edges. Higher speed aircraft such as the SR-71 deal with the issue by the use of insulating material and material selection on the exterior of the vehicles. Some designs for hypersonic missiles would employ liquid cooling of the leading edges (usually the fuel en route to the engine). It can have an effect on the metals used for the skin of the aeroplane, by making them brittle, and causing thermal stress concentrations as the structure expands due to their increase in temperature. Area Rule ~The Whitcomb area rule, also called the transonic area rule, is a design technique used to reduce an aircraft's drag at transonic and supersonic speeds, particularly between Mach 0.8 and 1.2 The "perfect" aerodynamic shape is known as the Sears-Haack body, and is roughly shaped like a cigar but pointed at both ends Figure 1.103: Sears-Haack body shape Module 11.1 Theory of Flight 4.103 TIS Integrated Training System ©Copyright 2012Integrated Training System Designed in association with the lubeopro.com question prectce eid The area rule says that an aeroplane designed with the same cross-sectional area distribution in the longitudinal direction as the Sears-Haack body generates the same wave drag as this body, largely independent of the actual shape. As a result, aircraft have to be carefully arranged so that large volumes like wings are positioned at the widest area of the equivalent Sears- Haack body, and that the cockpit, tailplane, intakes and other "bumps" are spread out along the fuselage and or that the rest of the fuselage along these "bumps" is correspondingly thinned. Figure 1.104: The F106 Delta Dart (left) shows how Area Rule is used to “waist” the fuselage at_ the wing position. The underside of an A-380 (right). Several area rule-dictated features are visible The area rule also holds true at speeds higher than the speed of sound, but in this case the body arrangement is in respect to the Mach line for the design speed. For instance, at Mach 1.3 the angle of the Mach cone formed off the body of the aircraft will be at about y= arcsin (1/M) = 50.3 deg (is the sweep angle of the Mach cone). In this case the "perfect shape" is biased Z rearward, which is why aircraft designed for high speed cruise tend to be arranged with the wings at the rear. A classic example of such a design is Concorde. 1.104 Module 11.1 Theory of Flight TTS integrated Training System — ‘© Copyight 2082Integrated Training System Supersonic Intakes Itis required that the airflow onto the compressor face is subsonic regardless of the aircraft speed, (Normally mach 0.4) if the rotating aerofoils are to remain free of shock wave accumulation which would be detrimental to the compression process. ‘Additional to this, itis often necessary to restrict the amount of airflow entering the compressor at supersonic speeds since the amount of airflow at this speed is simply not required. At supersonic speeds, a Convergent-Divergent intake is found to be most effective, but at subsonic speeds this type of intake is inefficient. The usual method of overcoming this is to use a variable geometry inlet. Variable Throat Area Inlet The diagram of the concord inlet (Figure 1.101 (a) and (b)) shows firstly an inlet at subsonic speeds. The throat is a maximum size for maximum air inlet. The last diagram (Figure 1.101 (c)) shows the same inlet at supersonic speeds with the throat area reduced. The convergent part breaks the airfiow in to a series of weak shocks which slow down the air progressively. Any unwanted air thereafter can be dumped by the spill valve Figure 1.106 (a): Variable intake operation (Concorde) - subsonic Module 11.1 Theory of Flight 4.105 TTS integrated Training Systom (© Copyngnt 2012Integrated Training System eeopo com queten paces ad At take off the engines need maximum airflow, therefore the ramps are fully retracted and the auxiliary inlet vane is wide open. This vane is held open aerodynamically. The auxiliary inlet begins to close as the Mach number builds and it completely closed by the time the aircraft reaches Mach 0.93. Figure 1.107 (b): Variable intake operation (Concorde) - subsonic Shortly after take-off the aircraft enters the noise abatement procedure where the re-heats are tumed off and the power is reduced. The secondary nozzles are opened further to allow more air to enter, therefore quietening down the exhaust. The Secondary air doors also open at this stage to allow air to bypass the engine. At slow speeds al the air into the engine is primary airflow and the secondary air doors are kept closed. Keeping them closed also prevents the engine ingesting any of its own exhaust gas. At — around Mach 0.55 the Secondary exhaust buckets begin to open as a function of Mach number to be fully open when the aircraft is at M1.1 The ramps begin move into position at Mach 1.3 which shock wave start to form on the intakes. At take off and during subsonic flight, 82% of the thrust is developed by the engine alone with 6% from the nozzles and 21% from the intakes Figure 1.108 (c): Variable intake operation (Concorde) - supersonic At the supersonic cruse speed of mach 2.0 the ramps have moved over half their amount of available travel, slowing down the air by producing a supersonic shockwave (yellow lines) at the engine intake lip. When the throttles are brought back to start the decent the spill door is opened to dump out = excess air that is no longer needed by the engine, this allows the ramp to go down to their 1.106 Module 11.1 Theory of Flight TTS Integrated Training System ‘@Copynaght 2012uy Integrated Training System Dead in atclton vt sop cam siaeion ess maximum level of travel. As the speed is lowered the spill doors are closed and the ramps begin to move back so by M1.3 are again fully retracted. ‘The ramps can continue in operation till Mach 0.7, should an engine have had to have been shut down. During the Supersonic cruse only 8% of the power is derived by the engine with the other 29% being from Nozzles and an impressive 63% from the intakes. Module 11.1 Theory of Flight 1.107 TTS Integrated Training System © Copyright 2012Integrated Training System Designed in essociaton witht clubbepro.com g External / Internal Intake At higher supersonic speeds, a more suitable type of intake is the one shown below. This type of intake produces a series of mild shock waves without excessively reducing the intake efficiency, ENGINE INTAKE Figure 1.109: External / Internal intake This intake is sometimes known as a plug intake. In some applications the plug position is variable dependent upon Mach number. 4.108 Module 11.1 Theory of Flight ‘TTS integrated Training System ‘© Copyright 2012Integrated Training System Designed in association vith the clubSépro com question practice ait Effects of Increasing Mach Number on Stability Transonic Longitudinal Stability Most aircraft operating in the transonic range experience a nose down pitch with speed increase, mainly due to two causes: (a) Rearward movement of Cp which increases longitudinal stability. (b) Modification of airflow over the tailplane. The effect of mainplane shock waves is to modify the flow over the tailplane which will tend to pitch the aircraft nose down The effects on an aircraft's handling characteristics of nose down pitch are two-fold: (i) Atsome Mach No an aircraft will become unstable with respect to speed, necessitating a rearward movement of the control column. This particular problem is dealt with more fully in Mach Trim. (ii) The requirement for a large up deflection of elevator/tailplane reduces the amount of available control deflection for manoeuvres. Supersonic Longitudinal Stability The rearward movement of the Cp in the transonic range continues as the aircraft accelerates into full supersonic flight. Thus alll aircraft experience a marked increase in longitudinal stability. Transonic Lateral Stability Disturbances in the rolling plane are often experienced in transonic flight, on some aircraft one wing starts to drop when Mert is exceeded, due mainly to the difference in lift on the two wings because shock waves do not form at identical Mach numbers and positions on each wing. Supersonic Lateral Stability Lateral stability depends, after sideslip, on the lower wing developing lift. Since C, decreases in supersonic flight the correcting force is thus reduced and dihedral and sweepback are consequently less effective. Another adverse effect is the liftdrag ratio decreasing due to surface friction drag, the decrease iin liftdrag ratio being due to pressure differences between upper and lower surfaces combined with the pressures at the wing tips and their associated Mach cones. Directional Stability The trend towards rear mounted engines, and consequently an aft CG, has meant a decreased arm about which the fin can act. Also, the supersonic decrease in C; for a given angle of attack caused by sideslip means a reduction in fin effectiveness. Subsonically, the fuselage side force in a sideslip acts in front of the CG and the vertical fin surfaces are able to overcome the destabilizing condition. In supersonic flight the fuselage side-force moves forward. As long as the aircraft is in balanced flight no problem arises, but if the relative airflow is off the longitudinal axis a destabilizing force at the nose results. This is caused by asymmetry in the strength of the two shock waves producing a pressure gradient across the nose. Module 11.1 Theory of Flight 1.109 TTS integrated Training System 8 Cooyight 012