Contents

Manual for K-Notes ................................................................................. 2

Transmission Lines .................................................................................. 3
Underground Cables ............................................................................. 14
Overhead Insulators .............................................................................. 16
Distribution Systems ............................................................................. 16
Per Unit System .................................................................................... 17
Load Flow Study .................................................................................... 18
Economic Power Generation ................................................................ 20
Fault Analysis ........................................................................................ 21
Power System Stability.......................................................................... 29
Power System Protection ...................................................................... 33

2014 Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved.

Manual for K-Notes

Why K-Notes?
Towards the end of preparation, a student has lost the time to revise all the chapters from his /
her class notes / standard text books. This is the reason why K-Notes is specifically intended for
Quick Revision and should not be considered as comprehensive study material.
What are K-Notes?
A 40 page or less notebook for each subject which contains all concepts covered in GATE
Curriculum in a concise manner to aid a student in final stages of his/her preparation. It is highly
useful for both the students as well as working professionals who are preparing for GATE as it
comes handy while traveling long distances.
When do I start using K-Notes?
It is highly recommended to use K-Notes in the last 2 months before GATE Exam
(November end onwards).
How do I use K-Notes?
Once you finish the entire K-Notes for a particular subject, you should practice the respective
Subject Test / Mixed Question Bag containing questions from all the Chapters to make best use
of it.

2014 Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved.

2

Transmission Lines
Skin Effect
It is tendency of AC current to be concentrated on the surface of conductor.
Cause: Non-uniform distribution of magnitude flux linkages Due to skin effect, the effective
area of cross section of conductor decrease and hence resistances increases.
In case of DC, There is no skin effect so

RDC R AC

With increase in frequency, skin effect increases.

With increase in r , skin effect increases.
Inductance of a Transmission line
Single Conductor

0 r
8
External inductance from distance d1 to d2
Internal inductance

Lex

0r d2
ln
2 d1

0 r 0 r d2

ln
8
2 r
d d
0 r ln 1 0 r ln
2 re 4 2 r
r 0.7788r = Geometric mean radius (GMR)

Total inductance

Single phase 2 wire line

Inductance of single wire

0 r

d
ln
2 r

Total inductance = L1 L2

Lsys

0 d
ln
r

If radius of both wire is not same, assume radius of 1st wire ra & that of second wire is rb

Lsys

0 d
ln
r r
a b

ra 0.7788ra &

rb 0.7788rb

If instead of a single conductor per phase we use multiple conductor, then GMR is
replaced by self GND (Geometric Mean Distance) and d by mutual GMD.

Self GMD

self GMDfwd D11 D12 ........D1n D21 D22 .........D2n ....... Dn1 Dn2 ........Dnn
Where

Dii ri 0.7788ri

Self GMDbwd Di 1

' '

Where

Di' 2' ........Di'm' .............. Dml' ' ................Dmm

' '

m2

Dii ri 0.7788ri

Mutual GMD
Mutual GMD D11' D12' ...........D1m' ................. Dn1' Dn2' .................Dnm'
Now, with these terms all the inductance expressions change to
Single wire :
1 , 2 wire:

0
d

ln

2 self GMD
0

mutual GMD
ln

2 Self GMD

Three phase Transmission line

Symmetrical configuration

Lph

0r D
ln
2 r

r 0.7788r

mn

n2

Asymmetrical configurations
If conductors are placed horizontally or vertically.

Deq Dab Dbc Dca

Lph

0r Deq

ln
2 r

In case of bundled conductor, more than one conductor per phase

We replace Dab Dabeq = mutual GMD between a phase & b phase
Similarly,

Dbc Dbceq
Dca Dcaeq

In place of GMR, Self GMD is used

Self GMD= Self GMD

Self GMD Self GMD

a

Example: Calculate inductance per phase of following circuit?

Between successive conductors, distance = 3m , Radius of each conductor = 1m

Solution

Dab eq Da1b1

. Da1b2 . Da2b1 . Da2b2

1

3 12 12 3

6m

4.24m

7.348m

Dbc eq 3 6 6 3 4
Dca eq 6 9 9 6 4

Deq = mutual GMD

Dab.eq Dbc.eq Dca.eq

= 5.71m
5

Self GMD r D
a

a1a2

Da2a1 r

0.7788 0.012 152

0.341m

Self GMD r D

Db2b1 r

b1b2

0.2467m

Self GMD r D
c

c1c2

Dc2c1 r

0.1528m

Self GMD Self GMD a Self GMD b Self GMD c

=
L

0.2398m

0 GMD
ln

2 GMD Self

5.71
2 10 7 ln
0.634mH / km
0.2398

Remember, Inductance calculated using these formulas is per unit length.

Transposition of Transmission line
The position of different lines are changed after regular intervals to reduce radio interference in
neighboring communication lines.

Capacitance
Single Phase 2 Wire System

Cab

0 r
D
ln

rr
12

Line to neutral capacitance

Can

20 r
D
ln
r1

Cbn

20 r
D
ln
r2

Three phase single conductor system

Cph

20 r
GMD
ln

For bundled conductors

Cph

20 0
GMD
ln

Self GMD

In capacitance calculations, it must always be remembered that there is no concept of r, we

simply use radius in calculating self GMD.
Performance of Transmission line
Classification of lines based on length
1) Short Line
l < 80 km

or

l*f < 4000 ,

Where f = frequency

2) Medium Line
80 km < l < 200 km
4000 < l*f < 10000
3) Long Line
l > 200 km
l*f > 10000
Modeling of transmission lines
Transmission lines are modeled as 2 port network
Vs AVR BIR
Is CVR DIR

Under no load
IR 0 , Vs AVR , VR

Vs
A

No Load Voltage

Vs
A

and IR 0 , Is CVR

Vs
VR
A
Voltage Regulation
100%
VR

This current is called as line charging current and is responsible for as effect is called as Ferranti
Effect.
Ferranti Effect
Under no-load or light load conditions receiving end voltage becomes more than sending end
voltage due to presence of line charging current.
Short transmission line
Vs VR IR R jwL
VR IR Z
Vs 1 z VR
I 0 1 I
s
R

A = D (symmetrical)
AD BC = 1 (reciprocal)
Approximate Voltage Regulation
For lagging pf

VR=

IR
VR

R cos

X sin R

R cos R

X sin R

load pf=cosR

For leading pf
VR

IR
VR

Medium Transmission Line

Normal T Model

YZ
YZ
1
Z 1

Vs
2
4 VR

YZ IR
Is
Y
1

2

Here all problems are in actual values & not per unit length.
Nominal--Model

YZ
1
Z
Vs
V
2
R

Is Y 1 YZ 1 YZ IR

4
2

Long transmission Line

Vx VR cosh X IR Z c sinh x

IR IR cosh x

VR
sinh x
Zc

Where Vx & I x are voltage and current at distance x from receiving end.

Zc

R jL
= surge impedance
G jC

In case of long transmission line, we use all promoters per-unit length.

For loss less line,
R=G=0
L
Zc
C
For distribution less line, RC = LG
For sending end, x = l
Vs VR cosh l IR Z c sinh l
Is IR coshl+

VR
sinh l
Zc

cosh l Z c sinh l
Vs
VR
1

cosh l IR
Is Z

A = D (symmetric)
AD - BC = 1 (reciprocal)
Power Transfer Equation

Pr

Vs Vr
B
Vs Vr

Qr

2
A
Vr cos
B

cos

2
A
Vr sin
B

sin

For Short TL

B Z

B Z ;

A 10 A

Pr

Vs Vr

Qr

A 1, =0

cos

Vs Vr
Z

sin

Vr

cos

Z
Vr

sin

If resistance of line is neglected

Z jX X and 900
Pr

Vs Vr
X

sin ; QR =

Vs Vr
X

cos

Vr

Remember, the last expression can be applied between any two bases in a power system as long
as transmission line connecting them is loss less.
Wave Propagation
Due to continuous energy transfer between L & C elements of a transmission line we consider
energy propagation from sending to receiving end & hence wave propagation.
Z c = Surge impedance or characteristic impedance.

10

 = Propagation constant.

R jL G jC

For loss less line

R=G=O

j LC
j
= attenuation constant

= phase constant

In case of loss less line 0 (no attenuation)

LC
Velocity of wave
Wavelength

1
LC

, Where L & C are per unit length

2
2

LC

Surge Impedance Loading

When load impedance = surge impedance

PL

2
Vr(L
L)

ZC

= Surge Impedance Loading

If ZL ZC
VR IR Z C

According to long line

VX VR coshx+VR sinhx 2VRex

So no term containing e yx & hence no reflected wave & hence whenever surge impedance is
connected at load, there is no reflection.

11

Surge Traversal
Theremin equivalent circuit
When surge voltage V is induced on the line & line can be represented as Theremin
equivalent circuit shown.
ZC = Characteristic impedance of line

ZL = load impedance or characteristics impedance of second

line connected in series to first.

ZL
Transmitted voltage V2 2V
potential divider
ZL Z C

Incident Voltage V1 V
Reflected voltage V

V V V2

[Voltage continuity]

Z ZC
V V L

ZL Z C
Reflected current

V
V
V
, Refracted current 2 , Incident current
ZC
ZC
ZL

Reflection coefficient:

V ZL Z C

V ZL Z C

Refraction coefficient:

V2
2ZL

V ZL Z C

Voltage Control
Usually in case of lagging loads, the voltage at receiving end falls below sending end voltage
and to boost the receiving end voltage we connect a shunt capacitor at receiving end.
Similarly, in case of leading loads, receiving end voltage is higher than sending end voltage
so we connect a shunt reactor to avoid over-voltage.
Usually in GATE, we need to calculate rating of capacitor for voltage control & it is illustrated
through a question shown below:

12

Example: A three phase overhead lines has a resistance & reactance of 5 & 20 respectively.
The load at receiving end is 30MW, 0.85 pf lagging at 33kv & we connect a compensating
equipment at receiving end to maintain voltage at each end equal to 33 Kv. Find rating of
compensating equipment?
Solution:
Assuming base (MVA) = 30 MVA
Base voltage = 33 kv
pu power =

30Mw
1pu
30MVA

Base impedance =

V2
36.3
S

pu impedance =

5 j20
0.56875.960
36.3

PR

VS VR
Z

cos

VR
Z

cos

11
12
cos 75.96
cos75.96
0.568
0.568

Z 0.568 ; =75.96 0

cos 75.96 0.81

40.110

QR

VS VR
Z

sin

VR
Z

sin

1 1
12
sin 75.96 40.11
sin75.96
0.568
0.568

QR = - 0.645 pu
QL PL tan 1 tan cos1 0.85

QL = 0.6197 pu
QR QL QC QC 1.2647pu
QC 1.2647 30 = 37.9 MVAR

So, we can observe the steps involved

Step 1 : Calculate from PL as capacitor does not consume any real power.
Step-2 : Calculate QR using calculated above
Step-3 : QR QL QC than Calculate QC
13

Power Factor Correction

Usually, to improve the supply side power factor we connect a capacitor device like capacitor
bank or synchronous condenser (synchronous motor under over excited condition).
Suppose, initially a load of real power P1 & lagging pf cos 1 is connected & we want to
improve pf to cos 2 lagging 2 1 & we connect a capacitive device which consumes real
power PC & thus net real power after connection.
P2 P1 PC
Q2 P2 tan 2 ; Q1 P1 tan 1

QC P1 tan 1 P2 tan 2
In case of capacitor bank, PC 0 P1 P2
If we wish to calculate capacitance per phase
(in both voltage control & pf correction )
2
QC 3CVph

QC
2
3Vph

Underground Cables
Insulation resistance
R

R
ln
2l r

L = length of cable
R = Outer radius (sheath radius)
R = conductor radius

Capacitance Model
CC : Core capacitance

CS : Core to sheath capacitance

14

Capacitance per phase

Cph CS 3CC

Calculating CS & CC
1)

Any of two cores or conductors are connected to

sheath & capacitance is measured between remaining
core & sheath.

C1 CS 2CC

2) All three cores are connected together & capacitance is

measured between any core & sheath.
C2 3CS

CS

C2
3

C2
3
C
C
CC 1 2
6
2
2CC C1

Cph CS 3CC

3C1 C2

2
6

3) Any one of core is connected to sheath & capacitance is

measured between remaining 2 cores.

C3

3CC CS

2
2

Cph 2C3

15

Dielectric loss in a UG cable

2
P 3Cph Vph
tan

where tan loss tangent

tan

1
cphR

R = Insulation resistance

Overhead Insulators
For suspension type string insulator, the model for 3-discs looks like as shown.
C
Let m m
CS

V2 V1 1 m

V3 V1 1 m2 3m

The voltage of disc nearest to the conductor is highest.

String efficiency

string voltage
No. of discs voltage across bottom disc

V2 V3
3 V3

100%

Distribution Systems

Sources fed from both ends

1) Assume I A from VA
2) Calculate I A from

VA VB I A I1 r1 I A I1 I2 r2 I A I1 I2 I3 r3

3) Substitute I A in I A I1 , I A I1 I2 & I A I1 I2 I3 & check for sign change.

4) Node for minimum potential = Node for sign change
5) Calculate minimum potential by KVL
Example: Refer Kuestion power systems for that.

16

Per Unit System

In pu system, energy quantity is expressed as a ratio of some based value.

pu value=

Absolute value or Actual value

Base value

Percentage value = pu value x 100%

Base value
1 - System

Sbase , Vbase , Ibase , Zbase

Out of these, 2 value must be known, to convert entire system into pu system.
Sbase Vbase Ibase
Ibase

Sbase

Vbase

Z base

Vbase
Ibase

2
Vbase

Sbase

Usually, we assume Sbase & Vbase as known.

3 - System

Sbase & Vbase are assumed

Sbase
Ibase
3 Vbase

Vbase = line to line voltage

Sbase = 3 phase power

For start connection

2
V ph Vbase / 3 Vbase
Z base base

Ibase ph
Ibase
Sbase

For delta connection

V ph
Vbase
3V 2
Z base base

base
Ibase ph Ibase / 3
Sbase
In per unit system, equivalent impedance of transformer referred to primary or
secondary in same.

17

Change of base
If base of system is changed from Vbase old , Sbase old to Vbase new ,Sbase new
2

V old Sbase new

Zpu new Zpu old base

Vbase new Sbase old

Load Flow Study

Power System Matrices

YBUS matrix

YBUS

y10 y12
y12
0

y12
y 20 y12 y 23
y 23

y 23
y 23 y 30

OBSERVATIONS
1)
2)
3)
4)

The diagonal elements are sum of all admittance connected to that particular bus.
The off-diagonal elements are negative of admittance connected between two buses.
If two buses are not connected to each other than that elements is zero.
YBUS Matrix is a symmetrical matrix.

5) Most of the elements are zero & hence it is a sparse matrix.

Total number of zero elements
% sparsity =
Total number of elements

ZBUS matrix

ZBUS YBUS

ZBUS matrix used in fault analysis.

Suppose a 3 phase SC fault occurs on bus k then fault current

Vprefault ,k
If
Zkk Z f
Vprefault , k Pr e fault voltage at bus 'k'
Zkk = elements of ZBUS matrix.
Z f = fault impedance

Due to fault voltage at other buses are also affected.

18

 V1
I1

.
.
.
.

Vk
Ik
. Z .

BUS
.
.

Vn
In

V
BUS

0

0
.

.
ZBUS
I
f
.

.
0

Vk If Zkk

If

Vf
Z 0
Zkk f

Vj Z jk I"f
Vj

Z jk
Zkk

Vf

Post fault voltage at bus j

Vjf Vj

Z jk
V
Zkk f

If there is generator connected to bus j then current supplied by generator.

Eg Vjf
jX"d

Classification of buses
At each bus, there are 4 parameter: V , ,P,Q .
At any bus, out of these 4 quantities any 2 are specified.
1) Slack Bus / Swing Bus/Reference Bus

V , are know quantities.

P, Q are unknown quantities.
Any extra power needed by the system is supplied by slack bus.
2) Generator Bus / PV Bus

P, V is specified
Q, are unspecified

19

3) Load Bus / PQ Bus

P & Q are constant as specified

V & are unknown

Generally, newton Raphson method is used for load flow solution and we form Jacobian
matrix, & the order of Jacobian matrix is

2n m 2 2n m 2

N = no. of total buses

M = no. of pv buses

Economic Power Generation

Incremental cost
If is cost required to generate an additional unit of energy.
IC i = Incremental cost of ith generator

IC i

Ci
PGi

PGi = Power generated by ith generator

Ci = cost of ith generator

Transmission Loss
m

PL PP
i jBij
i 1 j 1

th
th
Pi , Pj : Real power injection at i & j buses

B ij = loss coefficient

m : no. of generator units

Penalty Factor
Li

P
1 L
PGi

For economic power sharing

IC i Li cons tant

Constant is called as incremental cost of system.

IC i = incremental cost ith unit

L i = penalty factor of ith unit

20

From this expression, for m generator we get ( m 1) equation and mth equation is
m

P
i 1

Gi

PD PLOSS

PD = total power demand

For example, refer kuestions on Power systems.

Fault Analysis
Symmetrical Components
For an unbalanced 3 phase system, the analysis is done better by means of symmetrical
components.
Va0 Zero sequence components
Va1 Positive sequence components
Va2 Negative sequence components

Va0
1 1
1
Va1 3 1
V
1 2
a2

1
Vs A Vp

1 Va

2 Vb
Vc

Where e j120

Vp = phase voltage
Vs = Symmetrical component

1 1

A 1 2
1

Power in terms of symmetrical components

P 3 Va1 Ia1 Va2 Ia2

Va3 Ia0

Remember, same transformation exist for current also.

Sequence Network
Alternators

Positive Sequence Network

Z1 positive sequence impedance

Z1 jX"d

21

Negative Sequence Network

Va2 Ia2 Z2

Z 2 : Negative sequence impedance

X d " X q "
Z2 j

Zero Sequence Network

Va0 Ia0 Z0 3Zn
Z 0 = Zero sequence impedance

Z n =Neutral impedance ( in case of delta)

Z0 jXl
X l = leakage reactance

Transformers

Positive Sequence Network

Z1 = Positive sequence impedance
Z1 jXl

Negative Sequence Network

Z 2 = Negative sequence impedance
Z2 jXl

Zero sequence network

Depending upon scheme of connection, we close series or shunt connection & method
of grounding.

22

Shunt connection are closed for delta connection & series connection are closed for star
connection with grounded neutral. If primary & secondary are inter changed then circuit
becomes mirror image.

Case 1
If neutral is grounded through an impedance Z n
Z 0 Z T0 3Zn

Case 2

Case 3

Case 4

23

Case 5

Transmission Lines

Positive Sequence Network

Negative Sequence Network

Zero Sequence Network

Z1 Z2 Zs Zm

Z0 Zs 2Zm
Z s = Self impedance
Zm = mutual impedance

Remembers, all sequence networks are always drawn in per unit & never in actual values.
Fault Analysis
The following short circuit faults are considered
1.
2.
3.
4.

LG (Single Line to ground fault)

LL (Line to line fault)
LLG (Line to Line to Ground fault)
3-phase short circuit fault.

24

3-phase short circuit fault comes under the category of symmetrical SC fault whereas other 3
faults are called as unsymmetrical SC fault.
Order of severity
LG < LL < LLG < 3 - SC
But if faults occur at terminal of alternator then LG fault is most severe.
Occurrence of SC fault
LG > LL > LLG > 3 - SC
Transient on a Transmission line
Equivalent Circuit

i t it iss

Rt

Vm
V
sin e L m sin wt
Z
Z

L
2
; Z R L
R

tan1

Maximum momentary current

imm

2Vm
sin
Z

If resistance is neglected,

imm

900

2Vm
cos
Z

Short circuit model of a synchronous machine

During initial SC period for 1-2 cycles, current are induced in field & damper winding of machine
so reactance at least & called as sub transient reactance X d "
After initial sub-transient period, current in damper winding in reduced to zero, and this period
is called as transient period & reactance of machine is called as Transient Reactance X d "

25

Finally, when current in field winding is also reduced to zero, we enter steady state period &
reactance is called as steady state reactance Xd .
Xd " X d ' X d

Symmetrical Fault Analysis

We replace alternators by an emf source in series with sub transient reactance and emf
source under no-load is usually 100 pu or terminal voltage in pu.
V 00
Ef t
pu
Vbase

Transformer & Transmission lines are replaced by reactance.

The equivalent circuit can be solved either by finding thevenin equivalent across fault or
by simple network analysis & fault in SC is calculated.
If

Ef
Z eq Z f

Z f = fault impedance.

In symmetrical fault analysis, we only consider positive sequence impedance.

SC MVA

SC MVA

1
Zeq Z f

MVA base
Zeq Z f

pu
MVA

For example, refer to kuestion on power systems.

Selection of Circuit Breakers

Usually, circuit breakers are selected on the basis of most severe fault which is 3 phase
SC fault.
Three ratings of circuit Breakers are important.

1) Rated momentary current

Momentary current ( rms ) = 1.6 Isc
Isc is symmetrical SC current which we calculated in previous section.

2) Making current
Making current = 2.54 Isc
26

3) Symmetrical Interrupting Current

We need to recalculate Isc by using sub-transient reactance for alternators & transient
reactance for synchronous motors. Induction motors & other loads are neglected.
Then, we multiply it by a factor to calculate symmetrical interrupting current. This factor
depends on speed of circuit breakers which is measured in terms of numbers of cycles it takes to
operate.
Speed
8 Cycles or slower
5 Cycles
3 Cycles
2 Cycles

Factor
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3

Unsymmetrical Faults Analysis

Line to Ground Fault

We first draw equivalent positive, negative & zero sequence networks & calculate thevenin
impedance across fault terminals from each network.
Assuming equivalent positive, negative & zero sequence reactance are
respectively.
Here all sequence currents are equal.
Ia1 Ia2 Ia0

Ia1

Ea
Z1 Z 2 Z 0 3Z f

Fault current I a
Ia 3Ia1

Ia

3 Ea

Z1 Z 2 Z 0 3Z f

Short Circuit MVA

SC MVA 3Ea1 , I a1 *

27

Z1 , Z 2 & Z 0

In pu SC MVA

Z1 Z 2 Z 0 3Z f

3
pu
Z1 Z 2 Z 0 3Z f

3 Ea1 I2

3 MVA base
Z1 Z 2 Z 0 3Z f

MVA

Line to Line Fault

Here, we calculate equivalent positive & negative sequence impedance Z1 & Z 2 respectively.

Ia1

Ea
Z1 Z 2 Z f

Fault current
Ib

j 3 Ea
Z1 Z 2 Z f

Short Circuit MVA

SC MVA

3
pu
Z1 Z 2 Z f

3 MVA base
Z1 Z 2 Z f

MVA

Line to Line to Ground Fault

Ia1

Ia0

Ea

Z1 Z 2 Z 0 3Z f
I Z2
a1
Z2 Z0

Fault Current = 3 Iao

28

Short Circuit MVA

SC MVA

3
Z1 Z 2 1 3Z f Z 0

pu

3 MVA base
Z1 Z 2

Z 0 3Z f

MVA

Remember, all fault analysis will be done in pu system.

Power System Stability

Two types of stability are studied:
1) Steady State Stability
2) Transient Stability
Steady State Stability
For Steady State Stability
dP
0
d
And for this condition to be true.
Pe Pmax
If power demand is greater than maximum demand than machine goes out of synchronous.
E V
For a loss less machine, Pmax
XS
Transient Stability
Swing Equation

Md2
Pm Pe
dt2
M = inertia constant ( MJ-S / elect - rad)
Pm= mechanical input (MW)
Pe = electrical output (MW)
= rotor angle
Another Form

H d2
Pm Pe
f dt2
H = inertia constant ( MJ / MVA)
Pm & Pe both are in pu

29

GH
(MJ S / elect - deg)
180f
GH
M
(MJ S / elect - rad)
f
G = machine rating (MVA)
M

If two alternators are swinging coherently. Then they can be replaced by a single
alternator having
Meq M1 M2
But H cannot be added directly, they must first be on same base.

If machines are not swinging coherently, then

M1M2
Meq
M1 M2

Accelerating Power,
Pa Pm Pe
In steady state Pm Pe
In transient, Pm Pe so rotor accelerate or decelerate.

Equal area criterion

For system to possess transient stability
Pad 0
There are basically 3 stages in stability analysis

Before Fault
We say maximum power transferrable is Pmax,1
& Pe Pmax,1 sin

During fault
We say maximum power transferrable is Pmax,2

Pe Pmax,2 sin

After Fault
We say maximum power transferrable is Pmax,3

Pe Pmax,3 sin

30

Critical clearing angle

It is the maximum value of beyond which if the fault is cleared system will be unstable. The
time instant corresponding to this angle is called as critical clearing time assuming fault occurs
at t = 0.
Case-1 : Fault occurs on TL near to bus

Pmax,2 0
Pmax,3 Pmax,1

Cr clearing angle
By equal area criteria
2

Pm Pmax,1 sin d 0

P
0 sin1 m
Pmax,1
For critical clearing 2 max

max 0
tCr

2H Cr 0
= Critical Clearing Time
f
Pm

Case-2 : Fault occurs on one of parallel lines close to bus

Before Fault

Pmax,1

E V
Xg X1 X2

During Fault

Pmax,2

E V
Xeq

After Fault

Pmax,3

E V
Xg X1
31

 P
m

Pmax,1

0 sin1

P
m

Pmax,3

max sin1

For transient stability

2

Pad 0
0

Pm 0 d Pm Pmax,3 sin d 0

For critical Clearing

2 max

tCr

2H Cr 0
f
Pm

Case-3 : Fault occurs in middle of one of parallel lines

The equivalent reactance during the fault is highest and thus Pmax,2 is lowest

Pmax,1 Pmax,3 Pmax,2

2

Pad 0

Pm Pmax,2 sin d Pmax,3 sin Pm d

For critical clearing,
P
2 max sin1 m
Pmax,3

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cr cos 1

max 0 Pmax,3 cos max Pmax2 cos 0

Pmax3 Pmax2

This is a generic formula and can be applied to other two cases as well after substituting
value of Pmax,1 , Pmax,2 & Pmax,3 .

But tcr can only be calculated from cr in previous two cases using expression written
before.

Power System Protection

In our current protection, normally a current transformer is connected between

protected elements and the relay.
Plug setting multiplier (PSM)
Fault current

T ratio Pick up current

Usually pick up current = Relay setting x Rated secondary current of CT
Pick-up current is minimum current above which a relay operates.

Differential Relays

The current through operating coil k I1 I2

If this current is greater than pick-up current then
it operates, else it does not operates.
K I1 I2 Ipick up Trip
K I1 I2 Ipick up Block

We usually provide a restraining coil to avoid relay mal-operation.

Relay operates if

Nr I1 I2
K I1 I2 K
Ipu
N0
2

Ipu = pick up current

Nr = Number of turns in restraining coil
N0 = Number of turns in operating coil

The ratio operating coil current & restraining coil current is called as bias of differential
relay.

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Protection of Transmission line

1) Mho relay is at least affected by power surges& thus it is used for protection of long
transmission lines. It is inherently directional.
2) Impedance relay is used for protection of medium transmission lines.
3) Reactance relay is unaffected by ground resistance & hence used for earth fault
protection & also for short transmission Lines.
These relays are collectively called as distance relays.
Protection of Transformers

Differential relays are used for protection of large transformers and CT are always
connected in configuration opposite to power transformer.
Example: 1) If power transformer is Y then CT is Y
: 2) If power transformer is then CT is Y Y
Buccholz relay used to prevent any incipient fault below oil level in a transformer of small
KVA.

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