CHAPTER 4: A TOUR OF THE CELL

INTRODUCTION TO THE CELL

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Introduction: Cells on the Move

Cells, the simplest collection of matter that
can live, were first observed by Robert
Hooke in 1665
Antoni van Leeuwenhoek later described cells that could
move
He viewed bacteria with his own hand-crafted
The
early microscopes provided data to
microscopes
establish the cell theory

That is, all living things are composed of cells and

that all cells come from other cells

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4.1 Microscopes reveal the world of the cell

The most frequently used microscope is the

light microscope (LM)like the one used
in biology laboratories (magnified up to 1,000
times )
Light passes through a specimen then through
glass lenses into the viewers eye
Magnification: increase in the apparent size of an
object

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Enlarges image
formed by objective
lens

Eyepiece

Magnifies specimen,
forming primary
image

Objective lens

Focuses light
through specimen

Ocular
lens

Specimen
Condenser
lens
Light
source

4.1 Microscopes reveal the world of the cell

Microscopes have limitations
Both the human eye and the microscope have limits of
resolutionthe ability to distinguish between small
structures
Therefore, the light microscope cannot provide the details
of a small cells structure

Paramecium
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Differential interference-contrast

Fluorescence Confocal

4.1 Microscopes reveal the world of the cell

Biologists often use a very powerful

microscope called the electron microscope
(EM) to view the ultrastructure of cells
It can resolve biological structures as small as 2
nanometers and can magnify up to 100,000 times
Instead of light, the EM uses a beam of electrons

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SEM

TEM

10 m

10 mm
(1 cm)
1 mm

Bacteria are the

smallest of all cells and
require magnifications
up to 1,000X
Plant and animal cells
are 10 times larger
than most bacteria

100 m
10 m
1 m
100 nm
10 nm
1 nm
0.1 nm

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Chicken egg

Frog egg

Most plant
and animal
cells
Nucleus
Most bacteria
Mitochondrion
Mycoplasmas
(smallest bacteria)
Viruses
Ribosome
Proteins
Lipids
Small molecules
Atoms

Electron microscope

100 mm
(10 cm)

Length of some
nerve and
muscle cells

Light microscope

Most cells cannot be

seen without a
microscope

Human height

Unaided eye

1m

The surface area of a cell is important for carrying out

the cells functions, such as acquiring adequate nutrients
and oxygen
A small cell has more surface area relative to its cell volume and
is more efficient

10 m

30 m

30 m

Surface area
of one large cube
= 5,400 m2

10 m

Total surface area

of 27 small cubes
= 16,200 m2

4.3 Prokaryotic cells are structurally simpler

than eukaryotic cells
Bacteria and archaea are prokaryotic cells
All other forms of life are eukaryotic cells
Both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have a
plasma membrane and one or more chromosomes
and ribosomes
Eukaryotic cells have a membrane-bound nucleus
and a number of other organelles, whereas
prokaryotes have a nucleoid and no true organelles

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Pili
Nucleoid
Ribosomes
Plasma membrane
Bacterial
chromosome

Cell wall
Capsule

A typical rod-shaped
bacterium

Flagella

A thin section through the

bacterium Bacillus coagulans
(TEM)

4.4 Eukaryotic cells are partitioned into

functional compartments
There are four life processes in eukaryotic cells that
depend upon structures and organelles
Manufacturing: nucleus, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum,
and Golgi apparatus

Breakdown of molecules: lysosomes, vacuoles, and

peroxisomes

Energy processing: mitochondria in animal cells and

chloroplasts in plant cells

Structural support, movement, and communication:

cytoskeleton, plasma membrane, and cell wall

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4.4 Eukaryotic cells are partitioned into

functional compartments
Although there are many similarities between
animal and plant cells, differences exist
Lysosomes and centrioles are not found in plant cells
Plant cells have a rigid cell wall, chloroplasts, and a
central vacuole not found in animal cells

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NUCLEUS:
Nuclear envelope
Smooth endoplasmic
reticulum

Chromosomes
Nucleolus

Rough
endoplasmic
reticulum

Lysosome
Centriole
Peroxisome
CYTOSKELETON:
Microtubule
Intermediate
filament
Microfilament

Ribosomes
Golgi
apparatus
Plasma membrane
Mitochondrion

NUCLEUS:
Nuclear envelope
Chromosome

Rough endoplasmic
reticulum
Ribosomes

Nucleolus
Smooth
endoplasmic
reticulum

Golgi
apparatus

CYTOSKELETON:
Central vacuole

Microtubule

Chloroplast
Cell wall

Intermediate
filament

Plasmodesmata

Microfilament

Mitochondrion
Peroxisome
Plasma membrane
Cell wall of
adjacent cell

4.5 The structure of membranes correlates with

their functions
The plasma membrane controls the
movement of molecules into and out of the
cell, a trait called selective permeability
Membranes are made of lipids, proteins, and
some carbohydrate, but the most abundant lipids
are phospholipids

Phospholipids form a two-layer

sheet called a phospholipid
bilayer
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Hydrophilic
heads

Outside cell
Hydrophobic
region of
protein

Hydrophobic
tails
Inside cell

Proteins

Hydrophilic
region of
protein

CELL STRUCTURES INVOLVED

IN MANUFACTURING
AND BREAKDOWN

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4.6 The nucleus is the cells genetic control center

The nucleus controls the cells activities and is
responsible for inheritance
Inside is a complex of proteins and DNA called
chromatin, which makes up the cells chromosomes
DNA is copied within the nucleus prior to cell division

The nuclear envelope is a double membrane

with pores that allow material to flow in and out
of the nucleus
It is attached to a network of cellular membranes called the
endoplasmic reticulum
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Two membranes of
nuclear envelope

Nucleus

Nucleolus
Chromatin
rRNA

Pore
mRNA

Endoplasmic
reticulum

Ribosomes

4.7 Ribosomes make proteins for use in the cell

and export
Ribosomes are involved in the cells protein
synthesis
Ribosomes are synthesized in the nucleolus
Cells that must synthesize large amounts of
protein have a large number of ribosomes
Some ribosomes are free ribosomes; others are bound
Free ribosomes are suspended in the cytoplasm
Bound ribosomes are attached to the endoplasmic
reticulum (ER)
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Ribosomes
ER

Cytoplasm
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
Free ribosomes
Bound ribosomes
Large
subunit

TEM showing ER
and ribosomes

Diagram of
a ribosome

Small
subunit

4.8 Overview: Many cell organelles are connected

through the endomembrane system
The membranes within a eukaryotic cell are
physically connected and compose the
endomembrane system
The endomembrane system includes the nuclear
envelope, endoplasmic reticulum (ER), Golgi
apparatus, lysosomes, vacuoles, and the plasma
membrane

Some components of the endomembrane system are able

to communicate with others with formation and transfer of
small membrane segments called vesicles
One important result of communication is the synthesis,
storage, and export of molecules
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4.9 The endoplasmic reticulum is a biosynthetic

factory
There are two kinds of endoplasmic reticulum
smooth and rough
Smooth ER lacks attached ribosomes
Rough ER lines the outer surface of membranes
They differ in structure and function
However, they are connected

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Nuclear
envelope

Smooth ER

Ribosomes
Rough ER

4.9 The endoplasmic reticulum is a biosynthetic

factory
Smooth ER is involved in a variety of diverse
metabolic processes
Enzymes produced by the smooth ER are involved
in the synthesis of lipids, oils, phospholipids, and
steroids, detoxification of drugs and poisons

Rough ER makes additional membrane for

itself and proteins destined for secretion
Once proteins are synthesized, they are
transported in vesicles to other parts of the
endomembrane system
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Transport vesicle
buds off

Ribosome

Secretory
protein
inside transport vesicle
3

Sugar
chain

1
2 Glycoprotein

Polypeptide

Rough ER

4.10 The Golgi apparatus finishes, sorts, and

ships cell products
The Golgi apparatus functions in conjunction
with the ER by modifying products of the ER
Products travel in transport vesicles from the ER to
the Golgi apparatus
One side of the Golgi apparatus functions as a
receiving dock for the product and the other as a
shipping dock
Products are modified as they go from one side of the Golgi
apparatus to the other and travel in vesicles to other sites

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Receiving side of
Golgi apparatus

Golgi
apparatus

Golgi apparatus

Transport
vesicle
from ER

New vesicle
forming

Shipping side
of Golgi apparatus

Transport
vesicle from
the Golgi

To other organelle, or it may move to the

plasma membrane for export from the cell.

4.11 Lysosomes are digestive compartments

within a cell
A lysosome is a membranous sac containing
digestive enzymes
The enzymes and membrane are produced by the
ER and transferred to the Golgi apparatus for
processing
One of the several functions of lysosomes is to remove or
recycle damaged parts of a cell
The damaged organelle is first enclosed in a membrane
vesicle
Then a lysosome fuses with the vesicle, dismantling its
contents and breaking down the damaged organelle
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Digestive
enzymes
Lysosome
Plasma
membrane

Digestive
enzymes
Lysosome
Plasma
membrane
Food vacuole

Digestive
enzymes
Lysosome
Plasma
membrane
Food vacuole

Digestive
enzymes
Lysosome
Plasma
membrane

Digestion
Food vacuole

Lysosome

Vesicle containing
damaged mitochondrion

Lysosome

Vesicle containing
damaged mitochondrion

Lysosome

Digestion
Vesicle containing
damaged mitochondrion

Chloroplast
Nucleus

Central
Vacuole

Vacuoles are
membranous
sacs that are
found in a
variety of cells
and possess
an assortment
of functions

Nucleus

Contractile
vacuoles
vacuoles in some protists expel water from the cell

Nucleus

Nuclear
membrane
Rough ER

Smooth
ER
Transport
vesicle

Transport
vesicle

Summary of the
relationships
among the major
organelles of the
endomembrane
system

Golgi
apparatus

Lysosome

Vacuole

Plasma
membrane

ENERGY-CONVERTING
ORGANELLES

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4.14 Mitochondria harvest chemical energy from

food
Cellular respiration is accomplished in the
mitochondria of eukaryotic cells
Cellular respiration involves conversion of
chemical energy in foods to chemical energy in
ATP (adenosine triphosphate)

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Mitochondrion

Outer
membrane
Intermembrane
space

Inner
membrane
Cristae
Matrix

4.15 Chloroplasts convert solar energy to

chemical energy
Chloroplasts are the photosynthesizing
organelles of plants
Photosynthesis is the conversion of light energy
to chemical energy of sugar molecules

Chloroplasts are partitioned into compartments

The important parts of chloroplasts are the stroma,
thylakoids, and grana

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Chloroplast
Stroma
Inner and outer
membranes
Granum
Intermembrane
space

4.16 EVOLUTION CONNECTION:

Mitochondria and chloroplasts evolved by
endosymbiosis
When compared, you find that mitochondria and
chloroplasts have (1) DNA and (2) ribosomes
The structure of both DNA and ribosomes is very similar
to that found in prokaryotic cells, and mitochondria and
chloroplasts replicate much like prokaryotes

The hypothesis of endosymbiosis proposes that

mitochondria and chloroplasts were formerly small
prokaryotes that began living within larger cells
Symbiosis benefited both cell types

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Mitochondrion
Engulfing of
photosynthetic
prokaryote
Some
cells
Engulfing
of aerobic
prokaryote

Host cell

Chloroplast

Mitochondrion
Host cell

INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL

SUPPORT: THE CYTOSKELETON
AND CELL SURFACES

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4.17 The cells internal skeleton helps organize

its structure and activities
Cells contain a network of protein fibers,
called the cytoskeleton, that functions in
cell structural support and motility
Scientists believe that motility and cellular
regulation result when the cytoskeleton interacts
with proteins called motor proteins

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ATP

(a)

Receptor for
motor protein

Motor protein Microtubule

(ATP powered) of cytoskeleton

Microtubule

(b)

Vesicle

Vesicles

0.25 m

4.17 The cells internal skeleton helps organize

its structure and activities
The cytoskeleton is composed of three kinds of fibers
Microfilaments (actin filaments) support the cells shape
and are involved in motility
Intermediate filaments reinforce cell shape and anchor
organelles
Microtubules (made of tubulin) shape the cell and act as
tracks for motor protein
Nucleus

Nucleus

Actin subunit
7 nm

Microfilament
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Fibrous subunits
10 nm

Intermediate filament

Tubulin subunit
25 nm

Microtubule

4.18 Cilia and flagella move when microtubules

bend
While some protists have flagella and cilia that are
important in locomotion, some cells of
multicellular organisms have them for different
reasons
Cells that sweep mucus out of our lungs have cilia
Animal sperm are flagellated

Flagellum
Cilia

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Cross sections:
Outer microtubule
doublet
Central
microtubules
Radial spoke
Flagellum

Dynein arms
Plasma
membrane
Triplet
Basal body

Basal body

4.20 The extracellular matrix of animal cells

functions in support, movement, and
regulation
Cells synthesize and secrete the
extracellular matrix (ECM) that is
essential to cell function
The ECM is composed of strong fibers of
collagen, which holds cells together and protects
the plasma membrane
ECM attaches through connecting proteins that
bind to membrane proteins called integrins

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Glycoprotein
complex with long
polysaccharide

EXTRACELLULAR FLUID

Collagen fiber
Connecting
glycoprotein
Integrin
Plasma
membrane

Microfilaments

CYTOPLASM

4.21 Three types of cell junctions are found in

animal tissues
Adjacent cells communicate, interact, and adhere
through specialized junctions between them
Tight junctions prevent leakage of extracellular fluid
across a layer of epithelial cells
Anchoring junctions fasten cells together into sheets
Gap junctions are channels that allow molecules to
flow between cells

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Tight junctions

Anchoring junction

Gap junctions
Plasma membranes
of adjacent cells
Extracellular matrix

4.22 Cell walls enclose and support plant cells

Plant, but not animal cells, have a rigid cell

wall
It protects and provides skeletal support that
helps keep the plant upright against gravity

Plant cells have cell junctions called

plasmodesmata that serve in
communication between cells

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Walls
of two
adjacent
plant cells
Vacuole
Plasmodesmata

Primary cell wall

Secondary cell wall
Cytoplasm
Plasma membrane

You should now be able to

1. Describe microscopes and their importance in
viewing cellular structure
2. Distinguish between prokaryotic and
eukaryotic cells
3. Describe the structure of cell membranes and
how membrane structure relates to function
4. Discuss ways that cellular organelles are
involved in the manufacture and breakdown
of important cellular molecules
Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.

You should now be able to

5. List cell structures involved in manufacture and
breakdown of important cellular materials
6. Describe the function of each cellular organelle
that is involved in manufacture and breakdown
of important cellular materials
7. List cell structures involved in energy
conversion
8. Describe the function of each cellular organelle
that is involved in energy conversion

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You should now be able to

9. List cell structures involved in internal and
external support of cells
10.Describe the function of each cellular
organelle that is involved in internal and
external support of the cell

Copyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.