CHAPTER 1

Kinetic Particle Theory

2013 Marshall Cavendish International (Singapore) Private Limited

Chapter 1 Kinetic Particle Theory

1.1 States of Matter

1.2 Kinetic Particle Theory
1.3 Changes in State of Matter and the Kinetic Particle Theory
1.4 Diffusion

1.1

States of Matter

Learning Outcome
At the end of this section, you should be able to:
describe the solid, liquid and gaseous state of
matter.

1.1

States of Matter

Matter refers to a substance that

has mass;
occupies space.
Matter exists in 3 states.
Gas
(water
vapour)

Solid
(ice)

Liquid
(water)

1.1

States of Matter

Properties of Solids, Liquids and Gases

Solid
Fixed shape

Fixed volume

Not
compressible

Liquid

Gas

No fixed shape
No fixed shape
can flow take the can flow
shape of
spread easily to fill
container
any vessel
take the shape of
vessel
Fixed volume
No fixed volume
take the volume of
vessel
Not
compressible

Highly compressible
5

Chapter 1 Kinetic Particle Theory

1.1

States of Matter

1.2 Kinetic Particle Theory

1.3 Changes in State of Matter and the Kinetic Particle
Theory
1.4 Diffusion

1.2

Kinetic Particle Theory

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this section, you should be able to:
state the kinetic particle theory;
describe the states of matter using the
kinetic particle theory.

1.2

Kinetic Particle Theory

Are Particles in Constant Motion?
The dancing dust that you see in a
beam of light is actually the result of air
particles moving and bumping into dust!
Air particles are too small to be seen by
our eyes, therefore we can only see the
dust moving.
The explanations for the dancing dust are based on
the kinetic particle theory.
8

1.2

Kinetic Particle Theory

What is Kinetic Particle Theory?
The kinetic particle theory states that:

Atoms,
molecules,
ions

All matter is made up of tiny particles.

Particles are in constant and random
motion (and thus possess kinetic
energy), colliding with one another.

Constant = nonstop,
continuous
Random = unpredictable
Speed of particles depend on
the amount of kinetic energy

1.2

Kinetic Particle Theory

What is Kinetic Particle Theory?

The fundamental difference between solids, liquids

and gases is the degree of movement of their particles.

Refer to the Video

States of Matter
http://www.youtube.
com/watch?v=sKvoVzukHo
10

1.2

Kinetic Particle Theory

Consider the
following
properties in the
three states of
matter:

11

1.2

Kinetic Particle Theory

Solid
Arrangement of
particles

Very closely packed in

regular arrangement

Movement of
particles

Vibrate about fixed

positions

Forces of attraction
between particles

Very strong

Kinetic energy of
particles

Low

12

1.2

Kinetic Particle Theory

Liquid
Arrangement of
particles

Closely packed in random

arrangement

Movement of particles Free to move within the liquid by

sliding over one another.
Forces of attraction
between particles

Strong

Kinetic energy of
particles

More kinetic energy than in a

solid but less kinetic energy than
gas.

13

1.2

Kinetic Particle Theory

Gas
Arrangement of particles

Far apart and in a random

arrangement

Movement of particles

Move at high speed in all

direction

Forces of attraction
between particles

Negligible

Kinetic energy of particles A lot of kinetic energy

14

1.2

Kinetic Particle Theory

Summary

2D Model Representation of the

Three States of Matter

Particles in a solid

Particles in a liquid

Particles in a gas

Phases of Matter in Container

Visit
http://mutuslab.cs.uwindsor.ca/schurko/animations/phasesc
ontainers/phasescontainer.html

15

1.2

Kinetic Particle Theory

Summary
SOLID

LIQUID

GAS

Arrangement of
Particles

Very closely
packed in
regular
arrangement

Closely packed in
random
arrangement

Far apart and in a

random
arrangement

Movement of
Particles

Vibrate about
Free to move within
fixed positions the liquid by sliding
over one another.

Move at high
speed in all
directions.

Forces between
Particles

Very strong

Strong but weaker

than in solid

Negligible

Energy of
particles

Low

More kinetic energy

than in a solid but
less kinetic energy
than gas.

A lot of kinetic
energy
16

Chapter 1 Kinetic Particle Theory

1.1 States of Matter

1.2 Kinetic Particle Theory
1.3 Changes in State of Matter and the Kinetic Particle
Theory
1.4 Diffusion

17

1.3 Changes in State of Matter and

the Kinetic Particle Theory
Learning Outcome
At the end of this section, you should be able to:
explain the inter-conversion of matter in terms
of the kinetic particle theory and energy
changes.
sketch of graphs to show the transition of
physical states of substances e.g. boiling,
melting, freezing, condensation processes
18

1.3 Changes in State of Matter and

the Kinetic Particle Theory
Matter can change from one state to
another.

Deposition: gas solid

19

1.3 Changes in State of Matter and

the Kinetic Particle Theory

Changes of State
Changes in state are reversible.

de
po

on
ati
or
ap
ev
n
g/
ti o
ilin
sa
bo
en
nd
co

sit
su
ion
bli
ma
tio
n

gas

freezing

solid

melting

liquid
20

1.3 Changes in State of Matter and

the Kinetic Particle Theory

Melting
Melting is the process by which a substance changes
from a solid to a liquid.
The temperature at which a solid melts is its melting point.
When a solid is heated:
liquid

solid

1. Particles gain
kinetic energy and
vibrate faster.

2. Particles overcome
attractive forces
between them and
move further apart.

3. Particles now
slide over one
another. Solid has
melted to liquid.
21

1.3 Changes in State of Matter and

the Kinetic Particle Theory

Temperature Changes in the Melting

Process (Heating Curve)
Temperature/oC

melting point

liquid

liquid + solid

solid

AB: As the solid is heated, particles in solid

gain kinetic energy, the temperature of the
solid increases until it reaches point B, its
melting point. At point B, the solid begins to
melt.

Time/min

22

1.3 Changes in State of Matter and

the Kinetic Particle Theory

Temperature Changes in the Melting

Process (Heating Curve)
Temperature/oC

liquid

melting point
liquid + solid

solid

BC: Melting occurs at fixed temperature.

Energy from heating is used to overcome
forces of attraction between the particles.
A mixture of solid and liquid exists.
Particles do not gain kinetic energy.

Time/min

23

1.3 Changes in State of Matter and

the Kinetic Particle Theory

Temperature Changes in the Melting

Process (Heating Curve)
Temperature/oC

liquid

melting point
liquid + solid

solid

CD: At point C, all the

solid has melted.
Temperature of the liquid
rises as heating continues.
Liquid particles gain kinetic
energy.
Time/min

24

1.3 Changes in State of Matter and

the Kinetic Particle Theory

Freezing
Freezing is the change from a liquid to a solid.

The temperature at which a liquid freezes is its

freezing point.
When a liquid is cooled:
1. Particles lose kinetic energy
and move more slowly.

3. All the particles vibrate about

fixed and orderly positions.
Liquid has frozen into solid.
solid

liquid

2. Forces of attraction between

particles become stronger and move
closer to one another.

25

1.3 Changes in State of Matter and

the Kinetic Particle Theory

Temperature Changes in the Freezing

Process (Cooling Curve)
Temperature/oC

liquid

PQ: Particles in liquid loses kinetic

energy. The temperature of the liquid
drops to freezing point, Q. At Q, the
liquid starts to freeze.

liquid + solid

solid

freezing point

Time/min

26

1.3 Changes in State of Matter and

the Kinetic Particle Theory

Temperature Changes in the Freezing

Process (Cooling Curve)
Temperature/oC

liquid

QR: liquid freezes.

A mixture of liquid and solid exists.
Temperature remains constant even
though cooling continues. Why?

liquid + solid

solid

freezing point

Time/min

27

1.3 Changes in State of Matter and

the Kinetic Particle Theory

Temperature Changes in the Freezing

Process (Cooling Curve)
Temperature/oC

RS: Particles in solid lose kinetic

energy.
At R, all the liquid has frozen.
The temperature of the solid drops
with further cooling.

liquid

liquid + solid

solid

freezing point

Time/min

28

1.3 Changes in State of Matter and

the Kinetic Particle Theory
Boiling
Boiling is the change
from a liquid to a gas
at the boiling
temperature.
The temperature at
which a liquid boils is
the boiling point.

29

1.3 Changes in State of Matter and

the Kinetic Particle Theory

Temperature Changes in the Boiling

Process (Heating Curve)
Temperature/oC

gas
boiling point
liquid + gas
liquid

WX: Particles in liquid gain kinetic energy,

temperature of liquid increases until its boiling
point, X, is reached.
Time/min

30

1.3 Changes in State of Matter and

the Kinetic Particle Theory

Temperature Changes in the Boiling

Process (Heating Curve)
Temperature/oC

gas
boiling point
liquid + gas
liquid

XY: Liquid boils

Mixture of liquid and gas exists.
Temperature of liquid remains
constant. Why?
Temperature remains constant
until all the liquid is boiled off.
Time/min

31

1.3 Changes in State of Matter and

the Kinetic Particle Theory

Heating Curve
(Using water as example)

Refer to the Flash Animation States of Matter

32

1.3 Changes in State of Matter and

the Kinetic Particle Theory
What change of state is taking place here?
Evaporation
Clothes dry when
water on wet
clothes change
into water vapour.

33

1.3 Changes in State of Matter and

the Kinetic Particle Theory

Evaporation is the change from a liquid to a gas

below the boiling point (i.e. without boiling).
Yippee! We have
enough energy
to escape!

Gas

Particles have enough

energy to escape as a
gas from the surface of
the liquid.
Volatile liquids
evaporate quickly at
room temperature.
Eg. dichloromethane,
ethanol

Liquid
34

1.3 Changes in State of Matter and

the Kinetic Particle Theory

Differences Between Boiling and Evaporation

Boiling

Evaporation

Very fast process

Very slow process

Bubbles form

Nothing visible happens

Occurs throughout the liquid

Occurs from the exposed

surface of the liquid only

Occurs at one temperature

(Boiling point)

Occurs at all temperature

Source of energy needed

Energy supplied by the

surrounding
35

1.3 Changes in State of Matter and

the Kinetic Particle Theory

Condensation is the change from a gas to

a liquid.
It is cool to
condense!

When temperature
drops:

Liquid

Gas particles
lose kinetic
energy

Gas becomes liquid

Gas

Move closer together

Increase in
attractive forces

36

1.3 Changes in State of Matter and

the Kinetic Particle Theory

Sublimation
Sublimation is the change from a solid to a gas
without melting.
The forces of attraction between particles in liquid
state are too weak to remain in this state.
Gas
A shortcut to
becoming a
gas!

URL

Solid

37

Chapter 1 Kinetic Particle Theory

1.1 States of Matter

1.2 Kinetic Particle Theory
1.3 Changes in State of Matter and the Kinetic Particle Theory
1.4 Diffusion

38

1.4

Diffusion

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this section, you should be able to:
use diffusion to account for the movement of
particles in liquids and gases;
explain daily effects of diffusion in terms of
particles;
state qualitatively the effect of molecular mass
on the rate of diffusion and explain the
dependence of rate of diffusion on temperature
39

1.4

Diffusion

Some Examples
When a bottle of perfume is left open for some
time, the scent of the perfume soon spreads
throughout the entire room.
Similarly, if your mother is cooking curry in the
kitchen, you will soon be able to detect the smell of
spices in every room.
Diffusion is an evidence of the kinetic particle theory.

40

1.4

Diffusion

How Do We Show Diffusion?

air

bromine
air mixed with
bromine

We can show diffusion in the laboratory

by placing a gas jar of air over a gas jar
containing bromine vapour.
A few minutes after
the cover is
removed, the
reddish brown
colour becomes
visible throughout
the jar.
41

How Do We Show Diffusion?

Reddish brown colour

becomes visible
throughout the jar.

42

1.4

Diffusion

Air Particles

After a few
hours
Remove
lid

Reddish
brown
vapour

lid
Particles of
bromine vapour

Gas Diffusion Animation: Visit

http://www.micromountain.com/sci_diagrams/sci_app/sci_app_pages/gasdiff_a
nim.htm
Animation of Bromine Diffusing in Air: Visit
43
http://www.schoolscience.co.uk/content/3/chemistry/materials/match2pg1.html

1.4

Diffusion

Why Does Diffusion Occur?

Both air and bromine are made up
of tiny particles moving at random.
The bromine particles diffuse
(spread out) into the spaces
between the air particles, vice versa.
When the reddish brown colour
becomes visible throughout the gas
jar, it means that the particles of
both gases are evenly spread.
We say that a homogeneous
mixture of air and bromine is
formed.

44

1.4

Diffusion

Why Does Diffusion Occur?

Diffusion is
the movement of particles from a region of
higher concentration to a region of lower
concentration due to constant and random
motion of the particles.
This is a process by which particles move
freely to fill up any available space.
45

1.4

Diffusion

Do All Gases Diffuse At the Same Rate?

Relative molecular mass (Mr) is the sum of all
the relative atomic masses of all the atoms in a
molecule.
Relative molecular mass has no units.
Relative molecular masses of some gases
Gas

Mr

Hydrogen (H2)

Oxygen (O2)

32

Carbon dioxide (CO2)

44

48

1.4

Diffusion

Do All Gases Diffuse At the Same Rate?

Gas particles diffuse at different speeds
depending on their relative molecular mass.
Under the same conditions of temperature and
pressure, a gas with a lower relative molecular
mass diffuse faster than a gas with a higher
relative molecular mass.
Gases with lower relative molecular masses diffuse
faster than those with higher relative molecular masses.
49

1.4

Diffusion

How Do We Show That the Rate of Diffusion

is Affected By Relative Molecular Mass?
Experiment 1:

cotton wool soaked

in ammonia
solution

cotton wool soaked

in concentrated
hydrochloric acid
50

1.4

Diffusion

The relative molecular mass of ammonia is 17. The

relative molecular mass of hydrogen chloride is 36.5.
Ammonia (from ammonia solution) has a lower
relative molecular mass than hydrogen chloride (from
concentrated hydrochloric acid), and hence diffuses
faster. Thus, ammonium chloride is formed further
from the ammonia solution.

cotton wool soaked

in ammonia
solution

cotton wool soaked

White ring of in concentrated
solid
hydrochloric acid
51
(ammonium
chloride)

1.4

Diffusion

How Do We Show That the Rate of Diffusion

is Affected By Relative Molecular Mass?
Experiment 2:
hydrogen

A porous pot containing air is

covered with a beaker containing
hydrogen. The level of water in
arm A falls initially.

After sometime, it rises and

returns to the original level.

1.4

Diffusion
hydrogen

As the relative molecular mass of

hydrogen is less than air, molecules
of hydrogen gas diffuse into the
porous pot faster than air can diffuse
out. This results in an increase in
pressure in the porous pot causing
the water level at arm A to fall
initially.
The water level at A rises to the
original level when the concentration
of hydrogen and air is the same
inside and outside the porous pot,
i.e. there is no net diffusion of gases
in both direction.

1.4

Diffusion

How Do We Show That the Rate of Diffusion

is Affected By Relative Molecular Mass?
Experiment 3:

A porous pot containing

air is covered with a
beaker containing
carbon dioxide. The
level of water in arm A
rises initially.

Carbon
dioxide

After sometime, it falls

and returns to the
Porous pot
original level.

1.4

Diffusion

As the relative molecular mass of

carbon dioxide is more than air,
molecules of carbon dioxide gas
diffuse into the porous pot slower
than air can diffuse out. This results
in a decrease in pressure in the
porous pot causing the water level
at arm A to rise initially.
The water level at A falls to the
original level when the concentration
of carbon dioxide and air is the
same inside and outside the porous
pot, i.e. there is no net diffusion of
gases in both direction.

Carbon
dioxide

Porous
pot

1.4

Diffusion

Diffusion in Liquids
Diffusion also takes place in liquids.
A small crystal of potassium
manganate(VII) is introduced into
a beaker of distilled water. A deep
purple solution forms at the
bottom of the beaker.
Diffusion slowly takes place until
the solution becomes uniformly
purple.
56

1.4

Diffusion

Effect of Temperature on the Rate of Diffusion

What would you observe if the experiment
was repeated using boiling water?
The solution would become uniformly
purple within a much shorter time.
When temperature increases,
the rate of diffusion increases.
57

1.4

Diffusion

Diffusion in Solids
If a gold bar and a silver bar are tied together firmly
and left for about ten years, some gold particles will
diffuse into the silver bar, and vice versa.

58

Diffusion is fastest in gases, where the

particles are far apart and the attractive
forces between particles are negligible.
It is the slowest in solids, where the particles
are held closely together in fixed positions by
strong attractive forces.

59

Anagrams