LIQUID BIOFUELS
AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Introduction
Liquid fossil fuels, such as paraffin (kerosene) and fuel oil, have been with us for many years.
Over the past decade, similar fuels, made by processing plants, trees and organic waste
products have become much more widely available. The rapid growth in the use of biofuels
stems from the soaring price of fossil oil, growing concern over security of supply and the
environmental impact of fossil fuels. The three main types of liquid fuel looked at in this
document comprise:
Ethanol, made by fermenting sugar cane, grain, straw, grass and wood.
Biodiesel, made from new or recycled vegetable oils and animal fats (e.g. from palm oil)
Oils made by compressing seeds (such as jatropha oil). Production from algae is currently
being researched.
Grown sustainably, biofuels have the potential to alleviate global warming and other negative
environmental issues such as the disposal of vast quantities of organic wastes.
Used responsibly, biofuels can have a major impact on levels of pollutants, both within the
homes of those living in poverty, and in the crowded cities of the developing world.
When biofuels first became widely
available they were heralded as the
new sustainable way to provide the
world with energy. More recently, the
use of land for growing crops which
are solely for energy has led to major
environmental issues.
Millions of litres per annum
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
The market in biofuels has grown very
fast, as shown in the figures for
biodiesel provided by the Biodiesel
2020 survey (Emerging Markets
Online). As a result, environmentalists
are calling for stricter global controls
on production.
Growing biofuels
2000
1000
0
1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2006
Biodiesel production (source: Emerging markets
online: biodiesel survey 2020)
Sustainable cultivation
Of all opportunities for renewable energy from energy plantation biomass, sugar cane makes
the most sense. In many African countries where sugar was developed under colonial
economies, sugar was produced (mainly for export to Europe and beyond), while the residues,
such as molasses, were dumped into the rivers, leaching the oxygen from the water and
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destroying life. These sugar factories were very dirty operations - many still are. Developing
a market for ethanol can form part of a beneficial re-use strategy that can clean sugar
factories and use the residues that previously had no value and were dumped. With advanced
technologies now available, biomass, such as trees and grasses, can also be used as
feedstocks for ethanol production.
A vast variety of oil plants originate in the tropics and subtropics. Many oil-bearing plants,
whose oils are often toxic to humans, grow on low-grade land, or in marginal locations
unsuitable for food crops. Some of these plants are cultivated on waste lands to prevent
further erosion and to inhibit desertification. Use of these oils for energy provision does not
need to compete with food production. Examples of these oil plants are the Physic nut tree
(Jatropha Curcas L.), the castor oil plant varieties (Ricinus communis L.) and the babass
palm (Orbignya phalerata Mart.), among others.
Some oil plants grow in symbiosis with food plants by being used, for example, as shade
trees, or to provide barriers against animals; jatropha is not eaten by animals so can be used
in this way. Plant oils from seeds such as jatropha (which grow in many regions of tropical
and subtropical countries), can be harvested and the oil extracted using hand tools. This
local oil production strengthens decentralized supply, provides employment and income
opportunities for the local population and promotes sustainability. The presscake, a byproduct of the oil processing, can be used either as fodder or as high-quality fertilizer. In
general, all plant oils which are liquid at ambient temperatures can be utilized as cooking
fuel (Stumpf, 2002).
Large-scale cultivation of biofuels
The problems associated with growing biofuels stem from the industrialised world trying to
grow its way out of its dependence on the internal combustion engine, and the huge profits
that are to be made from growing palm oil and other high energy crops. A single hectare of oil
palm may yield five tonnes of crude oil (Mongabay.com) and where rainforests are cleared,
for example in Malaysia, further profits can be made through the sale of timber from land
clearance. There is evidence that not all cleared land is suitable for palms and that hardwood
is the main objective. This indiscriminate culling of forests has led, for instance, to oil-palm
plantations covering 5.3 million hectares of Indonesia (2004).The destruction of prime forest
has led to major social and cultural upheaval for indigenous peoples whose rights have been
ignored (Mongabay.com).
After 25 years, lands are often so leached of nutrients that they are abandoned and become
scrubland where few plants will grow. In the USA, which is seeking to reduce its dependence
on overseas oil products, subsidies may mask the costs of spraying both pesticides and
fertilizers, and from using of large-scale farm machinery.
How are biofuels made?
Bio-ethanol
Raw material (eg
sugar cane residue)
Grinding or chipping to
reduce size
Hydrolysis* into simple
sugars & cellulose
Breakdown by enzyme
of cellulose into
glucose
Enzyme production through
chemical reaction to break
down cellulose
Glucose
fermentation**
Ethanol
Carbon dioxide
Simple sugar
fermentation**
Woody waste
used to power
process
* Chemical reaction caused by addition of dilute sulphuric acid on the active ingredients in the feedstock
** Series of chemical reactions that convert sugars through action by yeast or bacteria to ethanol and carbon dioxide
Liquid biofuels
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The raw feedstock, such as sugar cane residues, is ground up to a small size and the active
ingredients in the feedstock react with dilute sulphuric acid, breaking down into a mixture of
simple sugars, cellulose and cellulose enzymes which are grown at this stage (or they can be
bought in). The cellulose is further reacted with the cellulose enzymes to form glucose. Both
the simple sugars and the glucose are fermented with yeasts or bacteria, forming ethanol,
with carbon dioxide as a by-product. The non-reactive parts of the sugar cane remain as a
woody waste which can be used as a fuel to drive the process.
Plant oils for energy
Plant oils can be extracted using hand tools, such as the Approtech oil expeller shown on the
left (Approtech), or the motorised Sundhara-type oil presses, such as the one shown on the
right (http://www.jatropha.de/expellers/ ).
These methods are similar to those used for food oil extraction. Practical Action has extensive
information on these types of extraction, including a technical brief specifically on oil
extraction.
Biodiesel
M ixed w ith m ethanol and a
catalyst at low tem perature
and pressure
R aw m aterial
(e.g.P lant oil)
D istillation
B iodiesel
G lycerine
W ashing
The raw oil is reacted with an excess of alcohol (often methanol or ethanol) in the presence of
a catalyst (often potassium or sodium hydroxide). The products of this reaction are crude
biodiesel and crude glycerine, with an excess alcohol, which is recovered and re-used.
Uses of biofuels
The main use of biofuels globally is within the transport sector, with bio-ethanol replacing
petrol (gasoline) and bio-diesel replacing diesel. Governments have been keen to promote
the use of such fuel for transport purposes as they can draw increased revenue from taxing
its sale as motor fuel. In the longer term, unregulated planting of energy crops for the
transport sector is likely to lead to land degradation, social unrest and famine.
Liquid biofuels
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For cooking and lighting within the home, biofuels are hugely beneficial, as they can be burnt
completely cleanly. With over 4000 people dying each day globally as a result of indoor air
pollution from cooking smoke, providing a clean local alternative fuel in those countries most
affected can make substantial inroads into alleviating poverty. Clean cooking provides health,
safety and quality of life benefits especially for women and children.
Biofuel stoves have been shown to be effective in reducing or eliminating the practice of
gathering biomass; this can be especially critical where deforestation and desertification are
pressing issues, or in conflict situations where women fuel-gatherers are particularly
vulnerable to assault.
Developing countries with ideal climates for the rapid growth of fuel crops, such as sugar
cane, are often the same ones suffering the greatest burden of disease and death from indoor
air pollution. This document will discuss mainly the positive technologies for which biofuels
should be grown.
Technologies for liquid biofuels
Biofuel stoves
Liquified Petroleum Gas (LPG) is a fossil-fuel derivative of two large energy industries:
natural gas processing and crude oil refining. Currently the demand for LPG is growing at
around 0.4% per annum and with the growth in demand in Asia growing at 3.5% per annum
(LP Gas Association website (data 2004)). Any downturn in the supply of these two fossil
fuels will lead to a reduction in the availability of supplies and consequent price increases.
Other clean fuels are needed for cooking both to complement LPG in those countries which
are not themselves oil rich, and to supply clean energy to those currently using biomass in
traditional cooking stoves and three-stone fires.
Ethanol stoves
Ethanol is easily and safely handled, leading to
their use, for years, for the recreational market
such as yachts and outdoor activities.
Recently, robust, low-cost stoves have been
designed specifically for households in the
developing world.
This new market has lead to the establishment
of ethanol fuel distribution systems, creating
opportunities for local commerce. A good
example is the CleanCook Stove. This stainless
steel stove burns cleanly and has safety
features designed particularly for the
household:
A fuel tank holds the ethanol in a special
absorptive fibre so that it cannot spill out
Ethiopian refugee cooking on a
Fuel is denatured so that it cannot be
CleanCook stove
ingested
The tank is not pressurised so there is no
risk of explosion
The burner flame is easily adjusted or extinguished by
means of a simple regulator
This stove is finding a market in both Africa and Latin
America. Currently, manufacture of the stove for Ethiopia
is being transferred to Addis Ababa, bringing skills and
employment close to where the stove will be in use and
providing clean fuel for refugee communities (OBrien).
SuperBlu stove
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Other manufacturers for ethanol stoves include the SuperBlu stove manufactured by Bluwave
Ltd. The stove has been designed to be reliable, safe and easy to manufacture. The fuel
consumption is highly efficient compared to paraffin stoves, and it burns cleanly with no
smell. It has no consumable parts, such as wicks. In cold conditions, it converts into a heater
by the simple means of a ceramic cylinder which fits on top of the stove. The cylinder heats
up and retains and radiates the heat to warm the surrounds, and on top of the cylinder a
space is provided for a kettle. A detailed discussion on testing of this stove can be found on
the HEDON Household Energy Network website (Bluwave).
Plant oil stoves
There are a wide variety of plant oils that have
potential for cooking, including coconut, jatropha,
soya bean, corn, peanut, cotton, sunflower and
many more. The Protos stove was developed in the
Philippines by Leyte State University (LSU) in
collaboration with Bosch and Siemens Home
Appliance Group (BSH), who have supported and
funded the work, alongside the German government
(Guarte).
A key feature of this type of stove is that fuel can be
bought in very low quantities and for people on
small incomes, not having to save for a refill means
that the tradition of buying enough just for the next
day can be continued.
Protos plant oil cooker
Plant oil is safe to use: it does not burn under normal room conditions, and burns cleanly, so
is good for health.
Those piloting the use of the plant oil stove say that it cooks faster than a traditional
kerosene stove and the cost of fuel tends to be lower. Most of the stove parts are
manufactured locally, although the high precision components are still made by BSH. The
German agency, GTZ, is testing the stove in the longer term in Tanzania. Already there is
wide demand for the stove.
Biofuel lighting
Ethanol can be used to produce a clean bright light.
Petromax, who produce the BriteLyt Methanol/Ethanol/Alcohol
Lantern, makes the best known of these lanterns. This lantern is
manufactured currently in the USA (Britelyt).
The Nimbkar Agricultural Research Institute (NARI) in the
Philippines has developed the Noorie lantern that burns very
cleanly, producing light equivalent to that from a 100 W
incandescent light bulb. By removing the top of the lamp, an
attachment can allow the lantern to be used for small amounts of
cooking
Noorie lantern with
cooking attachment
Electricity generation
There are several types of vegetable oils that can be used to generate electricity in adapted
diesel engines. For example, in the Amazon region, around 1000 small power plants
(<500kW) use diesel to supply electricity to small towns and villages, whilst huge plantations
of oil palm are cultivated for biofuels for export (Coelho, 2005).
Diesel is not subsidised, and the electricity is often too expensive for households to buy.
Diesel engines adapted to burn vegetable oil are being tested in demonstration units in
Liquid biofuels
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isolated villages. Where they have been installed, they have been found to be socially
beneficial particularly where the communities are very isolated. Such projects are potential
candidates for carbon finance as they replace diesel, which can lead to lower costs for both
installation and fuel.
In Mali, according to the news agency Reuters, some 700 communities have installed
biodiesel generators powered by oil from the Jatropha curcas plant. The Malian government is
promoting cultivation of the inedible oilseed bush to provide electricity for lighting homes,
running water pumps and grain mills, and other critical uses. Mali hopes to eventually power
all of the countrys 12,000 villages with affordable, renewable energy sources. Jatropha has
the additional benefit that it stabilizes soil in areas prone to erosion, and is used as a
medicinal plant.
Mali is seeking to boost the standard of living of its 80-percent-rural population and to
reduce migration from impoverished rural areas through electricity for light,air conditioning,
vaccine storage and media. (Herro)
In rural Cambodia a scheme was piloted whereby jatropha nuts, which grow wild along the
roadside, are collected by local villagers and traded by the local shopkeeper in exchange for
goods to the value of the nuts. The nuts are bought by the oil-producer for this traded price
and small oil-expellers located in some of the villages will be used to make jatropha oil. The
oil was supplied to those businesses charging batteries and running standard diesel
generators. The cake from the crushed seeds is used for cattle feed (DATe).
Biofuels for transport
Ethanol is a high octane fuel and has replaced lead as an octane enhancer in petrol. By
blending ethanol with petrol, oxygen is added to the fuel mixture so it burns more completely
and reduces polluting emissions. Ethanol fuel blends are widely sold in the United States.
The most common blend is 10% ethanol and 90% petrol (E10). Vehicle engines require no
modifications to run on E10. Only flexible fuel vehicles can run on up to 85% ethanol and
15% petrol blends (E85).
Brazil is the leader in biofuel production, with a government decision more than twenty years
ago to make the country self-sufficient in energy. By 2005, the number of cars sold that
could run on both ethanol and petrol exceeded those sold that could use petrol alone.
By 2020, it is projected that biodiesel could represent as much as 20% of all on-road diesel
used in Brazil, Europe, China and India. Biodiesel consumption in the U.S. grew from 25
million gallons per year in 2004 to over 250 million gallons in 2006. In the U.S. over fifty
new, larger-scale plants are in construction and are expected to come online between 2007
and 2008 (Biodiesel 2020).
Biofuels and the environment
Biofuels can both benefit and destroy the environment depending on the ways in which
they replace fossil fuels. When fossil fuels burn, they add to the levels of greenhouse gases in
the environment. Where these are replaced by renewably-grown biofuels, the carbon dioxide
is re-absorbed by the plants as they grow, and energy does not need to be expended in
transporting fossil fuels for long distances. Thus, using clean and sustainable practices,
biofuels can benefit the environment, and add economic value to local communities.
However, where large plantations have been planted in rainforest areas, this benefit is
completely overwhelmed by the damage done to the environment by burning the forest, which
is an essential global sink for these greenhouse gases. This large-scale, non-regulated
approach can lead to land degradation as the soil is leached of its nutrients. Communities are
often faced with eviction or land on which crops no longer grw.
Liquid biofuels
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The main use of biofuels is in the automotive sector. Again, there are both benefits and
disadvantages. Ethanol can reduce carbon emissions through improved combustion, and
reduced reliance on fossil fuels but access to a new source of fuel prevents shortages, so
keeps the price of fuel down, encouraging more people to use private transport.
Used within the household context, biofuels have a very positive impact on the lives of those
living in poverty. The kitchen environment remains the place where most women living in the
developing world spend most of their time. Alleviating kitchen smoke improves health, saves
money, improves womens status, saves very large amounts of time. In areas prone to
drought, it can also help save the external environment by reducing pressures on trees and
other vegetation used for fuel.
Future for biofuels
Biofuels are here to stay. Used responsibly, they can reduce the levels of pollutants currently
affecting the planet, and can provide clean air in homes fit for human habitation. As new
technologies become mainstreamed (such as fuel cells for the auto industry) it is to be hoped
that these new technologies can improve the quality of life for those communities currently
living in poverty, and provide a route to clean development for future generations.
Further information
Approtech Oil Processing Technologies
http://www.approtec.org/tech_oil.shtml
BluWave
http://www.hedon.info/docs/BluwaveEthanolStoveAssessment.pdf
BriteLyt Multi-Fuel Lanterns, Stoves & Petromax Lanterns
http://britelyt.groupee.net/prod1.html
DATe Biofuel for Sustainable Development and Poverty Alleviation in Rural Cambodia Development
and Appropriate Technology report
http://www.jatropha.de/Cambodia/CambodiaBiofuelProjectDescription%20WebDe.pdf
Emerging Markets Online BIODIESEL 2020:Multi-Client Study Volume 2, 2007-2008 Global
Market Survey, Feedstock Trends and Forecasts (updated by Emerging Markets Online)
Guarte, R. C. LPG Alternative Seen in New Plant Oil Stove (May 2006)
http://neda8.evis.net.ph/eddnews/stove/stove.htm
HEDON Household Energy Network Knowledge base search on Ethanol This search provides sites
for over 100 articles on Ethanol.
http://www.hedon.info/goto.php/search.htm?cx=011705051524267581131%3Aodc5tdp7re0&cof
=FORID%3A11&q=Ethanol&sa=Search
HEDON Household Energy Network Ethanol page.
http://www.hedon.info/goto.php/Ethanol
Herro, Alano Eye on Mali: Jatropha Oil Lights Up Villages in WorldChanging Change your
thinking
http://www.worldchanging.com/archives/006814.html
Mongabay.com Massive oil palm expansion planned by Indonesia's richest man
mongabay.com May 8, 2007
http://news.mongabay.com/2007/0508-palm_oil.html
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OBrien, C. Introducing alcohol stoves to refugee communities in Boiling Point 52 2006
http://www.hedon.info/goto.php/IntroducingAlcoholStovesToRefugeeCommunities
or http://www.hedon.info/docs/BP52-7-OBrien.pdf
Stumpf, E. & Werner Mhlbauer, W. Plant-oil cooking stove for developing countries in Boiling
Point 48, Practical Action 2002 https://practicalaction.org/docs/energy/docs48/bp48_pp37-38.pdf
Practical Action
The Schumacher Centre for Technology and Development
Bourton-on-Dunsmore
Rugby, Warwickshire, CV23 9QZ
United Kingdom
Tel: +44 (0)1926 634400
Fax: +44 (0)1926 634401
E-mail: [email protected]
Website: http://practicalaction.org/practicalanswers/
This document was produced by Dr. L Bates for Practical Action in March 2007
Practical Action is a development charity with a difference. We know the simplest ideas can have the
most profound, life-changing effect on poor people across the world. For over 40 years, we have been
working closely with some of the worlds poorest people - using simple technology to fight poverty and
transform their lives for the better. We currently work in 15 countries in Africa, South Asia and Latin
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