Cells - Structure and Function

Important Events in the Discovery of Cells

1665 - Robert Hooke looks at cork under a microscope. Calls the chambers he
see "cells"
1665 - 75 Anton van Leeuwenhoek, the person incorrectly given credit for the
invention of the microscope (actually, he was just damn good at making and
using them, and his scopes soon became the standard, and history has just given
him credit as the inventor of the microscope), studies organisms living in pond
water (like you did in lab). He calls them "Animalcules."
1830 - German scientists Schleiden and Schawann summarize the findings of
many scientists and conclude that all living organisms are made of cells. This
forms the basis of the Cell Theory of Biology

The Cell Theory of Biology

All organisms are composed of cells

The cell is the structural unit of life - units smaller than cells are not alive
Cells arise by division of preexisting cells - spontaneous generation does not
exist
Cells can be cultured to produce more cells
o in vitro = outside organism or cell
o in vivo = inside organism or cell

Properties of Cells
Cells are complex and highly organized

They contain numerous internal structures

Some are membrane bound (organelles) while others do not

Cells contain a genetic blueprint and machinery to use it

Genes are instructions for cells to create specific proteins

All cells use the same types of information
o The genetic code is universal

o The machinery used for synthesis is interchangeable

However, for this to function properly, information transfer must be error free
o Errors are called mutations

Cells arise from the division of other cells

Daughter cells inherit the genes from the mother cells

Binary fission - cell division in bacteria
Mitosis - the genetic complement of each daughter cell is identical to the other
and to the mother cell. This is asexual reproduction
Meiosis - the genetic complement of each daughter cell is reduced by half and
each daughter cell is genetically unique. This is used in sexual reproduction
Daughter cells inherit cytoplasm and organelles from the mother cells
o Asexual - organelles from mother cell
o Sexual - organelles predominately from one parent
In eukaryotes, the chloroplasts and mitochondria come from the
egg cell
This can be used to trace the evolutionary origin of the organism

Cells acquire and utilize energy

Plant cells undergo photosynthesis

o convert light energy and CO2 to chemical energy (ATP and glucose)
Most cells respire
o release energy found in organic compounds
o convert organic compounds to CO2 and O2
o make ATP

Cells can perform a variety of chemical reactions

Transform simple organic molecules into complex molecules (anabolism)

Breakdown complex molecules to release energy (catabolism)
Metabolism = all reactions performed by cells

Cells can engage in mechanical activities

Cells can move

Organelles can move
Cells can respond to stimuli
o chemotaxis - movement towards chemicals
o phototaxis - movement towards light
o hormone responses

touch responses

Cells can regulate activities

Cells control DNA synthesis and cell division

Gene regulation - cells make specific proteins only when needed
Turn on and off metabolic pathways

Cells all contain the following structures:

Plasma membrane - separates the cell from the external environment

Cytoplasm - fluid-filled cell interior
Nuclear material - genetic information stored as DNA
Ribosomes

Types of Cells
Prokaryotes

Pro = before; karyon =

nucleus
relatively small - 5 to 10 um
lack membrane-bound
organelles
earliest cell type

Archaea

Originally thought to be
prokaryotes
relatively small - 5 to 10 um
lack membrane-bound
organelles
Usually live in extreme
environments (thermophiles,
halophiles, etc)

Eukaryotes

Eu = true; karyon = nucleus

contain membrane-bound
organelles
Evolved from prokaryotes
by endosymbiotic
association of two or more
prokaryotes
Include Protists, Fungi,
Animals, and Plants

Features of Prokaryotic Cells

Capsule - outer sticky protective

layer
Cell Wall - rigid structure which
helps the bacterium maintain its
shape
o this is in NO way the
same as the cell wall of a
plant cell
Plasma membrane - separates the
cell from the environment
Mesosome - infolding of plasma
membrane to aid in
compartmentalization
Nucleoid - region where
nakedDNA is found
Cytoplasm
o semi-fluid cell interior
o no membrane-bound
organelles
o location for metabolic
enzymes
o location of ribosomes for
protein synthesis

Properties of Eukaryotic Cells

Cytoskeleton - flexible tubular scaffold of microfilaments

maintains cell shape and provides support

anchors organelles & enzymes to specific regions of the cell
o contractility and movement (amoeboid movement)
o intracellular transport - tracks for vesicle and organelle movement by
motor proteins
Cytoskeleton components
o Microfilaments
solid protein (actin) which is assembled at one end and
disassembled at the other end
actin filaments can change lenght - a process known
as treadmilling
actin frequently interacts with myosin, a second protein capable
of movement - like in your muscles
excellent animated youtube video (don't worry about the calcium
binding)
o Intermediate filaments
rope-like fibrous proteins - defined by size, not by composition
like microfilaments and microtubules
provide structural reinforcement
anchor organelles
keep nucleus in place
o Microtubules
hollow tubes of tubulin (a globular protein)
maintains cell shape
anchor organelles
movement of organelles
track for motor proteins such as kinesin
excellent animated youtube video (skip to about a minute in)
Summary of Cytoskeleton Components
o
o

Cilia and Flagella - involved in cellular movement

o composed of microtubules
o cilia - short, numerous, complex
o flagella - longer, fewer, less complex
o both arranged in a 9+2 pattern with dynein arms projecting outward
o Movement is through associations with dynein, a motor protein similar
to myosin and kinesin

Nucleus
o Nucleus surrounded by a double membrane with pores

Outer nuclear membrane continuous with ER (therefore part of

the endomembrane system)
Proteins destined for import into the nucleus have a molecular tag
(the "zip code") called Nuclear Localization Signal (NLS)
Importins bind to proteins with NLS and import them into the
nucleus
Exportins do the same thing to export proteins out of nucleus
Nuclear matrix - protein-containing fibrilar network
Nucleoplasm - the fluid substance in which the solutes of the nucleus are
dissolved
Chromosomes - histone protein and DNA complexes
heterochromatin - highly compact, supercoiled chromatin
euchromatin - long, filamentous strands of chromatin (gene
transcription?)
Nucleolus - involved in the synthesis and assembly of ribosomes (plural
= nucleoli)

o
o
o

Ribosomes
o Technically not an organelle, since there is no membrane, but they are
prominent cellular structures and usually lumped in with the organelles
o The "factories" of the cell - involved in protein synthesis
o Facilitate the specific coupling of tRNA anticodons with mRNA codons
during protein synthesis
o May either be free or bound to ER
Proteins which are fated to be secreted or transported to an
endomembrane organelle are typically produced by the ribosomes
bound to the ER (see signal hypothesis below)
Proteins which are fated to remain in the cytoplasm are typically
produced by ribosomes floating free in the cytoplasm
o Made up of two subunits, the large and the small subunit
o Both subunits are constructed out of protein and RNA (called rRNA)
o The ribosomes of prokaryotes and eukaryotes vary slightly with regard
to size and shape

Endomembrane System
o Endoplasmic Reticulum - an extensive membranous network
continuous with the outer nuclear membrane.

Rough ER - has ribosomes associated with it and is involved in

secreted protein synthesis
Smooth ER - lacks ribosomes and is involved in membrane lipid
synthesis
o Golgi Apparatus
Flattened vesicles in stacks which receive protein from ER
Form secretory vesicles to transport proteins to different parts of
the cell (vacuole, lysosome, etc) or for secretion
cis face - "receiving" side of Golgi apparatus
trans face - "shipping" side of Golgi apparatus
Sweet Home Apparatus
o Lysosome
lysosomes are special types of vacuoles
contain enzymes for use in the hydrolytic breakdown of
macromolecules
Three ways to enter a lysosome - phagocytosis, autophagy, and
receptor-mediated endocytosis
Peroxisome
o Eukaryotic organelle that degrades fatty acids and amino acids
o Also degrades the resulting hydrogen peroxide
o There is a variety of different types of peroxisomes, each which breaks
down different type of molecules
Plant Central Vacuole - major storage space in center of plant cell with many
functions
o Digestive - break down of macromolecules
o Storage - ions, sugars, amino acids, toxic waste
o Maintain cell rigidity - high ionic concentration generates high water
potential

Transport of Proteins - the ER, Golgi, and transport vesicles

o Ribosomes (see below) synthesize proteins
Those destines for secretion contain a short sequence of amino
acids that interact with a receptor protein on the surface of rough
ER
The ribosome interacts with the receptor protein, causing the
synthesized protein to enter the ER
The receptor protein removes the signal sequence
o Proteins that enter the ER are usually glycolated

The carbohydrate groups serve as chemical markers for protein

distribution
The carbohydrate groups can be modified within the ER
In the Golgi Apparatus, proteins are segregated for transport to other
regions in the cell
The sugars attached to proteins bind to receptors in the trans walls
of the Golgi
These walls eventually bud off into the cytoplasm
The vesicles then bind to the appropriate endomembrane system
(ER, plasma membrane, etc) and release the contents.

Images of Vesicle Transport Between Endomembrane Organelles

Endo- and exocytosis video on YouTube

Mitochondria
o Found in ALL eukaryotic cells (yes, even in plant cells)
o Site of aerobic respiration
sugars + O2 - - > ATP + CO2 + H2O
o Contain DNA which codes for mitochondrial proteins, ribosomes, etc.
o Divide by a process similar to binary fission when cell divides
o Enclosed in a double membrane system
Inner Membrane forms the Cristae (invaginations into interior
region)
Site of energy generation
Matrix is the soluble portion of the mitochondria
Site of carbon metabolism
Location of mDNA
Site of mitochondrial protein synthesis
Chloroplasts
o Found only in plant cells
o Site of photosynthesis
conversion of solar energy to chemical energy in the form of ATP
and sugars
o Contain DNA which codes for chloroplast proteins, ribosomes, etc.
o Divide when plant cell divides
o Enclosed in a double membrane envelope that does not invaginate into
the chloroplast
o Thylakoid is a third internal membrane system
contains membrane-bound photosynthetic pigments

site of photochemistry (the conversion of light energy to ATP)

site of O2 generation
Stroma is soluble portion of chloroplast
site of CO2 fixation
site of sugar synthesis (carbon metabolism)
location of cpDNA
site of chloroplast protein synthesis

Summary of Cellular Components - note that the list of "Endomembrane System"

organelles is not complete!

Endosymbiotic Origin of Chloroplasts and Mitochondria

Free-living prokaryote eaten by host

Genes transferred to host nucleus
Some genes retained but most lost - can no longer survive outside of host
Symbiotic relationship
o photosynthetic symbiont provides sugar - degenerates to form
chloroplast
o aerobic symbiont provides a more efficient energy generation system degenerates to form mitochondria
o host provides stable environment, nutrients, energy, and most proteins
Evidence for Endosymbiotic Theory
o Chloroplasts and mitochondria have DNA
does not code for all proteins
some genes in nucleus
proteins imported rom cytoplasm
o Organelle proteins similar to bacterial form
o Ribosome structure and metabolic enzymes more similar to bacterial
forms