Chapter 2.

Electromechanical Energy
Conversion

Magnetic Fields -- Quantitative

The magnetic force on a moving charge:

F qv B
magnetic force
charge

Magnitude:

velocity

F qvB sin

Direction: given by right-hand rule #1

magnetic field

Magnetic Fields -- Quantitative

Right-hand rule #1, two ways:
v
F

v
right hand, palm up

Magnetic Force on a Current-Carrying Wire

Recall the magnetic force on a charge moving perpendicular to a
magnetic field:
F qvB sin
Now, if a current I flows through a straight wire whose length is
L:
F qvB sin

t
q
F qvB sin vt B sin ILB sin
t
t

Magnetic Force on a Current-Carrying Wire

F ILB sin
is now the angle between the
field vector B and the wire
The direction of F is still given
by right-hand rule #1
(the thumb is now the
conventional current)

Torque on a Current-Carrying Loop

A rectangular loop makes an angle with a magnetic field:

FM ILB
W
2 FM sin ILBW sin IAB sin
2

Torque on a Current-Carrying Loop

A rectangular loop makes an angle with a magnetic field:

IAB sin (single loop)

N turns : NIAB sin

Torque on a Current-Carrying Coil

NIAB sin
Maximum torque occurs when = 90 (plane of
coil is parallel to B): max NIAB
Minimum torque occurs when = 0 (plane of coil
is perpendicular to B): 0
min

Torque
1. Torque
In this chapter we will
consider only case in
which the rotational
axis is fixed in z
direction.
Fig 9-2 shows an
arbitrary rigid body that
is free to rotate about
the z axis.

M
O

F
*
P

A force Fis applied at point P, which is located

distance r from
a perpendicular

the axis of rotation. and lie in x-y plane,

F and
r make an angle .

The radial component FR F cos has no effect on

rotation of the body about z axis.
Only the tangential component F F sin produces
a rotation about the z axis.
The angular acceleration also depends on the
magnitude of r

The rotational quantity torque

is defined as

rF sin
N m

The unit of torque is the Newton-meter (

When

rF sin

If r=0 -that is the force is applied at or through the

axis of rotation;
If
or
, that
is the force is applied in the

direction;
0
180
radial
If

=0.

What makes something rotate

in the first place?

TORQUE
How do I apply a force to make the rod rotate
about the axel? Not just anywhere!

AXEL

TORQUE
To make an object rotate, a force must be
applied in the right place.
the combination of force and point of
application is called TORQUE

lever arm, L

Axle

Force, F

Torque = force times lever

arm
Torque = F L

Torque example
F

What is the torque on a bolt

applied with a wrench that
has a lever arm of 30 cm
with a force of 10 N?
Torque = F L
= 30 N 0.30 m
=9Nm

For the same force, you get more torque

with a bigger wrench the job is easier!

2.Torque as a vector

rF sin

In terms of the cross product, the torque

is expressed as
(9-3)
r

is rF sin

Magnitude of :
Direction of : using righ-hand rule

M
O

F
*
P

A force F is applied to the particle in a direction

at an angle with the rod(in x-y plane).
Newtons Second law applied the tangential
motion of the particle gives

F ma

rF ma r m r r
mr 2

I
Where I mr 2

We define mr 2 to be the rotational

inertia I of the particle about point o.

I mr

The rotational inertia depends on the

mass of the particle and on the
perpendicular distance between the
particle and the axis of rotation.

Introduction
Electromechanical energy conversions use a
magnetic field as the medium of energy
conversion
Electromechanical energy conversion device:
Converts electrical energy into mechanical energy
or
Converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.

Introduction
Three categories of electromechanical energy conversion
devices:
Transducers (for measurement and control)- small motion
Transform the signals of different forms. Examples:
microphones, sensors and speakers.
Force producing devices (translational force)- limited
mechanical motion.
Produce forces mostly for linear motion drives, Example
Actuators - relays, solenoids and electromagnets.
Continuous energy conversion equipment.
Operate in rotating mode. Examples: motors and
generators.

Energy Conversion Process

The principle of conservation of energy:
Energy can neither be created nor destroyed. It can only
be changed from one form to another. Therefore total
energy in a system is constant

Energy Conversion Process

An electromechanical converter system has three
essential parts:
An electrical system (electric circuits such as windings)
A magnetic system (magnetic field in the magnetic cores
and air gaps)
A mechanical system (mechanically movable parts such
as a rotor in an electrical machine).

EM Energy Conversion: Analogy

Electrical
Energy
(input)

Thermal
Energy
(losses)
Field Energy

Mechanical
Energy
(output)

Energy Conversion Process

Electromechanical
System
Electrical System

Magnetic System

Mechanical System

Voltages and
Currents

Magnetic Flux

Position, Speed
and Acceleration

Circuit Equations
(KVL and KCL)

Froce/Torque
emf

Concept of electromechanical system modeling

Force/Torque Eqns
(Newtons Law)

Energy Conversion Process

Electrical system

Magnetic system

Electrical
loss

Field loss

Mechanical
system

P mech

Mechanical
loss

The energy transfer equation is as follows:

Electrical
Mechanical Increase in

Energy

energy input energy

stored energy in
from sources output
magnetic field losses

Energy Conversion Process

The energy balance can therefore be written as:

Electricalenergy Mechanical energy Increase in

input
from
sources

output

friction

stored
field

resistance
loss
and
windage
loss
energy

core
loss

For the lossless magnetic energy storage system in differential form,

dWe dWm dWf

dWe = i d = differential change in electric energy input
dWm = fm dx = differential change in mechanical energy output
dWf = differential change in magnetic stored energy

Energy Conversion Process

We can write

dWe ei dt;

d
e
dt

d
dWe idt id
dt

Here e is the voltage induced in the electric terminals by changing

magnetic stored energy.

dWe ei dt dWm dWf

Together with Faradays law for induced voltage, form the basis for
the energy method.

Singly-excited
System
Energy, Coenergy
and Force or Torque

Energy in Magnetic System

Consider the electromechanical system below:

Axial length
(perpendicular to page)
=l

Schematic of an electromagnetic relay

Exciting Current
Realizing Hysteresis, Exciting Current
recalculated
Now i determined from multi-valued -I curve
Exciting current nonsinusoid & nonsymmetric
It can split to 2 components: ic in phase with e
(represents loss), im in ph. With & symmetric

Simulation of an RL
Cct with Constant Parameters
Source sinusoidal i=Im . sin t
V = L di/dt + R i
v dt = L.di + Ri.dt
=L di +R i . dt =
= L Im sint + R/ Im cost
Now drawing versus i:
However with magnetic core
L is nonlinear and saturate
Note: Current sinusoidal

Energy in Magnetic System

The mechanical force fm is defined as acting from the
relay upon the external mechanical system and the
differential mechanical energy output of the relay is

dWm = fm dx
Then, substitution dWe = id , gives

dWf = id fm dx
Value of Wf is uniquely specified by the values
of and x, since the magnetic energy storage
system is lossless.

Energy in Magnetic System

dWf = id

Wf

id

dWf = differential change in magnetic stored energy

Energy and Coenergy

The -i characteristics of an electromagnetic system
depends on the air-gap length and B-H characteristics of
the magnetic material.

For a larger air-gap

length the characteristic
is essentially linear. The
characteristic becomes
non linear as the air-gap
length decreases.

Energy and Coenergy

For a particular value of air-gap length, the field energy is represented by the
red area between axis and -i characteristic. The blue area between i axis
and ( , i )characteristic is known as the coenergy

Energy and Coenergy

The coenergy is defined as

W di
'
f

i
0

From the figure of - i characteristic,

Wf + Wf = i
Note that Wf > Wf if the - i characteristic is non
linear and Wf = Wf if it is linear.

The quantity of coenergy has no physical significance.

However, it can be used to derive expressions for force
(torque) developed in an electromagnetic system

Determination of Force from

Energy
The magnetic stored energy Wf is a state
function, determined uniquely by the
independent state variables and x. This is
shown explicitly by

dWf (, x) = id fm dx

Determination of Force from

Energy
For any function of two independent variables
F(x1,x2), the total differential equation of F with
respect to the two state variables x1 and x2 can
be written

F(x1, x 2 )
F(x1, x 2 )
dF(x1, x 2 )
dx1
dx 2
x1 x
x 2 x
2

Determination of Force from

Energy
Therefore, for the total differential of Wf

Wf ( , x)
Wf ( , x)
dWf ( , x)
d
dx

x
x

And we know that

dWf ( , x) id f m dx

Determination of Force from

Energy
By matching both equations, the current:

Wf ( , x)
i

where the partial derivative is taken while

holding x constant and the mechanical force:

Wf ( , x)
fm
x

where the partial derivative is taken while

holding constant.

Determination of Force from

Energy: Linear System
For a linear magnetic system for which =L(x)i:

1 2
Wf ( , x) i( , x)d
d
2 L(x)
0
0 L(x)
and the force, fm can be found directly:

Wf ( , x)
1 2
2 dL(x)
fm


2
x
x 2 L(x) 2L(x) dx

Determination of Torque from

Energy
For a system with a rotating mechanical terminal,
the mechanical terminal variables become the
angular displacement and the torque T.
Therefore, equation for the torque:

Wf ( , )
T

where the partial derivative is taken while

holding constant.

Determination of Force from

Coenergy
The coenergy Wf is defined as

W f' (i, x) i W f ( , x)
and the differential coenergy dWf:

dW (i, x) d(i ) dW f ( , x)
'
f

We know previously that

dWf ( , x) id f m dx

Determination of Force from

Coenergy
By expanding d(i):

d(i ) id di
So, the differential coenergy dWf:

dW (i, x) d(i ) dW f ( , x)

id di (id f m dx)
di f m dx
'
f

Determination of Force from

Coenergy
By expanding dWf(i,x):
'
'

W
(i,
x)

W
'
f
f (i, x)
dWf (i, x)
di
dx
i
x
x
i

and, from the previous result:

dW (i, x) di f m dx
'
f

Determination of Force from

Coenergy
By matching both equations, :

Wf' (i, x)

i
x

where the partial derivative is taken while

holding x constant and the mechanical force:

Wf' (i, x)
fm
x i

where the partial derivative is taken while

holding i constant.

Determination of Force from

Coenergy: Linear System
For a linear magnetic system for which =L(x)i:
i

2
i
Wf' (i, x) (i, x)di L(x)idi L(x)
2
0
0

and the force, fm can be found directly:

2
2

W (i, x)

i
i dL(x)
fm
L(x)
x
x
2 i 2 dx
i
'
f

Determination of Torque from

Coenergy
For a system with a rotating mechanical terminal,
the mechanical terminal variables become the
angular displacement and the torque T.
Therefore, equation for the torque:

W (i, )
T
i
'
f

where the partial derivative is taken while

holding constant.

Determination of Force Using

Energy or Coenergy?
The selection of energy or coenergy as the
function to find the force is purely a matter of
convenience.
They both give the same result, but one or the
other may be simpler analytically, depending on
the desired result and characteristics of the
system being analyzed.

Direction of Force Developed

Wf ( , x)
1. By using energy function: f m
x

The negative sign shows that the force acts in a

direction to decrease the magnetic field stored
energy at constant flux.

W (i, x)
2. By using coenergy function: f m
x
i
'
f

The positive sign emphasizes that the force acts

in a direction to increase the coenergy at
constant current.

Direction of Force Developed

3. By using inductance function:
2

i dL(x)
fm
2 dx i
The positive sign emphasizes that the force acts
in a direction to increase the inductance at
constant
current.

B-H Curve and Energy Density

In a magnetic circuit having a substantial air
gap g, and high permeability of the iron core,
nearly all the stored energy resides in the gap.
Therefore, in most of the cases we just need
to consider the energy stored in the gap. The
magnetic stored energy,

W f id
0

in which

11/10/15

Hg
N

and

d d ( N ) d ( NAB ) NAdB

Dr Awang Jusoh/Dr Makbul

* Sen pg97

52

B-H Curve and Energy Density

Therefore, W f

B
Hg
NAdB Ag H dB
0
N

However, Ag is volume of the air gap. Dividing

both sides of the above equation by the volume
Ag results in

wf

11/10/15

Wf
Ag

H dB
0

Dr Awang Jusoh/Dr Makbul

* Sen pg97

53

B-H Curve and Energy Density

where

w f H dB
0

is energy per unit volume

wf is known as energy density.

wf
B

11/10/15

The area between the B-H

curve and B axis
represents the energy
H density in the air gap.

Dr Awang Jusoh/Dr Makbul

* Sen pg97

54

B-H Curve and Energy Density

In the same manner,

w
'
f

is coenergy per unit volume.

BdH

wf

11/10/15

The area between the B-H

curve and H axis represents
the coenergy density in the
air gap.

Dr Awang Jusoh/Dr Makbul

* Sen pg97

55

B-H Curve and Energy Density

For a linear magnetic circuit, B = H or H =
B/, energy density:
2
B
B B
B
w f H dB
dB
0
0

2
and coenergy density:
2

H
w'f BdH HdH
2
0
0
H

In this case, it is obvious that wf = wf.

11/10/15

Dr Awang Jusoh/Dr Makbul

* Sen pg97

56

Example 3.1
The dimensions of the relay system are shown in
figure below. The magnetic core is made of cast
steel whose B-H characteristic is shown in Figure
1.7 (pg.6). The coil has 300 turns, and the coil
resistance is 6 ohms. For a fixed air-gap length lg =
4 mm, a dc source is connected to the coil to
produce a flux density of 1.1 Tesla in the air-gap.
Calculate
(a)The voltage of the dc source.
(b)The stored field energy.

Pg:99 PC Sen

Example 3.2
The -i relationship for an electromagnetic
system is given by
g
i

0.09

which is valid for the limits 0 < i < 4 A and 3 < g <
10 cm. For current i = 3A and air gap length g = 5
cm, find the mechanical force on the moving part
using coenergy and energy of the field.
-124.7 Nm
pg103 sen

Example 3.3
The magnetic system shown in the Figure has the
following parameters:
N = 400, i = 3 A
Width of air-gap = 2.5 cm
Depth of air-gap = 2.5 cm
Length of air-gap = 1.5 mm
Neglect the reluctance of the core, leakage flux
and the fringing flux. Determine:
(a) The force of attraction between both sides of
the air-gap
(b) The energy stored in the air-gap.
Sen pg 106
(c) Coil Inductance

Example 3.4
The lifting magnetic system is shown, with a
square cross section area 6 x 6 cm2. The coil
has 300 turns and a resistance of 6 ohms.
Neglect core reluctance and fringing effect.
a)The air gap is initially 5mm and a dc source of
120 V is connected to the coil. Determine the
stored field energy and the lifting force
b)The air gap is held at 5 mm and an ac source
of 120 Vrms at 60 Hz is supplied to the coil.
Determine the average value of the lift force
Sen 107

Example 1
Q. The magnetic circuit shown in Figure Q1 is made of high permeability steel so
that its reluctance can be negligible. The movable part is free to move about an
x-axis. The coil has 1000 turns, the area normal to the flux is (5 cm 10 cm), and
the length of a single air gap is 5 mm.
(i) Derive an expression for the inductance, L, as a function of air gap, g.
(ii) Determine the force, Fm, for the current i =10 A.
(iii) The maximum flux density in the air gaps is to be limited to approximately
1.0 Tesla to avoid excessive saturation of the steel. Compute the maximum force.

Immovable
part

Reference
position

i
+
e
-

Fm

Spring
Movable
part

Example 2
Figure below shows a relay made of infinitely-permeable magnetic material
with a moveable plunger (infinitely-permeable material). The height of the
plunger is much greater than air gap length (h>>g). Calculate
a) The magnetic storage energy Wf as a function of plunger position ( 0< x <d)
for N = 1000 turns, g = 2 mm, d= 0.15 m, = 0.1 m and i = 10 A.
b) The generated force, Fm

b)Pg 121/
132 Fgrld
a)Fgrald :pg121

Example 3
The magnetic circuit shown is made of high-permeability
electrical steel. Assume the reluctance of steel -- infinity.
Derive the expression for the torque acting on the rotor .

Fgrd pg
135

Example 4
The magnetic circuit below consists of a single coil stator and
an oval rotor. Because of the air-gap is non uniform, the coil
inductance varies with the rotor angular position.
Given coil inductance L() = Lo + L2cos2, where Lo= 10.6
mH and L2= 2.7 mH.
Find torque as a function of for a coil current of 2 A.

Fgrd pg 129

Doubly-excited
Systems
Energy, Coenergy
and Force or Torque

Rotating Machines

Most of the energy converters, particularly the

higher-power ones, produce rotational motion.
The essential part of a rotating electromagnetic
system is shown in the figure.
The fixed part is called the stator,
the moving part is called the rotor.
The rotor is mounted on a shaft
and is free to rotate between
the poles of the stator
Let consider general case where
both stator & rotor have windings
carrying current ( is and ir )

Rotating Machines

Assume general case, both stator and rotor have winding carrying
currents (non-uniform air gap silent pole rotor)
The system stored field energy, Wf can be evaluated by
establishing the stator current is and rotor current ir and let
system static, i.e. no mechanical output
Stator and rotor
flux linkage is
expressed in
terms of
inductances L
(which depends
on position rotor
angle , L()

Rotating Machines

Stored field energy

In linear system,
coenergy = energy
Wf = Wf

Torque

First two terms represents reluctance torque; variation of

self inductance (exist in both salient stator and rotor, or in
either stator or rotor is salient)
The third term represents alignment torque; variation of
mutual inductance.

Reluctance Torque It is caused by the

tendency of the induced pole to align with
excited pole such that the minimum
reluctance is produced. At least one or both of
the winding must be excited.
Alignment Torque It is caused by a
tendency of the excited rotor to align with
excited stator so as to maximize the mutual
inductance. Both winding must be excited.

Cylindrical Machines

Reluctance machines are simple in construction,

but torque developed in these machines is small.
Cylindrical machines, although more complex in
construction, produce larger torques.
Most electrical machines are of the cylindrical
type.

Cylindrical Machines

A cross sectional view of an elementary

two pole cylindrical rotating machine is
(uniform air gap) shown.
The stator and rotor windings are placed
on two slots.
In the actual machine the windings
are distributed over several slots.
If the effects of the slots are neglected,
the reluctance of the magnetic path is
independent of the position of the rotor.
Assumed Lss and Lrr are constant (i.e no
reluctance torque produced).
Alignment torque is caused by the
tendency of the excited rotor to align with
the excited stator, depends on mutual
inductance

Cylindrical machines

Torque produced

dL sr
dMcos
T i si r
isi r
Mi s i r sin
d
d

Mutual inductance

Currents

Rotor position

Tm when =90o

Where
M = peak value of mutual inductance
= the angle between magnetic axis of
the stator and rotor windings
m = angular velocity of rotor

Cylindrical Machines
T I sm I rm Mcoss t cos( r t ) sin( m t )

Torque in general varies sinusoidally with time

Average value of each term is zero unless the coefficient of t is
zero

Cylindrical Machines

Non zero average torque exists/develop only if

Machine develop torque
if sum or difference of
the angular speed of the
stator and rotor current

Case 1:

Synchronous machine

Single phase machine

Pulsating torque

Wr =0 Idc at rotor

Polyphase machine minimize pulsating torque

Not self starting (m = 0 Tavg = 0

Cylindrical Machines

Asynchronous machines

Single phase machine

Pulsating torque
Not self starting

Polyphase machine minimize pulsating torque and self starting

Example

In a electromagnetic system, the rotor has no winding

(i.e. we have a reluctance motor) and the inductance
of the stator as a function of the rotor position is
Lss = L0 + L2 cos 2. The stator current is is= Ism sin t

(a)

Obtain an expression for the torque acting on the rotor

Let = mt+ , where m is the angular velocity of the
rotor and is the rotor position at t = 0. Find the
condition for the non-zero average torque and obtain
the expression for the average torque.

(b)

Sen pg 111

Example 5
In a doubly excited rotating actuator shown in figure
below, the stator inductances are given as L11= (3+cos2)
mH, L12 = 0.3cos, and the rotor impedance is L22 =
30+10cos2. Find the developed torque in the system for
i1=0.8A and i2 = 0.01 A.

Fgrd pg 140