BASICS ON MOLECULAR BIOLOGY

Cell DNA RNA protein

Sequencing methods
arising questions for handling the data, making sense of it
next two week lectures: sequence alignment and genome
assembly

Cells

Fundamental working units of every living system.

Every organism is composed of one of two radically different types of cells:
prokaryotic cells
eukaryotic cells which have DNA inside a nucleus.
Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes are descended from primitive cells and the results of
3.5 billion years of evolution.

Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes

According to the most recent

evidence, there are three
main branches to the tree of
life

Prokaryotes include Archaea

(ancient ones) and bacteria

Eukaryotes are kingdom

Eukarya and includes plants,
animals, fungi and certain
algae
Lecture: Phylogenetic trees,
this topic in more detail

All Cells have common Cycles

Born, eat, replicate, and die

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Common features of organisms

Chemical energy is stored in ATP

Genetic information is encoded by DNA

Information is transcribed into RNA

There is a common triplet genetic code

some variations are known, however

Translation into proteins involves ribosomes

Shared metabolic pathways

Similar proteins among diverse groups of organisms

All Life depends on 3 critical molecules

DNAs (Deoxyribonucleic acid)
Hold information on how cell works

RNAs (Ribonucleic acid)

Act to transfer short pieces of information to different parts of cell
Provide templates to synthesize into protein

Proteins
Form enzymes that send signals to other cells and regulate gene
activity
Form bodys major components
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DNA structure

DNA has a double helix structure

which is composed of
sugar molecule
phosphate group
and a base (A,C,G,T)

By convention, we read DNA

strings in direction of
transcription: from 5 end to 3
end
5 ATTTAGGCC 3
3 TAAATCCGG 5

DNA is contained in chromosomes

In eukaryotes, DNA is packed into linear chromosomes

In prokaryotes, DNA is usually contained in a single, circular

chromosome

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Chromatin_Structures.png

Human chromosomes

Somatic cells (cells in all, except

the germline, tissues) in humans
have 2 pairs of 22 chromosomes
+ XX (female) or XY (male) = total
of 46 chromosomes

Germline cells have 22

chromosomes + either X or Y =
total of 23 chromosomes

Karyogram of human male using Giemsa staining

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karyotype)

RNA
RNA is similar to DNA chemically. It is usually only a single strand.
T(hyamine) is replaced by U(racil)
Several types of RNA exist for different functions in the cell.

tRNA linear and 3D view:

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http://www.cgl.ucsf.edu/home/glasfeld/tutorial/trna/trna.gif

DNA, RNA, and the Flow of Information

Replication

Transcription

The central dogma

Translation
Is this true?

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Denis Noble: The principles of Systems Biology illustrated using the virtual heart
http://velblod.videolectures.net/2007/pascal/eccs07_dresden/noble_denis/eccs07_noble_psb_01.ppt

Proteins

12

Proteins are polypeptides (strings

of amino acid residues)
Represented using strings of
letters from an alphabet of 20:
AEGLVWKKLAG
Typical length 501000 residues

Urease enzyme from Helicobacter pylori

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c5/Amino_acids_2.png

Amino acids

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How DNA/RNA codes for protein?

14

DNA alphabet contains four

letters but must specify protein,
or polypeptide sequence of 20
letters.
Trinucleotides (triplets) allow 43 =
64 possible trinucleotides
Triplets are also called codons

Proteins

20 different amino acids

different chemical properties cause the protein chains to fold up into specific
three-dimensional structures that define their particular functions in the cell.

Proteins do all essential work for the cell

build cellular structures
digest nutrients
execute metabolic functions
mediate information flow within a cell and among cellular communities.

Proteins work together with other proteins or nucleic acids as "molecular

machines"
structures that fit together and function in highly specific, lock-and-key ways.

15

Genes

A gene is a union of genomic sequences encoding a coherent set of

potentially overlapping functional products

A DNA segment whose information is expressed either as an RNA

molecule or protein
(translation)

(folding)
MSG

(transcription)
5

a t g a g t g g a

t a c t c a c c t

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http://fold.it

Genes & alleles

A gene can have different variants
The variants of the same gene are called
alleles

MSG

MSR

a t g a g t g g a

a t g a g t c g a

t a c t c a c c t

t a c t c a g c t

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Genes can be found on both strands

18

Exons and introns & splicing

Exons

5
Introns are removed from RNA after transcription
Exons are joined:
This process is called splicing

19

Alternative splicing
Different splice variants may be generated

3
5

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DNA and continuum of life....

Prokaryotes are typically haploid:

they have a single (circular)
chromosome
DNA is usually inherited vertically
(parent to daughter)
Inheritance is clonal
Descendants are faithful copies
of an ancestral DNA
Variation is introduced via
mutations, transposable
elements, and horizontal transfer
of DNA
Chromosome map of S. dysenteriae, the nine rings
describe different properties of the genome
http://www.mgc.ac.cn/ShiBASE/circular_Sd197.htm

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Biological string manipulation

Point mutation: substitution of a base
ACGGCT => ACGCCT

Deletion: removal of one or more contiguous bases

(substring)
TTGATCA => TTTCA

Insertion: insertion of a substring

GGCTAG => GGTCAACTAG

Lecture: Sequence alignment

Lecture: Genome rearrangements
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Genome sequencing & assembly

DNA sequencing
How do we obtain DNA sequence information from organisms?

Genome assembly
What is needed to put together DNA sequence information from sequencing?

First statement of sequence assembly problem:

Peltola, Sderlund, Tarhio, Ukkonen: Algorithms for some string matching
problems arising in molecular genetics. Proc. 9th IFIP World Computer
Congress, 1983

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Recovery of shredded newspaper

24

DNA sequencing

25

DNA sequencing: resolving a nucleotide sequence (whole-genome or less)

Many different methods developed
Maxam-Gilbert method (1977)
Sanger method (1977)
High-throughput methods, next-generation methods

Sanger sequencing: sequencing by synthesis

26

A sequencing technique developed by 1977

Also called dideoxy sequencing
A DNA polymerase is an enzyme
that catalyzes DNA synthesis
DNA polymerase needs a primer
Synthesis proceeds always in 5->3 direction
In Sanger sequencing, chain-terminating
dideoxynucleoside triphosphates (ddXTPs) are employed
ddATP, ddCTP, ddGTP, ddTTP
lack the 3-OH tail of dXTPs
A mixture of dXTPs with small amount of ddXTPs
is given to DNA polymerase with DNA template and primer
ddXTPs are given fluorescent labels
When DNA polymerase encounters a ddXTP, the synthesis
cannot proceed
The process yields copied sequences of different lengths
Each sequence is terminated by a labeled ddXTP

Determining the sequence

Sequences are sorted according to

length by capillary electrophoresis

Fluorescent signals corresponding to

labels are registered

Base calling: identifying which base

corresponds to each position in a
read
Non-trivial problem!

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Output sequences from

base calling are called reads

Reads are short!

Modern Sanger sequencers can produce quality reads up to ~750 bases1

Instruments provide you with a quality file for bases in reads, in addition to
actual sequence data
Compare the read length against the size of the human genome (2.9x109 bases)

Reads have to be assembled!

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Problems

29

Sanger sequencing error rate per base varies from 1% to 3%1

Repeats in DNA
For example, ~300 base longs Alu sequence repeated is over million times in
human genome
Repeats occur in different scales
What happens if repeat length is longer than read length?
Shortest superstring problem
Find the shortest string that explains the reads
Given a set of strings (reads), find a shortest string that contains all of them

Sequence assembly and combination locks

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What is common with sequence assembly and opening keypad locks?

Whole-genome shotgun sequence

Whole-genome shotgun sequence assembly starts with a large sample of

genomic DNA
1.
2.
3.
4.

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Sample is randomly partitioned into inserts of length > 500 bases

Inserts are multiplied by cloning them into a vector which is used to infect
bacteria
DNA is collected from bacteria and sequenced
Reads are assembled

Assembly of reads with Overlap-LayoutConsensus algorithm

32

Overlap
Finding potentially overlapping reads
Layout
Finding the order of reads along DNA
Consensus (Multiple alignment)
Deriving the DNA sequence from the layout
Next, the method is described at a very abstract level, skipping a lot of details

Finding overlaps

First, pairwise overlap alignment of

reads is resolved

Reads can be from either DNA strand:

The reverse complement r* of each
read r has to be considered

acggagtcc
agtccgcgctt
r1
5

a t g a g t g g a

t a c t c a c c t

r2

33

r1: tgagt, r1*: actca

r2: tccac, r2*: gtgga

Example sequence to assemble

5 CAGCGCGCTGCGTGACGAGTCTGACAAAGACGGTATGCGCATCG
TGATTGAAGTGAAACGCGATGCGGTCGGTCGGTGAAGTTGTGCT - 3

20 reads:
#
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
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Read
CATCGTCA
CGGTGAAG
TATGCGCA
GACGAGTC
CTGACAAA
ATGCGCAT
ATGCGGTC
CTGCGTGA
GCGTGACG
GTCGGTGA

Read*
TCACGATG
CTTCACCG
TGCGCATA
GACTCGTC
TTTGTCAG
ATGCGCAT
GACCGCAT
TCACGCAG
CGTCACGC
TCACCGAC

#
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20

Read
GGTCGGTG
ATCGTGAT
GCGCTGCG
GCATCGTG
AGCGCGCT
GAAGTTGT
AGTGAAAC
ACGCGATG
GCGCATCG
AAGTGAAA

Read*
CACCGACC
ATCACGAT
CGCAGCGC
CACGATGC
AGCGCGCT
ACAACTTC
GTTTCACT
CATCGCGT
CGATGCGC
TTTCACTT

Finding overlaps

Overlap between two reads can

be found with a dynamic
programming algorithm

Overlap(1, 6) = 3
6 ATGCGCAT

Errors can be taken into account

12 ATCGTGAT

Dynamic programming will be

discussed more during the next
two weeks
Overlap scores stored into the
overlap matrix
Entries (i, j) below the diagonal
denote overlap of read ri and rj*

35

1 CATCGTCA

Overlap(1, 12) = 7

12

Finding layout & consensus

Method extends the assembly

greedily by choosing the best
overlaps

Both orientations are considered

Sequence is extended as far as

possible

consensus sequence
36

Ambiguous bases

7*
GACCGCAT
6=6* ATGCGCAT
14
GCATCGTG
1
CATCGTGA
12
ATCGTGAT
19
GCGCATCG
13* CGCAGCGC
--------------------CGCATCGTGAT

Finding layout & consensus

We move on to next best

overlaps and extend the
sequence from there

The method stops when there are

no more overlaps to consider

A number of contigs is produced

Contig stands for contiguous

sequence, resulting from merging
reads

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2
CGGTGAAG
10
GTCGGTGA
11
GGTCGGTG
7
ATGCGGTC
--------------------ATGCGGTCGGTGAAG

Whole-genome shotgun sequencing:

summary
Original genome sequence

Reads
Non-overlapping
read

Overlapping reads
=> Contig

Ordering of the reads is initially unknown

Overlaps resolved by aligning the reads

In a 3x109 bp genome with 500 bp reads and 5x coverage, there are ~107 reads and
~107(107-1)/2 = ~5x1013 pairwise sequence comparisons

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Repeats in DNA and genome assembly

Two instances of the same repeat

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Repeats in DNA cause problems in

sequence assembly

Recap: if repeat length exceeds read length, we might not get the correct
assembly
This is a problem especially in eukaryotes
~3.1% of genome consists of repeats in Drosophila, ~45% in human
Possible solutions
1.
2.

40

Increase read length feasible?

Divide genome into smaller parts, with known order, and sequence parts
individually

Divide and conquer sequencing

approaches: BAC-by-BAC

Whole-genome shotgun sequencing

Genome

Genome

BAC library

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Divide-and-conquer

BAC-by-BAC sequencing

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Each BAC (Bacterial Artificial Chromosome) is about 150 kbp

Covering the human genome requires ~30000 BACs
BACs shotgun-sequenced separately
Number of repeats in each BAC is significantly smaller than in the whole
genome...
...needs much more manual work compared to whole-genome shotgun
sequencing

Hybrid method

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Divide-and-conquer and whole-genome shotgun approaches can be combined

Obtain high coverage from whole-genome shotgun sequencing for short
contigs
Generate of a set of BAC contigs with low coverage
Use BAC contigs to bin short contigs to correct places
This approach was used to sequence the brown Norway rat genome in 2004

First whole-genome shotgun sequencing

project: Drosophila melanogaster

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drosophila_melanogaster

Fruit fly is a common model organism

in biological studies
Whole-genome assembly reported in
Eugene Myers, et al., A WholeGenome Assembly of Drosophila,
Science 24, 2000
Genome size 120 Mbp

Sequencing of the Human Genome

The (draft) human genome was

published in 2001

Two efforts:
Human Genome Project (public
consortium)
Celera (private company)

HGP: BAC-by-BAC approach

Celera: whole-genome shotgun

sequencing

HGP: Nature 15 February 2001

Vol 409 Number 6822

Celera: Science 16 February 2001

Vol 291, Issue 5507

45

Sequencing of the Human Genome

The (draft) human genome
was published in 2001
Two efforts:
Human Genome Project
(public consortium)
Celera (private company)

HGP: BAC-by-BAC approach

Celera: whole-genome
shotgun sequencing

HGP: Nature 15 February 2001

Vol 409 Number 6822

Celera: Science 16 February 2001

Vol 291, Issue 5507

46

Next-gen sequencing: 454

Sanger sequencing is the prominent first-generation sequencing method

Many new sequencing methods are emerging

Genome Sequencer FLX (454 Life Science / Roche)

>100 Mb / 7.5 h run
Read length 250-300 bp
>99.5% accuracy / base in a single run
>99.99% accuracy / base in consensus

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The method used by the Roche/454 sequencer

to amplify single-stranded DNA copies from a
fragment library on agarose beads.
A mixture of DNA fragments with agarose beads
containing complementary oligonucleotides to the
adapters at the fragment ends are mixed in an
approximately 1:1 ratio.
The mixture is encapsulated by vigorous
vortexing into aqueous micelles that contain PCR
reactants surrounded by oil, and pipetted into a
96-well microtiter plate for PCR amplification.
The resulting beads are decorated with
approximately 1 million copies of the original
single-stranded fragment, which provides
sufficient signal strength during the
pyrosequencing reaction that follows to detect
and record nucleotide incorporation events.
sstDNA, single-stranded template DNA.

Next-gen sequencing: Illumina Solexa

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Illumina / Solexa Genome Analyzer

Read length 35 - 50 bp
1-2 Gb / 3-6 day run
> 98.5% accuracy / base in a single run
99.99% accuracy / consensus with 3x coverage

The Illumina sequencing-by-synthesis

approach. Cluster strands created by bridge
amplification are primed and all four
fluorescently labeled, 3 -OH blocked
nucleotides are added to the flow cell with DNA
polymerase. The cluster strands are extended
by one nucleotide. Following the incorporation
step, the unused nucleotides and DNA
polymerase molecules are washed away, a
scan buffer is added to the flow cell, and the
optics system scans each lane of the flow cell
by imaging units called tiles. Once imaging is
completed, chemicals that effect cleavage of
the fluorescent labels and the 3 -OH blocking
groups are added to the flow cell, which
prepares the cluster strands for another round
of fluorescent nucleotide incorporation.

Next-gen sequencing: SOLiD

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SOLiD
Read length 25-30 bp
1-2 Gb / 5-10 day run
>99.94% accuracy / base
>99.999% accuracy / consensus with 15x coverage

The ligase-mediated sequencing approach of the Applied Biosystems SOLiD

sequencer. In a manner similar to Roche/454 emulsion PCR amplification, DNA
fragments for SOLiD sequencing are amplified on the surfaces of 1- m magnetic
beads to provide sufficient signal during the sequencing reactions, and are then
deposited onto a flow cell slide. Ligase-mediated sequencing begins by annealing
a primer to the shared adapter sequences on each amplified fragment, and then
DNA ligase is provided along with specific fluorescent-labeled 8mers, whose 4th
and 5th bases are encoded by the attached fluorescent group. Each ligation step
is followed by fluorescence detection, after which a regeneration step removes
bases from the ligated 8mer (including the fluorescent group) and concomitantly
prepares the extended primer for another round of ligation. (b) Principles of twobase encoding. Because each fluorescent group on a ligated 8mer identifies a
two-base combination, the resulting sequence reads can be screened for basecalling errors versus true polymorphisms versus single base deletions by aligning
the individual reads to a known high-quality reference sequence.