LIVING ea Tr a 4 A Book of Remnecicitn eee ae >, a os >‘©D K Rao, 2007 JJ Kaur, 2007 All rights reserved First Published 2007 Fifth Reprint January 2009 ISBN 81-8332.226-3 - Rata Sagar P. Ltd. tan 180 9001:2000 company VIRAT BHAVAN, MUKHERJEE NAGAR COMMERCIAL COMPLEX, DELHI 110000 PHONE: (011)47038000 @ FAX: (011}47038008 @ e-mall: rsagar@ ranasagar.com OFFICES: CHENNAI @ KOLKATA @ LUGKNOW AGRA # BANGALORE @ COIMBATORE @ DEHRADUN @ GUWAHATI @ HYDERABAD ¢ JAIPUR, KANPUR @ KOCHI @ MADURAI @ MUMBAI @ PATNA, WEBSITE: www.catnasagar.com1. Cell—The Structural and Functional Unit of Life Robert Hooke discovered the cell 7 ‘What are living organisms made up of 7 Whar is a cell? 10 Gell theory 10 Unicellular and multicellular organisms 10 I Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells U1 Sinuctural organization of a cell 1] Gell organelles 15 Differences between a plant cell and an animal cell 19 How does movement of substances take place in and out of cells? 20 Isotonic, hypotonic and hypertonic solutions 22 2 Tissues—The Building Blocks of Life ..... What are tissues? 31; Plant tissues 32 ‘Types of meristems 32; Permanent tissue 34 Simple permanent tissue (supportive tissue) 34 Protective plant tissue 36 Complex permanent tissue (conducting tissue) 48 Animal tissues 39; Types of tissues 39 Epithelial tissue 39; Connective tissue 41 Muscular tissue 13; Nervous tissue 43 3. Diversity in Living Organisms... ‘What is classification? 49 ‘What is the basis of classification? 49 Classification and evolution 50 ae ae ‘the hierarchy in classification of groups 51 “Nomenclature— scientific naming of organisms 52 ‘Five Kingdoms 53 Kingdom Plantae or plant kingdom 55 Sub-kingdom Cryptogamae 57 Sub-kingdom Phanerogamae 58 Kingdom Animalia 60 f 2 phyla of kingdom Animalia 62 ey i~ lum Chordata (sub-phylum vertebrata) 67 Group Pisces (fishes) 67 ii um NGX-U6:Types of diseases 75 Disease and its cause 7 Infectious diseases 79 > ‘Means of spread 81 AIDS—A disease caused by direct contact 83 = Principle of treatment 84 = Principle of prevention 84 Immunization and Edward Jenner 85 5. Air=the breath of life 92 The movement of air—winds 94 What is the direction of wind. during day and night? 95 Air pollution 97; Domestic air pollutants 98 Water 100; Water pollution 100; Soil 102 Biogeochemical cycles—the cycling of materials in the biosphere 105; Water cycle 105 Nitrogen cycle 196; Carbon cycle 107 Greenhouse effect and global warming 108 Oxygen cycle 109; Ozone layer 109 6 Improvement in Food Resources..eeecniessen Improvement in crop yields 115 Rabi crops and kharif crops 116 Major activities for improving crop yields 116 Crop variety improvement 117 Crop production management (nutrient management) 118 Manures and fertilizers 120; Manures 120 Fertilizers 121; Organic farming 122; Irrigation 123 Rainwater harvesting and watershed management 124 Cropping patterns 125; Mixed cropping 125 Intercropping 125; Crop rotation 126 Crop protection management 127 Weed control 128; Insect pests 129 Crop diseases 129; Storage of food grains 130 Animal husbandry 131; Cattle farming 132 Fish production 134, Composite fish culture 135 Poultry farming 136; Bee-keeping 137 weccccanscecrene 114 Glossary. Some Line Diagrams for PracticeCELL—THE STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL UNIT OF LIFE All living beings are composed of cells. A cell is the structural and functional unit of every living organism, capable of independent existence. Any function performed by the organism is the outcome of the activity of the cell. In earlier classes, you have studied that many cells come together to form a tissue and tissues collectively form organs. Thus, every organ like skin, muscle, brain, heart in our body is made up of hundreds of thousands of cells. ROBERT HOOKE DISCOVERED THE CELL The invention of microscope helped in the discovery of the cell. The first microscope was constructed by Anton Von Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723). It consisted of a single biconvex lens and was known as the simple microscope. Robert Hooke (1635-1703) developed a compound microscope by using two lenses for achieving greater magnification. In such a microscope, the object to be seen was placed on a stage below and light coming from an oil flame was thrown on it by a convex mirror. Cell was discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665. He studied a thin piece of cork under his microscope. Cork is a substance that is obsained from the bark of a tree. He observed that the cork piece had a large number of compartments joined together eyepiece col lemp water Fig. 1.1 Rotert Hooke's ‘microscope in a honey-comb like structure. He named these ‘compartments as cells (Z. cella-compartment). This was for the first ime that anyone had observed that liviag things consist of separate units called cell. WHAT ARE LIVING ORGANISMS MADE UP OF? let us perform the following activity to find out what are living organisms made up of. ACTIVITY 1 To prepare temporary stained mount of onion peel to study epidermal cells You will need Onion bulb, forceps, watch glass, glass slide, water, razor blade, iodine solution and microscope CELL—THE STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL UNIT OF LIFE ¢ 7‘ Fig. 1.2 Preparaton of a temporary stained mount of orion peel Procedure Take an onion bulb, discard the brown, outer dry scale: ‘ With the help of a knife, cut the onion buib into four pieces vertically (lengthwise). Remove one fleshy scale (Fig. 1.22). * Bend the outer (convex) surface of the fleshy scale towards you. Do not break it completely. The two halves remain attached by a thin transparent strip of epidermal peel (Fig. 1.2). ‘© Gently pull the broken end. You will find that the thin transparent layer of epidermis is peeled off easily. Using a pair of forceps, remove the peel (Fig. 1.20) and place it in a watch glass containing water. This will prevent the peel from getting folded or getting dry. ‘+ With the help of a blade, cut a square piece of this peel and place it in a drop of water on a clean glass slide (Fig. 1.2d). You can take the help of a fine camel hair brush to transfer the eel on glass slide. Make sure that the peel is perfectly flat on the side. ‘® Puta drop of iodine solution on the peel to stain it ‘ With the help of a mounting needle, cover the peel with a coverslip taking care that there are no wrinkles or air bubbles in it (Fig. 1.2e/). # Observe the slide under low power of the microscope. For better details increase the magnification by observing under the high power ‘of compound microscope. Now, follow the above activity by taking peels of onions of different sizes. Do we see similar stuctures or different structures? ae ce ey cous Highly magnified view of ‘Onion peel as seen ‘onion cells ‘under microscope Fig. 1.3 Observations While observing the slide under microscope, you will observe that the epidermis is one cell thick, 90 that under the microscope, the transparent structures or cells can be seen. These structures F cells 100k similar to each other. Even onion bulbs of different sizes have similar small structures visible under the microscope. Thus, the cells of different onion peel are same regardless the size of ‘onion bulbs they have come from. The cells that you observed in above activity are the basic building units of the onion bulb. The cells of onion peel are linear or rectangular in shape (Fig. 1.3). All the cells are firmly bound together. Like onion, all organisms are made up of cell Some organisms are made up of one cell while many others are made up of many cells. The compound microscope ‘The ordinary light or compound or optical microscope eyepiece coarse adjustment nod fine adjustment nob stand Fig. 1.4 A light microscope JHE STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL UNIT OF LIFEused extensively in laboratories these days is a greatly- improved design of Hooke’s microscope (Fig. 1.4). It consists of two lenses, the eyepiece lens and the objective lens, which are combined to produce a greater magnification. The light microscope has a magnification up to 1500 times, good enough to see cells, larger organelles and bacteria. The electron microscope The electron microscope (EM) has powers of magnification and resolution much greater than those of an optical (light) microscope. An electron microscope (Fig. 1.5) can resolve points 1 nm apart. In this microscope, a beam of clecirons is passed through the section of material to produce the image. The electron ‘beam passing through the section focused by electromagnets and is projected on to a fluorescent screen for direct view or on to a photographic plate for permanent recording The resulting photograph is called an electron, micrograph. ceatnode (otetron gun) anode electron beam condensor lens vvecuur specimen otjectne ters Fig. 1.5 A transmission electron microscope ACTIVITY 2 Find:out about electron microscopes from the resources: available in library or through the Internet and then discuss it with your teacher. ACTIVITY 3 To prepare a temporary mount of human cheek celle and observe under a microscope You will need A clean toothpick or an ice-cream spoon, methylene blue solution, glass slides, water, needle and microscope Procedure @ Take @ clean toothpick or an ice-cream spoon land gently scrape the inner lining of your cheek. Its tip will collect some viscous transparent fluid, With the help of a clean needle transfer this fluid on a clean glass slide. © Add a drop of water to the smear. Also add a drop of methylene blue solution to it. Leave the reparation for about 1 minute. Methylene bive is used to stain the nucleus in a coll © Gently place a coverslip over the material the help of a needle avoiding entry of any air bubbles. Press it gently in between folds of a ‘ough filter paper to remove excess fluid and for uniform distribution of the cells in the mount prepared. @ Observe under a microscope and find out the structural details of cheek cells Observation ‘What do you observe? What is the shape of the cells you see? Draw it on the observation sheet. Inference Under high power of a compound light microscope, you will observe a darkly stained, oval or spherical dot-like structure near the centre of the cell (Fig. 1.6). This is nucieus. The nucleus is centraly placed. Similar structures (nucious) were cleo found in the onion peel cells. You will also find that there is no large central vacuole or cell wall as observed In onion peel (plant) cells, Draw these cells in your record book. Fig. 1.6 Human cheek cells CELLATHE STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL UNIT OF LIFE @ 9aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELLS ‘On the basis of their nuclear organization, cells have been classified into two types: Prokaryotic cells © Eukaryotic cells Prokaryotic cells (Gk. Pro-before, karyon-nucleus) Such organisms whose cells lack a nuclear membrane are called prokaryotic cells. These cells have primitive organization of genetic material. ‘The genetic material is equivalent to a single molecule of DNA. These cells do not have a well-organized nuclear region due to absence of nuclear membrane. These cells lack several cytoplasmic organelles like mitochondria, lysosome, endoplasmic reticulum, chloroplast, nucleolus, etc, Many of the functions of these cells are performed by poorly organized parts of cytoplasm. In prokaryotes, the chlorophyll is found attached to membranous vesicles and not plastids as in eukaryotes, Bacteria and blue-green algae are example of prokaryotic cells Eukaryotic cells (Gk. Fu-true, karyor-nucteus) Organisms whose cells have a nuclear membrane are called eukaryotes. In these cells, the genetic material is made of two or more DNA molecules. The nuclear ‘material is enclosed in a nuclear membrane. These cells have a well-organized nucleus. These cells have well-developed membrane-bound organelles, such as mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, lysosome, chloroplast, nucleolus, etc. Eukaryotic cells occur in plants, animals, fungi and protozoa. CELL SHAPE AND SIZE Different organisms have cells of different kind. The shape and size of cells are related to the specific functions performed by the organisms. Cell shape Cells show a great variation in their shapes (Fig. 1.8). Oo @ @ Ovum ee Bone ell Fed blood cel eco cls : al Fig. 1.8 Shapes of various cells from the human body Most cells have a definite shape. Cells may be spindle- shaped—muscle cells, elongated-nerve cells, oval-ted blood corpuscles, cuboidal—germ cells, branchec— osteocytes and chromatophores and so on. Some cells may not have any definite shape, ie. they have changing shapes, e.g. Amoeba and leucocytes (white blood corpuscles). Cell size The smallest known cell is Mycoplasma or PPLO (Pleuropneumonia-like organism). Its size is 0.1 to 0.5 mm (micrometre), ‘The bacterial cell is 0.5 10 5 mm, human red blood corpuscles are 7 to 20 mm, human liver and kidney cells are 20 to 30 mm and nerve cells are about 90 to 100 cm in size. How does a cell perform basic functions? Each cell performs certain basic functions. There is a division of labour in many cells and within a single cell in many eases. This is because each cell has stain specific components within it known as cell organelles. Each cell organelle performs a specific function, such as producing energy, making new materials (proteins, etc.), clearing up the waste material, etc. These orginelles together constitute the basic unit, ie. the cell All cells contain same cell organelles, no matter what organism they are found in and what functions they perform. STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION OF A CELL You have just studied that each cell has special components called cell organelles. Although cells of different organisms differ in structure, cells within the body of a multicellular organism differ in shape, size and functions. In spite of these differences, every cell shows the same basic structure—cell membrane or plasma membrane, nucleus and cytoplasm Generalized structures of a plant cell and an animal cell are given in Figure 1.9. Cell membrane or plasma membrane Every cell is bound by a thin delicate membrane called cell membrane or plasma membrane. Plasma membrane is the outermost covering of the cell which separates the contents of a cell from its external environment. We can see plasma membrane only with the help of an electron microscope. Structurally, plasma membrane is very flexible. It is made up of, CELLATHE STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL UNIT OF LIFE @ 11rough endoplasmic ‘eteulun pein gol ems efoplasm vaciole centrosome tosones coer ribosomes ruceotus ruses nucleolus rough endoplasmic ruclous sea rilochondrion _sosome a. Plant cell b. Animal cel) Fig. 1.9 Uttastructure of a plant and an animal cell as seen under an eleciron microscope organic molecules called lipid molecules which are the outer sides of the lipid bilayer. The protein present in a viscous bilayer. It also has protein molecules have small carbohydrate chains attached to molecules occurring at places bech on the inner and — their outer ends (Fig. 1.10). The flexibility of plasma ACTIVITY 4 To prepare temporary stained mount of leat peels, tip of roots of onion and peels of onion of different sizes and observe epidermal cells You will need Tradescantia leat, onion bulbs of different sizes, onion root tips. forceps, watch glass. olass slide. water, razor blade, iodine solution and microscope Procedure ¢ For preparing the temporary stained mounts of leaf peels of onion bulbs of different sizes follow the steps of activity 1 as given belore. Observe different sections under microscope and compare their structures. '¢ For preparing the temporary stained mount of lea! peels take the leaf of Tradescantia plant. With a sudden Jerk, take out a small segment of peel from the lower surface of leaf. Make a temporary mount of this peel ‘as mentioned in activity 1 and observe under the microscope. Observations What do you observe in the above mentioned activity? Do alll cells look alike in terms of shape and size? Do all cells 100k alike in terms of structure? Could you find any difference among cells from different parts of the plant? What similarity could you find? Inference Do all cells look alike in terms of shape and | No, all cells are not similar in size and shape. The cells of different size? ‘organisms are diferent in shape and size. Some cells are large, some are small. They aitfer in the shape, size and arrangement. Do all cells look alike in terms of structure? | No, the cells differ in terms of structure. Could you find any ditference among cells | The cells of different parts of plant body are diferent in shape, size from diferent parts of the plant? ‘and structure. What similarity could you find? All cells have similar basic structure. They have a cell membrane: (plasma membrane), cytoplasm with cell organelles and a nucleus. 2 © CELL—THE STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL UNIT OF LIFEINNER SUFFACE Protein molecule Fig. 1.10 Plasma membrane membrane helps the cell to engulf in (take in) food and other substances from its external environment. This process is known as endocytosis. Protozoans like Amoeba gets its food through endocytosis. Functions Plasma membrane is selectively permeable. Therefore, it allows or permits the entry and exit of only selected substances. It also prevents the movements of some other substance across it. Thus, it is also called selectively permeable membrane. Plasma membrane bounds the semifluid content of the cells, Plasma membrane protects the cell from injury and provides an outer boundary to the eel. The membrane allows the flow of materials and information between different organelles within the cell as well as between one cell and another. The membrane has carrier proteins for active transport. How does the movement of substances take place into the cell? How do substances move out of the cell? ‘The movement of substances into and out of the cell takes place through mainly diffusion and osmosis. Diffusion is the process of movement of molecules of fa subsiance from a region of their higher concentration to a region of their lower concentration. Waste material like carbon dioxide moves out of the cell through diffusion. Similarly, oxygen enters the cell Uuough diffusion. The osmosis is the movement of water from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration through a semi-permeable membrane. ‘Water enters the cell through osmosis. You will learn more about these processes in the later sections of this chapter. ACTIVITY 5 To study osmosis with the help of an egg You will nood Ahen’s egg, glass beakers, dilute hydrochloric acid, salt solution end water Procedure @ Take a hen's egg and remove its shell by placing it in dilute hydrochloric acid for some time. Since, the egg shell is mostly calcium carbonate, it dissolves in dilute HCl. @ As the egg shell is dissolved, a thin outer skin ‘encloses the egg. Put the egg in water for 5 minutes and observe. What do you observe? Observation 1 ‘You will observe that the egg swells because water passes into it by osmosis. ‘@ Now, take similar de-shelled egg and place it in a concentrated salt solution. ‘* Again observe for 5 minutes. What do you observe? Observation 2 ‘You will observe that the egg shrinks. This is because the water passes out of the egg solution into the salt solution as the salt solution is more concentrated. Cell wall (plant cell only) In addition to plasma membrane, plant cells contain a cell wall also. It is an outer, rigid, protective, supportive and semi-transparent covering of plant cells only. ‘The cell wall lies outside the plasma membrane. Its thickness varies in different types of cells. The cell wall is mainly composed of cellulose. Cellulose is. a complex substance and pro hanical and structural strength to plants. Functions 4 It provides a definite shape to the cel. % It protects plasma membrane and intemal structures from the attack of pathogens and mechanical injury. 4 It counteracts the osmotic pressure. © It provides rigidity to the cell. A living plant cell can lose water through osmosis and as a result there is shrinkage or contraction of the cell contents away from the cell wall. This phenomenon is known as plasmolysis. Let us perform the following zetivity to learn more about plasmolysis. CELL—THE STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL UNIT OF LIFE @ 13ACTIVITY 6 To show with the help of Rheo leat that only living cells undergo plasmolysi You will need Rheo leaf, glass slides, concentrated sugar or salt solution, water, petti dish and microscope Procedure @ Take a Rheo leaf and break it to take out a peel. ® Mount this peel of Aneo teal in water and ‘examine under high power of microscope. What do you observe? Observation 1 You will observe that the leaf peel contains green- coloured granules called chloroplasts. The chloroplasts contain chloroptijl, which helps in photosynthesis. Now, put a drop of strong or concentrated solution of sugar or salt on the leaf peel. Wait for a minute and observe. What do you see? ‘Observation 2 ‘You will observe that the plasmolysis occurred and green leaf peel cells absorb water and swells. This is because water enters the cells through osmosis. © Now, place the leaf peel in boling water for a few minutes. This will kill the calls. @ Mount this peel of boiled Aheo leaf in water and ‘examine under high power of microscope. * Put a drop of strong or concentrated solution of suger or salt solution on the leaf peel. Wait for a minute and observe. What do you see? Did plasmolysis occur this time? Observation 3 ‘You will observe that the boiled leat peel did not absorb any water and did not swell. This shows that only living cells. show plasmolysis and not the dead cals Cells of plants absorb so much water but do not burst. Why? ‘The cells of plants, fungi and bacteria can withstand in very dilute (hypotonic) external media without bursting ‘This is because of cell wall. In hypotonic media, cells take up water due to osmosis, As a result the cell swells building up pressure against the cell wall, At the same time, cell wall also exerts equal pressure against the swollen cell contents. Because of the pressure exerted by the cell wall, the cells of plants, fungi and bacteria can withstand much greater changes in the surrounding medium than the animal cells. Jute, cotton and coconut fibres are the cell walls of their dead cells. Fig. 1.11 Cytopiasm Cytoplasm ‘The space between the plasma membrane and the nucleus is filled by an amorphous, translucent, homogeneous, colloidal liquid called cytoplasm. It consists of various inorganic molecules, such as water, salts, organic compounds, proteins, nucleic acids, and a variety of enzymes. Cytoplasm also contains various cell organelles (Fig. 1.11). These cell organelles are enclosed by membranes. We have already discussed that the membrane bound cell organelles are present in eukaryotes while they are absent in prokaryotes. Viruses do not have any membrane and hence, are not alive. They become live only when they enter the living body of a host and utilize its cell machinery to multiply. Functions Ic helps in intracellular distribution of molecules, enzymes and nutrients within the cel. % Ithelps in exchange of materials between different cell organelles. Biosynthesis of nucleotides, proteins and fatty acids takes place in the cytoplasm % Breaking down of glucose takes place in the cytoplasm. Nucleus A dense, generally round (spherical) but sometimes cylindrical nucleus is present almost at the centre of a cell, The nucleus contains: nuclear: membrane, nucleoplasm or nuclear sap, chromosomes (chromatin network), and nucleolus, Nuclear envelope separates the nucleus from the cxtoplasm. It is a double-membraned structure, and contains a large number of pores. The nuclear pores control the transfer of substances from inside the nucleus to its outside, ie. to cytoplasm. Inside the nuclear envelope is the nucleoplasm or eoee 14 @ CELL—THE STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL UNIT OF LIFErudear pore hudeoplasm ruclear enveope vomatin network Fig. 1.12 Nucleus nuclear sap. I is transparent, semi-fluid and contains a large number of enzymes which are required for the synthesis and functioning of DNA, RNA, etc. In the nucleoplasm are present chromatin network and nucleolus. Chromatin network (Gk. Chroma colour) is a tangled fibrous mass of thread-like structures, The chromatin threads organize to form chromosomes which are visible only at the tine when cell divides. Each chromosome consis of two similar threads or rod-shaped structures. Chromosomes are composed of DNA (deoxyribose nucleic acid) molecules and proteins. The information for inheritance of characteristics from parents to next generation passes in the form of DNA. DNA also contains the information for cell construction and organization. Functional segments of DNA are called genes. Genes are caries of heredity. Nucleolus is a dense, round structure attached to a chromatin fibre at a specific region called nucleolar organizer region. The nucleolus may be one or more in number and is not bound by any membrane. It is rich in protein and RNA (Ribonucleic acid) molecules. Functions The nucleus controls cell metabolism and other activities of the cell, hence, itis also called Master or Director of the cell 4 Chromatin part of the nucleolus possesses all the genetic information that is required for growth and development of the organism, its reproduction, metabolism and behaviour Nucleus plays a central role in the cellular reproduction (division of single cell to form two cells), Along with environment, nucleus also directs the chemical activities of the cell. This determines the development and future form of the cell. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1 ‘A. Name the following. 1. Any two multicellular organisms. 2. Person who discovered the cell 3. Structural and functional unit of life 4. Outermost layer in a plant call Name the part of the cell which: 1. provides rigidity to the plant cel. 2. bounds semi-fiuid content of the cell. ‘3. helps in intra-cellular distribution of molecules, enzymes and nutrients within the cell, C. Who discovered the cell? How? (CBSE) D. Why is cell considered as structural and functional unit of life? (CBSE) Why is plasma membrane called a selectively permeable membrane? (cBse) F. How do substances like carbon dioxide and water move in and out of the cell? Discuss. (CBSE) CELL ORGANELLES Each cell is surrounded by a cell membrane. Cell membrane keeps the contents of the cell separate fro the extemal environment. In addition, many chemical activities keep on taking place in each cell. These chemical activities are required to support the complicated structure and functions of multicellular organisms. Thus, to keep these different activities separate from each other, the cells have many membrane bound organelles that float in the cytoplasm. This is a characteristic feature of eukaryotic animals only. Some of these organelles are so small that they can be seen only under an electron microscope. Cell organelles carry out some very cru functions in cells. There are many cell organelles that are found in the cytoplasm of the cell. These are Endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, Lysosomes, Mitochondria, Plastids, Vacuoles, and Centrosome. eooeoes Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) Endoplasmic reticulum (also known as ER) is an CELL—THE STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL UNIT OF LIFE @ 15aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.various targets inside and outside the cell through the Golgi apparatus. % Ithelps in the storage, modification and packaging of secretory products in the vesicles. # In some cases, Golgi apparatus also helps in the manufacture of complex sugars from simple sugars. The Golgi apparatus also helps in the formation of lysosomes. Ribosomes Ribosomes are found in all cells, both prokaryotes and eukaryotes, except in mature sperms and RBCs. In prokaryotic cells, they are found floating freely in the cytoplasm, In eukaryotic cells, they occur freely in the cytoplasm as well as attached to the outer surface of the rough endoplasmic reticulum (Fig, 1.15). Fig. 1.18 Ribosomes Functions Ribosomes help in protein synthesis inside the cell. Hence, they are called protein factories of the cell At the time of protein synthesis, ribosomes are attached to RNA and form a structure called polyribosome, which is the site of protein synthesis. Lysosomes (Gk. Lyso-digestion, soma-body) Lysosomes are membrane-bound sacs filled with digestive enzymes. These enzymes are made by rough endoplasmic reticulum. Lysosomes have a resistant covering membrane which protects the cell from the digestive enzymes contained inside the lysosome. Lysosomes help in the waste disposal of the cell. Lysosomes digest any foreign material as well as worn-out cell organelles and hence, keep the cell clean of any unwanted waste material. Whenever, any foreign material such as bacteria enters the cell, the lysosomes, break them up into small picces. This is because the enzymes released by the lysosomes is very powerful and help in the process of digestion of these foreign panicles. In case the cell gets damaged, lysosomes burst and release the enzyme, which digests their own cell. Hence, they are called ‘suicide bags’ of the cell Functions 4 Lysosomes help in intracellular digestion # They provide energy during starvation by controlled breakdown of stored food. # Lysosomes bring about cellular breakdown and are associated with ageing. Mitochondria (Gk, Mitos-thread, chondrion- granule) Typically, mitochondria are sausage-shaped, but these may be granular, filamentous, rod-shaped, spherical or threadl-like also. Each mitochondrion is covered by a double-membraned envelope (Fig. 1.16). Outer membrane is smooth and porous, while inner membrane is given out into folds called eristae. These folds create a large surface area for the generation of ATP during respiration. Mitochondria release the energy in the form of ATP (Adenosine triphosphate) molecules. This energy is required for various chemical activities needed for life. Hence, mitochondria are also known as the powerhouses of the cell. ATP is known as the energy currency of the cell. Our body uses energy stored in ATP for manufacturing new chemical compounds and for mechanical work. ‘The cavity of the mitochondria is filled with matrix. ‘The mitochondrial matrix contains lipids, proteins, circular DNA. and ribosomes. Thus, mitochondria can make some of their own proteins, Functions Mitochondria are miniature biochemical factories where food is oxidized and energy is released. This energy is stored in the form of ATP Fig. 1.16 Mitochondria CELL-THE STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL UNIT OF LIFE ¢ 17aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.HOW DOES MOVEMENT OF SUBSTANCES TAKE PLACE IN AND OUT OF CELLS? ‘The movement of substances, in and out of the cells, occurs through the following processes: Diffusion © Osmosis @ Plasmolysis Diffusion ‘The movement of molecules of a substance from a region of their higher concentration to a region of their lower concentration is called diffusion. Large molecules move much more strongly than small molecules. If you add a small drop of dye to one end of a tub of water without disturbing it, it would take a long time for the ink molecules to diffuse throughout the tub and reach a state of equilibrium Fig. 1.18). '. When the barriers removed, random movement of individual ‘molecules results in both kinde of molecules moving from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentvation. c. Eventually, an equilbrium (even distribution) is reached. ‘The diflusion gradually slows down as equilibrium is approached. Fig. 1.18 The process of difusion 20 6 CELL THE SrRUCTURAL ANO ACTIVITY 7 To show diffusion of a soluble dye in water Take a beaker containing water. Put a small crystal of potassium permanganate, KMnO, in one comer of the beaker. Observe for some time. You will observe that the potassium permanganate crystal slowy starts dissolving. After some time, the molecules of the dye get distributed uniformly throughout the water. The molecules of dye are more concentrated in crystal form. When added in water they start dissolving (Fig. 1.192) The molecules move away from the region they were added (region of higher concentration) to a region where they were less in number (region of lower concentration) (Fig. 1.19b,¢). The molecules of dye have been uniformly distributed (etate of equilibrium) (Fig, 1.194). ce. a Fig. 1.19 Diffusion of potassium permanganate dye in water Importance of diffusion % Diffusion keeps the wall of the internal plant tissue moist. Itis ans of spreading ions and molecules Uwoughout the protoplast ‘Transpiration of water vapour from stomata occurs through. diffusion. Aroma (smell) of flowers is due to diffusion of aromatic compounds of flowers to pollinatorsaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.protoplasm sent et ai ye comes chloroplast Fig. 1.24 Diagrammatic representation of plasmolysis in cell ‘a. A cel in normal turgid condition 'b.-d. Successive siages in shrinkage of protoplasm from tho cell wall after keeping in « hypartoric selution from its cell wall under the influence of a hypertonic solution is called plasmolysis. If we place a living turgid cell in hypertonic solution, withdrawal of water (exomosis) occurs from the central vacuole of the cell. ‘As a result, the size of protoplasm becomes reduced CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 3 ee DBE Fig. 1.25 Mechanism cf feedingin Amoeba and the plasma membrane is withdrawn from the cell wall (Fig. 1.23, 1.24). This is called plasmolysis. How does an Amoeba obtain its food? Amoeba obtain its food through endocytosis. Endocytosis is a phenomenon in which invagination of cell membrane occurs which forms small vesicles of food vacuoles. These food vacuoles get detached in the cytoplasm and are digested there (Fig. 1.25), A. Differentiate between diffusion and osmosis with respect to the following features. FEATURE DIFFUSION osmosis 1. Medium, 2. Types of membrane 3%. Speed B. State whether the following statements are True (T) or False (F). 1. Diffusion is the movement of water molecules from a region of their higher concentration to a region of their lower concentration. 2 Osmosis occurs in only one direction. 3. Endosmosis may lead to shrinkage of calls. 4. Semi-permeable membrane prevents passage of the solute molecules. MN ‘Coll is the fundamental structural and functional Unit of life. ‘@ Cell was discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665 while studying 2 thin plece of cork under a 24 © cee THE STRUCTURAL AND FUNC seif-built microscope. ‘® Cell Theory was formulated by two German biologists, M J Schleiden (1838) and T Schwann (1839). TIONAL UNIT OF LIFEaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.J. Given below is an incomplete table relating to certain structures found in animal andlor plant coll, their location and function. Study the table and then give the appropriate answer in terms of structure, location and function for the blanks numbered from 1 to 9. STRUCTURE FOUND IN (LOCATION FUNCTION (Plant call / enim cet / or both) Photosynthesis 3 Both plant cell and animal cell Spindle formation during cell division Cell wall 4 5 6 pe Selectively permeable that allows selected substances to pass through Nucleolus = K. Given below are drawings of three cell organelles. identify the organelles and complete the table below: DRAWING NUMBER NAME OF THE ORGANELLE PRIMARY FUNCTION ¥ 2 L. Given alongside is a figure of a coll. 1. Is this a plant cell or an animal cell? 2. Name the parts labelled as a, b, ¢, d and 3. Which of these parts help in protein synthesis? 4. Which of these parts is also known as the powerhouse of the cell? Give reasons in support of your answer. 5. Write the most important function of tho part labelled as a. 2B @ CELL~THE STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL UNIT OF LIFEaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Table 2.1 Comparison between plant and animal tissue organization CHARACTERISTICS. Type of movement—whether stationary or moving or fixed. Thus, Pattorn of growth tissues. Structural organization of organs and organ system PLANT TISSUES Plant tissues are divided into two types on the basis Of their stage of development (Table 2.2), They are: meristematic tissue 4 permanent tissue. Meristematic tissue ‘A meristematic tissue iy a group of young cells that have the capacity of active cell division. This found in all the growing pants of a plant, such as root tip, shoot tip, ete. Let us pesform an activity (activity number 1) to learn about meristematic plant tissues. Characteristics of meristematic tissue They are living cells, and are very active, They have thin cellulose walls © They have dense granular cytoplasm. PLANTS They do not move—they ave stationary plants contain supportive tissues which provice ther mechanical strength. Most of plant tissues are dead as dead tissues provide bettar mechanical strength. Growth limited to certain regione— some tissues grow throughout their lives. Thus, plant tissues are localized in certain regions and are classified as meristematic and permanent The structural organizations of orgens land orgen system are less specialized than animals. Thus, plant tissues are adapted for sedentary existence ANIMALS ‘Thay move around in search of food, shelter and to find a mate. Thus, animals contain living tissues which help them to move. They have more uniform growth which stops at some point of life. Thus, there is no demarcation of dividing and non-dividing regions in animals, The structural organizations of organs and organ system are more specialized than plants. Thus, animal tissues are adapted for active ocometion.. ‘The nucleus is large and prominent They have compactly arranged cells without intercellular spaces or vacuoles. % They are capable of dividing indefinitely. New cells produced by meristen like those of meristem but later on as they mature and grow; they become differentiated as ‘components of other tissues. % They don’t store reserve food mate: % They are usually found in the apices of root and shoot oe TYPES OF MERISTEMS According to their positions in the plant body, meristems are divided into thice categories, They are: apical meristem + ® intercalary meristem lateral meristem ‘Table 2.2 Different types of plant tissues PLANT TISSUES: sees ca Meristematic tissue tp ey Apical Intercalary —_Lateral menstem meristem meristem Parenchyma Collenchyma Sclerenchyma Permanent tissue ae Simple Complex permanent tissue permanent tissue on Xylem Phicem Fibres Sclereids UES—THE BUILDING BLOCKS OF LIFEaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Functions It provides tensile strength and rigidity to the plants due 1 thickenings, © Collenchyma also provides elasticity to the plant organs. ‘The flexi plants is due to collenchyma tissues. It provides bending of leaves and stems without breaking them. # Collenchyma being alive, also stores food. Sclerenchyma Structure It's also a simple permanent tissue. The cells of this issue are dead, These are long, narrow with tapering ends (Fig. 2.6). Their cell walls are thickened due to lignin which is a chemical substance that acts as a cement and hardens them, Central cavity of the cell is greatly reduced due to the thickening, Sclerenchyma tissues are of two types—fibres and sclereids. Distribution ‘These tissues occur in the veins of leaves and in hard covering of seeds and nuts. They form the major par. ‘of walnut shells and of other nuts. They form an important part of the bark of trees. Functions = Sclerenchyma provides mechanical strength to the plant and its parts. % They protect the plant from environmental forces like strong winds tigntiog thick wat ‘it pore b. c Fig. 2.6 Sclerenchyma a. LS. of fibres b, T.S. of libres LS. of asingle fore © ‘They make the plant hard and stif. ‘The husk of coconut is made up of sclerenchyma tissue. PROTECTIVE PLANT TISSUE. Epidermis Let us perform an activity (Activity number 3) 10 study the structure of epidermis. Epidermis is the outermost protective layer of plant organs. It is usually single-layered but in the leaves of some plants growing in dry habitats, it is multi-layered, and thick. This is to protect the plant from water loss ACTIVITY 3 To observe the structure of epidermis from the freshly plucked leaf of Rheo You will need A freshly plucked leaf of Rheo, glycerine, safranine, slides, cover slips, microscope Procedure Take a freshly plucked leat of Aheo. Clean the leat gently with water. Stretch the leat and break it simply by applying pressure. Keep. it stretched gently so that some peel projects out from the broken portion. Remove this peel and put it Observations . in @ potridish containing water. Stain the peel with safranine stain. Let it stain for some time. Gently, with the help of a fine hair brush transfer the stained peel to a glass slide, and put a drop of glycerine over it. Cover the section with a cover slip and observe under a microscope. Fig. 2.7 Epidermis ot a Aneoteat What do you observe? What kind of cells do you see? Compare your section with the one given in the above figuro. Inference The structure you observe is epidermis, the outermost layer of cells. 36 @ TISSUES—THE BUILDING BLOCKS OF LIFEaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Characteristics of epithelial tissue The cells of epithelium are tightly-packed and form continuous sheets. ® Cells are cemented together by small amount of viscous cementing substance formed of glycoproteins. There is almost ao intercellular spaces between the epithelial cells © Calls of the lowermest layer rest on non-cellular basement membrane which separates it from the underlying connective tissue. Epithelium is separated from the underlying tissue by an ‘extracellular fibrous basement membrane. & Blood vessels are absent in the epithelial tissue. Functions Epithelial tissue performs the following functions: % Protection: Epithelial tissue protects the underlying tissues from mechanical injury, entry of germs, drying up, and harmful chemicals. Absorption: Epithelial lining of intestine absorbs digested food. Excretion: Epithelial lining of uriniferous tubules (nephron) in kidneys helps in excretion of nitrogenous waste, Secretion: Epithelial lining of digestive glands andl endocrine glands secretes useful secretions, Respiration: Epithelial lining of alveoli ungs) brings about exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between blood and inhaled aie. Exchange of materials: ‘The cells of various epithelia regulate the exchange of materials between body and the extemal environment and different parts of body, Types of epithelium Based on the structure and ori component cells, the epithi as follows: % Squamous epithelium Columnar epithelium ® Cuboidal epithelium Glandular epithelium nization of the il tissue may be classified Squamous epithelium It is formed by flattened, sealelike polygonal cells, ‘These are closely fitted like tiles in a mosaic floor. ‘The squamous epithelium lines the blood vessels, lymph vessels in Bowman's Capsule, oesophagus, lining of mouth, alveoli of lungs, etc. (Fig. 213), Skin is also made up of squamous epithelium. It protects the underlying parts from mechanical injury, germs, dying up, etc b layer b. surface view €. vertical section There ate two types of squamous epithelium— simple squamous epithelium and stratified squamous epithelium. Simple squamous epithelium lines the blood vessels or alveoli in lungs, where transportation ‘of substances occurs through selectively permeable membrane. It is made up of extremely thin and simple flat cells that form a delicate lining, Stratified squamous epithelium contains cells arranged in a pattern of layers. For example, skin is arranged in a pattem of many layers. rucleus ‘basement ‘memorane Fig. 2.14 Columnar epithelium Columnar epithelium Columnar means pillar-like. It is formed of tall pillar- like cells, lying side by side. They appear as polygonal in shape in the surface view. It Consists of cells which are much taller than they are wide. Their nudei lie in the basal part (Fig. 2.14) ‘The columnar epithelium is found in organs where absorption and secretion occur like inner lining of intestine. It facilitates the movement across the epithelial barrier. It is present in the stomach, intestines and the gall bladder. It is also present in gastric and intestinal glands. ‘There are simple hair-like projections called cili on the outer surfaces of epithelial cells. These cil can move and push the mucus forward to clear it of, any unwanted particles. This is known as ciliated columnar epithelium (Fig. 2.15). It is found in the respiratory tract 40 @ TISSUES—THE BUILDING BLOCKS OF LiFeaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.lacunae cantaring estoveytes Fig. 2.18 a. 7.5. of a Mammalian bone b. Haversian system magnified e. Osteocyte magnified Lymph is « transparent, light yellow fluid. 1 is not red in colour due to the absence of RBCs. It contains white blood corpuscles called leucocytes. Lymph is present in the intercellular spaces, hence it is alse called tissue fluid, Blood flows to all parts of the body and connects every part of the body. It ranspons gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide), digested food, hormones and waste materials to different parts of the body. Bone Bone is a rigid (non-flexible) and hard connective tissue. It forms the framework that supports the body. It also supports the muscles and main organs of the body. Its matrix is hard. The bone cells are called osteocytes, They are embedded in a hard matrix which Is composed of calcium and phosphorus compounds. Fach bone cell is enclosed in a small cavity called the lacuna, In mammalian bone, the ‘osteocytes are present in concentric rings around the central canal called the Haversian canal (Fig. 218), Canaliculus contains slender process of bone cells or osteocytes. tendon bone bone Side view of krae joint Fig. 2.19 Ligaments and tendons at a joint 42 @ TISsUES~THE BU Fig. 2.20 a. T.S. of cartilage b. Cartiage cell magnified Tendons and ligaments Tendons are fibrous tissue with great strength and flexibility. They connect muscles with bones. (Fig. 2.19). Ligaments contain very litle matrix with numerous, clovely-packed yellow or elastic fibres. They are elastic and connect one bone with the other. They have considerable strength. Cartilage Canilage consists of matrix impregnated with proteins and sugars. Cartilage cells are present in fluid-filled spaces called lacunae, Cartilage has widely spaced cells (Fig, 2.20). Cartilage smoothens bone surface at joints, In human beings, cartilage is present in the larynx, trachea, at the end of bones, nose, and in between ribs and sternum, Arcolar connective tissue It is the simplest and most widely distributed connective tissue in the animal body (Fig. 2.21). Areolar connective tissue binds the skin with muscles, attaches blood vessels and nerves to the surrounding tissues. It fills the space inside the organs, supports internal organs. It also helps in repair of tissues. Adipose tissue Itis found below the skin and between internal organs. It is the fat storing tissue. The cells of adipose tissues white ores ristooyte Fig. 2.21 Areolar connective tissue ILDING BLOCKS OF LIFEFig. 2.22 Adipocyte are filled with fat globules. It stores fat which acts as insulator. MUSCULAR TISSUE ‘The muscle tissue consists of long, narrow cells called muscle fibres. The adjacent muscle fibres are held together by connective tissue. Muscles bring about movement of body parts and locomotion in organisms, Muscles contain contractile proteins which contract and relax to cause movement. Types of muscular tissue In human beings, three types of muscles are: present Voluntary mu 4 Involuntary muscles Cardiac muscles Yoluntary or striated muscles These muscles can be moved by our will. As their movement is under our will, they are popularly called voluntary muscles, These muscles are also called skeletal muscles as these are attached to bones (Fig, 223) A voluntary or striated muscle consists of cells with long, nartow, cylindkical unbranched fibres with blunt ends, These muscles when stained show alternate dark and light bands or striations. Each muscle fibre is ‘multinucleated. Striated muscles are present in body wall, limbs, tongue, pharynx and at the tip of oesophagus. ruc! Fig. 2.22 Stiated muscles ruceus Fig. 2.24 Unctriated musolos Involuntary or unstriated muscles These muscles are also called smooth muscles lack transverse striations. Their movement is not under our will and hence these are called involuntary muscles, We cannot start or stop their action. These muscle cells are spindle-shaped (long with pointed ends) and are arranged in bundles (Fig. 2.24). ‘They have only one nucleus (uninucleate). They are also called unstriated muscles as they do not contain any striations or bands. These muscles are found in itis of eye, in ureter and in the bronchi of lungs etc, Cardiac muscles These muscles are exclusively present in the heart (Fig, 2.25), These muscles work rapidly, rhythmically and tirelessly, contracting and relaxing endlessiy from early embryonic stage until death. Structurally, these muscles are cylindrical, branched and uninucleate. ructous Fig. 2.28 Cardiac muscles NERVOUS TISSUE Nervous tissue consists of nerve cells or neurons. They are specialized to respond to stimuli and transmit stimulus very rapidly from one place to another within body. The brain, spinal cord and nerves are composed of nervous tissue. ‘A neuron or nerve cell is a structural and functional Unit of the nervous system (Fig, 2.26). A typical nerve cell consists of cell body or cyton; axon; and dendrons and dendrites. TISSUES—THE BUILOING BLOCKS OF LIFE @ 43cleus dondrons ‘endings rmussle Fig. 2.26 A nerve cell or neuron Cell body or cyton has a prominent nucleus and cytoplasm. From the cell body arise several branches. ‘One of the branches grows very large in comparison to others. This branch is called axon, The axon terminates into axon endings. The axon endings of fone nerve cell is loosely-placed on the cell body or cyton of another nerve cell. ‘This loose connection between the axon endings of one nerve cell and the cyton of the next nerve cell is called synapse. The other small branches given out by cyton are called dendrons, which further divide to form dendrites. Both nerve and muscle tissue work in coorclination and help animals to move in response to stimuli CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 2 A. Name the following. 1. Tissue responsible for movement in our body. (CBSE) 2. Tissues which lack intercellular material. 2. The tissue which connects muscle to the bone. (CBSE) 4, The kind of tissue which forms the inner lining of blood vessels. sue that transports food in plants. (CBSE) 6. Tissue that stores fat in our body. (CBSE) B, Give one location each of striated and unstriated muscles. C. List down two functions of the connective tissue. D. Give three features of cardiac muscles. (CBSE) E. What are the functions of areolar tissue? (CBSE) F. Where do you find the following in the human body? 1. Osieooytes 2. Squamous epitnelim 3. Cardiac muscles 4, Haversian system 5. Ciliated epithelium 6. Smooth muscles Po) @ Tissue is a group of cells similar in structure and function, The microscopic study of tissues and their functions is known as histology. @ Plant tissues are of two types—meristematic tissue and permanent tissue 4 Meristematic tissue is dividing tissue present in the growing regons of plants such as root apex and stem apex. ‘® According to their positions in plants, meristems are divided into (i) apical meristem, (i) intercalary meristem, and (ii) lateral meristem. ‘© A permanent tissue is a group of cells in which growth is either stopped completely or forthe ti being. Permanent tissues are derived from meristematic tissue once they have lost the ability to divide. Permanent tissues are classified as ple and complex tissues. * Parenchyma, collenchyma, scierenchyma are three types of simple permanent tissus, © A group of more than one type of cells working together as a unit and having a common origin is called a complex tissue. Xylem and phioom are ‘complex permanent tissues. # Xylem is a complex plant tissue. Its components are xylem vessels, tracheids, xylem fibres and xylem parenchyma, Only xylem parenchyma is the living component. 44 © TISSUES—THE BUILDING BLOCKS OF LIFE. Phloem is a chief food conducting tissue of a plant. Its components are sieve tubes, companion cells, phloem parenchyma and phloem fibres. Except phloem fibres, all other components are living, Epidermis and cork are the protective tissues in plants. ® Animal tissues can be epithelial, connective, muscular and nervous tissue. In epithelial tissue, cells are closaly-packed and form a continuous shoot. Tho calls of opithelial tissue rest on basement membrane. Depending upon shape and function, epithelial tissue is classified as squamous, cuboidal, ciliated, ‘columnar and glanduler. ‘@ The muscular tissue consists of long narrow calls called muscle fibres which are held together by connestive tissue Striated muscles show characteristic alternating light and dark bands. * Smooth muscles and cardiac muscles are involuntary. Their movement is not under our will Whereas strialed muscles are voluntary muscles. . . Their movement is under our Structurally, cardiac muscles exhibit resemblance to skeletal muscles and functionally, these are similar to smooth muscles. Connective tissue is a binding and supporting tissue. It forms about 30% of the body weight. In our body, connective tissue includes blood, bone, tendons, ligaments, cartilage, areolar tissue and acipose tissue. Cartilage cells are present in fluid-filled spaces callod lacunae. Bone cells are star-shaped and are called osteocytes. In mammalian bone, the bone cells are present in concentric ings around the Haversian canal. Blood and lymph are liquid connective tissue, they flow to all body parts, hence these are called connective tissues. Blood is red in colour as it has RECs in it, mph is pale yellowish in colour as it lacks RBCs. Nervous tissue consists of nerve cells. Each nerve cell consists of (i) cell body or cyton. (i) axon and. dendrons and dendrites. Pe ‘A. Choose the most appropriate answer. 1. Which meristem helps in increasing length of stem and roots? ‘8. Apical moristom . Intercalary meristem ' Latoral meristom 4d None of these 2. Which meristem helps in increasing the girth of a plant? a. Apical meristem ce. Intercalary merisiom 3. The chlorophyll containing parenchyma tissue is called a. collenchyma. . aerenchyma. 4. The airfiled tissue of aquatic plants are called collenchyma. . aerenchyma, 5. The husk of coconut is made up of 8. collenchyma tissue. . aerenchyma tissue, . Lateral meristem 4. None of these . chlorenchyma. . sclerenchyma, ' chlorenchyma. 4. sclerenchyma, parenchyma tissue. 4. sclerenchyma tissue. 6. Cork is imprervious to water becaue it has deposition of a. lignin. ce. pectin. ‘b. suberin, 4. fibres, 7. A living mechanical tissue having cellulose wall thickening is collenchyma, c. aerenchyma, . parenchyma. 4. sclerenchyma. Tissues—THE BUILDING BLocks OF LIFE 458. Lining of blood vessels, lungs and alveoli are made up of a. epithelial tissue. ¢. muscular tissue, 9. Cork Is avan fa. intercalary meristem. «. protective plant tissue 10. Aerenchyma occurs in mesophytes. ©. hydiophytes. 11. Muscles immune to fatigue are a. striated . cardiac. 412, Tendons connect a. bone to bone. ©. nerve to muscle. b a b b a connective tissue. nervous tissue. lateral meristem. apical meristem. xerophytes. sciophytes. unstated, eye muscles, bone to muscle. muscle to muscle. 13. Presence of an extracellular basement membrane ‘s the peculiarity of epithelial tissue. ¢. nervous tissue. 14, The number of nuclei present in striated muscle is a. one, ©. two. 15. Haversian canal is found in lymph. e. mammalian bone. 16. Blood is a a. connective tissue. . nervous tissue. B. Name the kind of tissue found. 1. At the growing parts of the plant 2. At the root tip b ar 3. Beneath epidermis in stem, petiole and leaves of plants 4. In vascular bundles 5. In the brain 6. In the inner lining of the intestine 7. In the lining of the kidney tubule 8. Connecting the adjacent muscle fibres C. Very short answer type questions. 1. Define the term tissue. Neme various meristematic tissues. Name the water conducting tissues in plants. What is epidermis? 7 What is the specific function of cardiac: muscle? D. Short answer type questions. 1. Draw a labelled diagram of a neuron. 46 6 i connective tissue. muscular tissue. many. pone mammalian cartilage. blood, muscle tssue. epithelial tissue. Neme the regions of plant in which parenchyma tissue is present. Name the components of xylem. Which of its components are dead and which are living? (CBSE) (CBSE)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.K. Given below are certain drawings of plant tissues. Identify the tissues and complete the table. | 1 2 3 4 DRAWING NUMBER NAME OF THE TISSUE PRIMARY FUNCTION 1 48 @ TISSUES—THE BUILDING BLOCKS OF LIFE pyrighted materlalaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.By classifying organisms on the basis of hierarchy of characteristics into smaller groups, one can arrive at the basic unit of classification which is species. Species 4 The lower most category is the species. Each organism is classified into a particular speci It is basic unit of classification. 4 Members of a species interbreed to produce fertile offsprings, which can perpetuate. 4 Apart from small variations, members of a species are almost identical in their anatomy, physiology and behaviour. 4 Members of a species often resemble each other very closely in appearance (but not exactly similar), Genus 4 Closely-related species resembling each other are grouped into a genus (pl. genera), Thus, genus is a group of species which have common extemal resemblance, Family Groups of similar genera are grouped together into 4 family. For example, the cat (Felis domestica), and the tiger (Panthera tigris) belong to the same family, Felidae Order, class, phylum and kingdom Similar families are grouped together into orders. For example, humans and apes are grouped together into the same order, Primates 4 Similar orders are grouped into classes (we belong to the class Mammalia). 4 Closely-related classes are grouped into phylum and similar phylum constitute a kingdom. NOMENCLATURE—SCIENTIFIC NAMING OF ORGANISMS From the above activity, you can conclude that, different animals and plants have different names. A cat is called ‘bill’ in Hindi, ‘biral in Bengali and ‘punai in Tamil. There are different names of a cat in Arabic, Russian and French. ‘Thus, a need was Feit to assign a particular organism with an internationally acceptable name in the same manner as the chemical symbols «and formulae of various substances are used world over. Thus, a simplified system of naming organisms called ‘Binomial nomenclature’ was proposed by Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778). Binomial nomenclature means a two-name system of naming, The scientific name of an organism, is thus unique ACTIVITY 1 Look for the names of some common animals and plants. Enquire about the common names of these in different languages. ‘Some names of the animals and plants are given here: NaMe COMMON NAMES iN ANIMAUPLANT DIFFERENT LANGUAGES Cat © “bil in. Hind, + ‘birar in Bengal, © ‘puna’ in Tamil Ant Neem Lotus | Peacock | Tiger Potato Tomato [_ and can be used to identify it anywhere in the world. Under Binomial system of nomenclature each organism has scientific name consisting of two parts First par is genus and second part is the species. For example, the scientific name of mango is Mangifera indica, scientific name of house fly is Musca domestica and scientific name of frog is Rana hexadact) Mainly, the following rules apply to scientific names: % The name of the genus comes first and its first letter is always written in capital letter, The name comes second and it starts with a small For example, the binomial name for humans is Homo sapiens. In this, Homo is genus, starting, with capital letter while sapiens is species staring with small letter % The scientific name should be printed in italics or underlined (separately for genus and species name) if handwritten, For example, Homo sapiens ot Hleme sajusn & Scientific names are mostly in Greek and Latin, and are accepted all over the world. 52. ¢ DIVERSITY IN LIVING ORGANIEMSaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Table 3.1 The five kingdom classification onGaNisus poets eusyens Organisms without well-defined Organisms with well-defined nucleus fmol oF oanclos come ee J ea Uncen craters wit Mutcettar Macnee mo one Examples: bacteria, blue-green algae Do not perform photosynthesis, ie. heterotrophs Fungi Examples: yeast, mushroom unicellular eukaryotic organisms, Primarily they are aquatic and widely distributed all over the world, ‘occurring in oceans, lakes, ponds and damp soils. They are autotrophic or heterotrophic. They are distinguished by the following characteristics: They are first eukaryotes, having a well onzanized nucleus and complex membranous organelles # ‘They are unicellular or colonial forms without distinct division of labour @ Their mode of nutrition may be autotrophic or heterotrophic. @ They have hairlike cilia or whi moving around, Examples: unicellular algae, diatoms, protozoans Waramecium, Amoeba, Euglena), ete. (Fig. 3 © Alagella for of nutrition Periorm photosynthesis, Le, autotrophs se | Sram Cells without cell wall ‘Animalia Plantae Examples: man, cat, corals, insects, ete. Kingdom Fungi ‘The organisms belonging to kingdom Fungi include heterotrophic eukaryotic organisms. They grow in dark and moist habitat and use dead organic matter as food and are therefore called saprophytes. Many of them have ‘ty to become multicellular organisms at certain stages in their lives. They are distinguished by the following characteristics: definite cell wall made up of tough sugar called chitin, They are without chlorophyll, hence they are heterotrophic. % They are usually non-motile # They reproduce mostly by spore formation. However, sexual reproduction may also take plac 54 © DIVERSITY IN Livine ORGANISMSpileus stalk (stipe) Penictum Fig. 3.4 Some tung) Examples: yeast, mushrooms, ete. (Fig. 3.4) Some fungi live in mutual relationship with blue green algae (cyanobacteria). Such a relationship is called symbiotic relationship. These symbiotic forms are called lichens that are usually found growing on bark of trees. Kingdom Plantae Kingdom Plantae includes all organisms which are truly multicellular and photosynthetic. They are multicellular cukaryotes with cell walls. They are autotrophs preparing food material by photosynthesis using chlorophyll for themselves as well as for the rest of the other organisms. Hence, all plants are included in this kingdom. The plantae are distinguished by the following characteristics: @ ‘They are multicellular organisms, adapted to camry fon photosynthesis, hence autotrophic. ‘They have cell wall made up of true cellulose, enclosing cytoplasm with large vacuole. 4 ‘They perform photosynthesis due to chlorophyll present in chloroplasts. ‘They are non-motile, without definite shape and size. We will study about kingdom Plantae in later sections of this chapter. Kingdom Animalia Kingdom Animalia includes all organisms which are multicellular eukaryotes without cell walls. They are heterouophs as they can not synthesize their own food. We will study about kingdom Animalia in later sections of this chapter. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 2 1. Name any two organisms belonging to following kingdoms. a. Monere b. Protista . Fungi . Plantae e. Animalia 2 What is the criterion for classification of ‘organisms which belong to the kingdom Monera or Protista? (CBSE) 3. In which kingdom will you place an organism which is single-celled, eukaryotic and photosynthetic? (cBse) 4 Name the kingdom to which following ‘organisms belong: ‘a. prokaryotic organisms which do not have a defined nucleus or orgsnelles. 'b. unicellular eukaryotic organisms with a well organized nucleus. ‘. helerotrophic, eukaryotic organisms which, are saprophytes. d. multicellular, eukaryotios, photosynthetic ‘organisms with cells having cel wall. KINGDOM PLANTAE OR PLANT KINGDOM ‘The plant kingdom includes mosses, liverworts, ferns, conifers and flowering plants. Characteristic features of Kingdom Plantae @ They are made of eukaryotic cells % ‘They are multicellular. DIVERSITY IN LIVING ORGANISMS # 55ble 3.2 Classification of plants KINGDOM PLANTAE. ee aera ad Plants that do not have ditferentiated plant body ‘Thallophyta Plants that have differentiated ant Dody Plants without specialized: Piants with vascular issue (xylem & phioem) specialized Bryophyta vascular tissue Examples: Ulothrix, Ulva, Spirogyra avy, als, Ga ane Examples: iverworts, mosses po ‘Vascular plants that do not produce seeds Peridophyta iF are ain ‘Seed-bearing vascular plants Phanerogams aan Plants that bear naked seeds Gymnosperms: Examples: forns, ‘dub mosses Examples: cycas, pine Plants that bear seeds. enclosed inside fruits ‘Angiosperms. = Plants boaring soods with Plants bearing seeds with two cotyledons ‘one cotyledon. Dicots ‘Monocots Examples: gram, peas, ‘mango, ete. ‘The cells have cell wall made of cellulose. They store carbohydrates such as starch. Some cells (except in some parasites) contain chloroplast. 4 The organisms prepare their own food by the process of photosynthesis, Most of the plants with few exceptions are photosynthetic and some of them contain chloroplast eee Examples: wheat, rice, ete, in their cells. Most of the plants are on land. lapted for living The plants can be classified at three levels. # Level one: Whether plant body has well- differentiated, distinct. components. Level two: Whether the differentiated plant body: hhas special tissues for the transport of water and other substances within it,aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.ét. Ipomoea Fig. 3.8 Conifers and cycas are gymnosperms. \ we Characteristic features of sub-division a Gymnospermae c All gymnosperms are perennial woody plants forming either bushes or trees. Some of these are very large and live for thousands of years. Paphiopedim ‘Mango Se cliferentine nto. sno stem: and sn eeRERR The stem is erect. It may be branched as in Pinus words: ‘angio’ meaning covered and ‘sperma’ meaning or unbranched as in Gycas. seed. Thus, angiosperms are plants with seeds covered % Seeds do not occur inside a fruit. They are naked by fruit. or lie exposed on the surface of megasporophyils. Angiosperms are flowering plants, These are better % Seed contains a food laden tissue called adapted to live on earth than any other plant. The angiosperms possess flowers instead of cones. This helps them to utilize insects and birds as agents of pollination. The seeds contain cotyledons called seed leaves as in many cases they emerge and become green when the seed germinates. Thus, cotyledons represent pre-designed plant in the seed. endosperm, for future growth of embryo. Examples: Gyeas, Pine, etc. (Fig, 3.8). Gi) Sub-division Angiospermae (Angeic: a vessel, sperm: seed) ‘The term ‘angiosperm’ is derived from two Greek ACTIVITY 3 You will need ‘Seeds and plants of green gram. wheat, maize, peas, tamarind and water Procedure @ Take some seeds of green gram, wheat, peas, maize and tamarind. Soak them in water for one day till they become tender. * Try to split each seed into two halves. Do all of them split into neaily two halves? @ The seeds that split into two halves are dicot seeds and the seeds that do not split are monocot seeds. @ Now take the plants of these and observe their roots, leaves and flowers. F What Is the root system—tap roots or fiberous root? What is the type of venation—paralle! or reticulate? @ How many petals are there in the flowers of these plants? Carefully observe the above mentioned characteristics and note them down in @ table in your workbook. CHARACTERISTICS plant | No. OF coTyLEDoNs | ROOT system | VENATION ON | NO.OF PETALS ] ANY OTHER THE LEAVES | IN FLOWERS MonocoT bicor DIVERSITY IN LIVING ORGANISMS @ 59On the basis of number of catyledons, angiosperms are divided into two groups— Monocotyledonous or monocot (sceds with a single cotyledon) and Dicotyledonous or dicots (seeds with two cotyledons) Characteristic features of sub-division Angiospermae % These are flowering plants whos enclosed in a. fruit. seeds are After fertilization, ovary develops into a fruit # Xylem contains vessels, phloem contains companion cells Examples; pea, grams, maize, oats, rice, Hibiscus, Paphiopedilum, Ipomoea, mango, etc. (Fig. 3.9). CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 3 1. Write any four general characteristics of Kingdom Plantae. 2. Name any three divisions of kingdom Plantae. 3. Why are Bryophyta also known as amphibian of the plant kingdom? 4. Write any four characteristics of the following, a. Division Bryophyta ' Division Pteridophyta . Sub-division Gymnospermee @. Sub-division Angiospermae 5. Give any three differences between 2. Division Bryophyta and division Pteridophyta b. Sub-division Gymnospermae and sub- division Angiospermae 6. Give two examples each of a. bryophytes. b pteridophytes. . gymnesperms. angiosperms. KINGDOM ANIMALIA Characteristic features of kingdom Ary ine passing The body ean be Animalia fe mane now, thrcugh te centre divided info two # These are multicellular organisms You cut A the WO at de to body sar habe ony 5 iap endef ae on * 1s are made up of eukaryotic the same haven along he @ ‘The cells do not contain cell wall, but contain only cell membrane. # They are heterotrophic, ie. they do not perform photosynthesis and depend on 2 Soe KS others for food 4 They have the power of locomotion, ic. they are:mosily motie. ‘Amoeba era Starfish (Rucialy —"(Bateraly They show increased sensitivity through the nervous system. 60 ¢ Diver fs ws Me = Basis of animal classification There are many features used for distinguishing broad categories of animals. These features include organization, symmetry, body cavity, number of embryonic cell layers and presence or absence of notochord. Organization Animals are multicellular. But their body cells. may or may not be organized into tissues and organ systems. For example, animals such as sponges are aggregate of cells. They are at a ccallular level of organization. Human beings have organs and organ systems for performing body functions and are at the organ-system level of organization. Symmetry ‘Symmetry means dividing the body into equal and identical parts. Sponges are symmetrical. Cnidaria are radially symmetrical and all other animals are bilaterally symmetrical (Fig. 3.10). Body cavity Body cavity or cosiom is a cavity between the body wall and the food canal. It is absent in Acoelomates and present in Eucoelomates. The body cavity of roundworms is not true and is known as pseudocoelom. Embryonic layers There are three layers of cells—ectoderm (outer layer), mesoderm (middle layer), and endoderm (inner layer) in the embryo which Give rise to parts of the body of animals, Sponges and Cnidaria do not have mesoderm in their embryos and are called diploblastic. Other animals have three layers of cells and are called triploblastic. Human body ‘symmetrcal) —_syrmetical) Fig. 3.10 Various kinds of body symmetryaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Notochord present Chordata ——_—_—_?— aaNet sonst, least at some stage of life by vertebral column: are car cam mn Balanoglossus, etc. I T T T 1 suo) aninatUepatyesagnd yenensom enum at a exoskeleton made of partly in water, gills in horny epidermal feathers, flight mammary glands; eernaor mmr Tey cpa, ao many ees, ‘slimy skin covered with outside water outside water Give birth to young cartilage; respiration mucous, rich in glands Class Reptilia Class Aves ‘ones i wenn n on Group Pisces Ls am Examples: tortcise, Exampies: pigeon, ¥ Examples: frogs, snakes, crocodile, etc. ostrich, etc. Examples: rat, tiger, Examples: rohu, ‘toads, etc. elephant, etc, caro Notochord sponges are marine (found in oceans), although some ‘The notochord is a stiff rod running along the body, close to the dorsal surface. The notochord helps to provide support to the animal. All chordates possess a notochord at some stage of their development. The notochord is absent in invertebrate animals, also termed as non-chordates. Let us now study about the major phyla included in kingdom Animalia. MAJOR PHYLA OF KINGDOM ANIMALIA Based on the extent and type of body design differentiation, the kingdom Animalia is divided into two groups, namely, Invertebrate and Chordata Invertebrate is further divided into many phylas while phylum Chordata is divided into Protochordata Vertebrata and many classes. A broad division of kingdom Animalia is given in Table 3.3. Phylum Porifera—organisms with pores The word ‘porifera’ means organisms with pores in are found in freshwaters such as lakes also. Sponges are multicellular onganisms however, the cells are not organized 10 form tissues. Sponges live singly or in colonies. They are fixed to the surface. Characteristic features of Phylum Porifera 4% These are non-motile organisms fixed to the solid surface, They are commonly called sponges and found in marine habitats, & The body has many pores (ostia), canals and chambers through which water flows. This called a canal system. Water flows through and brings food and oxygen with it. It is then passed outside through osculum. 4% Body possesses large aperture called osculum at the upper end, The lower end is fixed to the surface. 4 Body encloses a large cavity called spongocoel, 4 Body is covered with a hard outer skeleton. 4 ‘The body of sponges has minimal cellular differentiation but no tissue organization They are mostly sessile. No organs, movable nals * 62. @ DIVERSITY IN LIVING ORGANISMSaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Squid Octopus Fig. 2.17 Some examples of Phyum Mollusca Examples: (Fig. 3.17). Chiton, Pila, Unio, octopus, ete Octopus have eight arms and are largest among invertebrates. Phylum Echinodermata ‘The word ‘Echinodermata’ has come from Greek words, ‘echinos meaning hedgehog, and ‘derma’ meaning skin. Thus, they are organisms with spiny skins. These are exclusively free-living marine animals and are largely bottom-dwellers. The adult forms Possess pentamerous (five arms) symmetry. They possess a calcareous exoskeleton. For example, starfish, brittle stars, sea urchins and sea cucumbers, all belong to the phylum Echinodermata. st Fig. 3.18 Some examples of Phylum Echinodermata 6s Characteristic features of Phylum Echinodermata % “They are triploblastic coetomate animals. # They are exclusively free-living marine animals living in sand at the bottom of the sea. Their body is unsegmented. There is no head’ and body surface has five radial arms (pentamerous symmetry). 4 ‘They move by tube feet. Body cavity has water-vascular system, % They possess calcareous exoskeleton made up of c carbonate with spiny skin all over the body. ‘They have a water driven tube system that they use for moving about (locomotion). They have peculiar features of regeneration of lost parts, Examples: Asterias (starfish), Eebinus (sea urchin), Holotburia (sea cucumber), Antedon (feather star), ete. (Fig. 3.18) ‘Sub-Phylum Protochordata ‘The word ‘Protochordates: means primitive chordates. ‘They possess notochord at some stage of their life. Notochord is a stiff rod-like structure that runs along the back of the animal and separates nervous tissue from the gut. It also provides a place for muscle attachment for easy movement. They are marine animals proboscis Amphioxis Fig. 3.19 Some examples of Sub-Phylum Protochordata ¢ DIVERSITY IN LivING ORGANISMSaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.ary glands which are more developed in females than males to suckle their young ones. Like birds, mammals are also warm-blooded animals. Mammals have body covered with hairs All female mammals secrete milk on which their young ones feed. Characteristic features of Class Mammalia # They possess mammary (milk) glands. They secrete milk to feed their young ones. Body is covered with hair. Sweat and oil glands are also present on the skin Body divisible into head, neck, trunk, and tail Tail is absent in some mammals. They have four limbs. Except two mammals, the platypus and the echidna (spiny anteater) which lay eggs, all other ‘mammals give birth to young ones birth to very poorly developed young ones. © Sexes are separate—male and female. © ‘Their young ones usually develop inside the uterus of the mother. Examples: rat (Rattus rattus), man, tig whale, bat, ete. (Fig. 3.24) elephant CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 4 ‘A. Differentiate between 1. Non-chordata and Chordata 2, Pisces and Amphibia 3. Aves and Mammalia 4. Porifera and Coelenterata B. Name the various classes of Vertebrata. ©. Write four characteristics each of 1. Class Pisces 2. Class Amphibia 3. Class Aves 4, Class Mammalia D. Give three examples each of 1. Class Reptilia 2. Class Aves 3. Class Mammalia How do Poriferan animals differ from Coelenterates? (BSE) F. What are the differences between animals belonging to the Aves group and those belonging to the mammalian group? (CBSE) MR ication means grouping orgarisms on the basis of their similarties and dissimilarities. © Classification is essential tor studying organisms and their evolution. ‘© The scientific naming of organisms is according to the Linnaeus system of Binomial Nomenclature. © There are five kingdoms of life namely, Monera, Protoctista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalae. ‘® Monerans do not have @ defined nucleus or cell organelles, nor do they show multicellular body design © Protists include unicellular eukaryotic organisms such as algae, diatoms and protozoans. * Organisms belonging to kingdom tungi are heterotrophic eukaryotic organisms which use decaying organic matter as food material. Yeast and mushrooms are included in kingdom fungi © All multicellular eukaryotes, which are photosynthetic autotrophs are grouped under kingdom Plantae, * Kingdom Plantae is classified into two sub- kingdoms—Cryptogamae and Phanerogamae ‘+ Bryophyta are amphibians of plant kingdom. Angiosperms are divided into two classes depending upon the number of cotyledons in their ‘seeds—monocotyledons and dicotyledons. Animals are multicellular, eukaryotes with heterotrophic nutrition, locomotion and sensitivity through the nervous system. All animals are included in kingdom Animalia. Animals may be at a cellular ‘evel of organization (Porifera), tissue level of organization (Cnidaria), and organ level of organization (humans, etc.) * The body of animals can be asymmetrical (Poritera), radially symmetrical (Cnidaria), or laterally symmetrical (humans). ‘@ The animals may be diploblastic or triploblastic depending upon the germinal layer at the early developmental stage. + The animals may not possess a body cavity (acoelomates), may possess a false coclom (pseudocoelomate), or may have a true coeiom (eucoelomate) Kingdom Animalia is divided into two groups— JO @ DIVERSITY IN LIVING ORGANISMS. . . Non-chordata (animals without a notochord) and Chordata (animals with a notochord). Non-chordates are classified into eight major phyla namely, Porifera, Coelenterata, Platyhelminthes, Nematoda, Annelida, Arthropoda, Mollusca and Echinodermata. Phylum Chordata has been divided into Protochordata and Vertebrata Sub-phylum Vertebrata has been classified into many classes namely, Pisces, Amphibia, Reptilia, Aves, and Mammalia Phylum Porifera 's characterized by multicellular, heterotrophic organisms whose bodies have pores, canals and chambers. Phylum Coelenterata includes diploblastic animals with no body segmentation, Phylum Platyhelminthes includes free living organisms and parasites ike tapeworm and flatworms, Phylum Nematoda includes roundworm like Ascaris lumbricoides. Phylum Annelida includes acoelomate, triploblastic animals with @ segmented body. ‘Arthropods have joined appendages and chitinous cuticle. Phylum Mollusca includes soft-bodied animals covered by a calcareous shell Phylum Echinodermata is composed of spiny-skinned animals that have tube feet for locomotion. Phylum Chordata is composed of animals having ‘a notechord, a dorsal hollow nerve cord, and gill slits at some stages of life. Class Amphibia includes animals that can live in ‘water and on land. Reptiles have homy scales covering their body ard are mostly terrestrial. Class Aves includes birds which are flying vertebrates with forelimbs modified into wings. Class Mammalia is characterized by presence of hair on the body and mammary glands, which secrete milk. a ‘A. Choose the most appropriate answer. 4. The lowermost category in the taxonomic hierarchy is a. genus. ©. order 2. Sponges are the members of kingdom a. Animalae. ©. Fung. 3. Hydra and Jelly fish are the members of phylum a. Poriera. ¢. Platyhelminthes. 4, Hirudinaria is the scientific name of livertluke. «. leech. 5. Insects and mites belong to the phylum a. Arthropoda. ¢. Annelida. 6. ‘Bionomial nomenciature’ was proposed by Alexander Fleming, . Altmann, 7. Related phyla are grouped together to form a order. c. kingdom. 8. Five kingdom classification was proposed by ‘. Cari Linnaeus. ¢. Charles Darwin. ‘species. paylum Plantae. ‘Monera, ‘Nematoda. Cnidaria. Nereis. tapeworm. Chordata. Porifera. Carl Linnaeus. FH Whittaker. genus. family. F Whittaker. Emst Haeckel. DIVERSITY IN LiviNG ORGANISMS © 71aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.WuHy Do WE FALL ILL ‘One of the most important contributions of science towards welfare of humans is the knowledge of various human diseases and their remedies. This knowledge has lessened the human pain and sufferings beyond measure. Also it has opened up. new vistas of health and longevity. However, understanding health and diseases is very complex issues. They have many interconnected causes. In the first chapter of this book, you have studied about cells. The cells are the basic structural and functional units of living beings. The living cell is a dynamic in nature. It is made up of many complex, proteins, cirbohydrates, fats or lipids, ete. Since the cell is the functional unit of life, one or ether activity is always going on inside the cell. The cells move from one plaice to another. Even when at rest, they undergo repair. New cells are also being manufactured, from pre-existing cells, Like cells, our body also has tissues, organs and ‘organ systems. There are many specialized activities, which keep on going all the time in these pars. For example, our heart keeps on beating; we keep on breathing with the help of lungs and kidneys are filtering urine continuously. All these activities are interconnected. For example, if our heart stops beating ‘even for a while, the blood circulation will stop, thus the various parts of our body will not get nutrients and oxygen. This will adversely affect our body. Likewise, if our kidneys stop filtering urine, the waste products and various poisonous substances like urea will accumulate in our body, affecting our immune system and physiology. ‘The brain will stop thinking. For all the activities listed above or which are ‘occurring in our body need raw materials and energy. ‘The raw materials and energy are supplied in the form, of food from outside the body. Thus, food is also necessary for proper functioning of cells and tissues. Anything which prevents normal functioning of cells, 74 and tissues in the body affects proper activity of the body. In this chapter, we will try to understand health and diseases in this perspective. HEALTH AND ITS FAILURE Significance of health Health is the most precious possession of human beings. The word ‘health’ is used very frequently by all of us. Sometime we say that my brother is very heathy and he can run 100 metres in 15 seconcls. For our grandmother, good health means ‘being able 1 20 fo market’. Thus, meaning of health differs for different persons. However, we can say that health is a state of well being enough to function well physically, mentally and socially able to: ‘i % define health and differentiate health and disease; Wry Bo We FAK ILLaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Fig. 4.6 Candida albicans, a seprophytic fungi, Fig. 4.8 Leistmana, the oval-shaped protozoan ‘causes thrush disease. that causes kala-azar. Fig. 4.7 Trypanosoma, the protozoan that causes Fig. 4.9 Round worms cause Ascariasis in humans, sleaping sickness. Diseases caused by bacteria: Bacteria also cause in humans malaria spreads by female Anopheles a number of diseases in humans, For example, mosquito. typhoid fever, cholera, tuberculosis, acne and Diseases caused by worms: Worms also cause anthrax are some diseases caused by bacterial many diseases in humans, The common example infections. (Fig. 44), $ intestinal infections caused by Ascaris. in Diseases caused by fungi: Fungi cause many skin humans. In addition, filariasis and elephantiasis infections in humans. Some other diseases caused are also caused! by some species of worms (Fig. 4.9). by fungi include, ringworm, athletes foot, Proper knowledge of the category of % Diseases caused by protozoans: Protozoans are microorganism causing 4 disease is necessary for single-celled microorganisms that may in humans, Malaria, amoebiasis, and members of cach groups of viruses, bacteria and so on arar are some diseases cused by protozoans have many biological characteristies in common, use prevention and treatment of a dis ‘Table 4.2 Some common diseases caused by pathogens TYPES OF PATHOGEN DISEASES CAUSED IN LIVING ORGANISMS Virus Common cold, poliomyelitis, influenza, SARS, AIDS, dengue fever, smallpox, chickenpox, measles Bacteria Typhoid, cholora, tuberculosie, tetanus, syphilis, diphtheria, pneumonia Fungi Skin infections, ringworm, athlete's foot Protozoa Malaria, amoetiasis (amoebic dysentry), Kala-azar, trypanosomiasis Worms Taeniasis (tapeworm infection), elephantiasis (pin worm Infection), ascariasis (round worm infection) 80 @ WHY Do We FALL ILaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.‘Table 4.3 Modes of transmission of communicable diseases Modes of transmission of communicable diseases SS Direct transmission Direct contact Droplot infection Contact with soil Animal bite Transplacental transmission causing viruses, bacteria, ete. The bacteria responsible for tetanus enters the human body from the soil % Animal bite: Viruses of rabies are introduced through the wound caused by the bite of rabid animals, especially dogs. The virus is. present in the saliva of the rabid animal, % Through placental transmission which may pass from the mother's body to the foetus through placenta. For example, virus of German measles, AIDS vinus, etc. Indirect transmission ‘The pathogens of certain diseases reach the human body through some intermediate agents. It can take place by various means, which are ay follows # By vectors: Houseflies, mosquitoes and cockroaches which take up the pathogen from the Indirect transmission By vectors waterborno Airborne Objectborne Dirty hands and fingers reservoir of infection pass it to healthy p ‘These are the intermediaries and are vectors. For example, houseflies carry the organisms of cholera, typhoid, dysentery and tuberculosis on thei and. mouthparts from the faeces and sputum to food and drinks, and contaminate them. When this contaminated food is taken by a healthy person, he/she gets the infection. The commonest veewr is mosquito, Females of many species of mosquito need highly nutritious food in the form of blood in order to lay mature eggs. Mosquitoes feed on many warm- blooded animals including humans and in tum transmit diseases from one person to another Airborne: The pathogens may reach the humans with air and dust. The epidemic typhus spreads by inhalation of dried faeces of infected lice Waterborne: Diseases also spread through water Fig. 4.11 Common ways of transmission of diseases 82 © Why DoWe FALL LLaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.October 1960 October 1900 October 1991 Fig. 5.18 Satelit picture showing tne hole in the ozone layer over Antarctica, What causes ozone layer depletion? ‘There aré-many man-made compounds such as Aerosol spray propellants chiorofluorocarbons (CFCs) which are found persisting The suspended fine particles in the air are in the atmosphere. These are carbon compounds known as aerosols. It is a group of chemicals, having both fluorine and chlorine, which are very which are released into the air with force in the stable and can not be degraded by any biological form of vapours or fine mist. Aerosols are also. used as disinfectants. Aerosols contain chiorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and fluorocarbons. able molecules, they persi ‘once released. When they Chlorofluorocarbons are also used in diffuse into the atmosphere, they react with the UV refrigeration and in making certain types of radiations from sun and release chlorine atoms that plastic foams. Aerosols cause depletion of the destroy ozone. This results in the reduction of the ‘ozone layer leading to ozone hole. ozone layer. ‘The exceptionally cold temperature (-85 °C to ACTIVITY 13 90 °C) in Antarctica plays a role in ozone * You have just studied about the ozone layer layer depletion. Ozone and chiorine-containing depletion and the chemicals causing this molecules are absorbad on the surface of ice damage. Find out which other molecules are crystals at high altitudes in Antarctica. In the thought to damage the ozone layer. presence of sun's rays, these chlorine ions are Also find out whether the size of the ozone hole liberated and destructive chemical reactions js changing and in what manner scientists think take place. this would affect life on earth? CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 4 1. What are biogeochemical cycles? Give examples. 2. What are various states in which water is found during water cycle? (case) 3, Name two biologically important compounds that contain both oxygen and sittogen. (cBse) 4. Name various organisms that help in nitrogen fixation. '5. What is greenhouse effect? How does it cause global warming? 110 © NATURAL Resourcesaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.7. The gas responsible for greenhouse effect is . a. chlorofluorocarbon. b. sulphur dioxide «. carbon doxide 4. nitrogen oxide. B. Name the following. 41. The chemical which is responsible for hole in the ozone layer. 2. Life supporing zone of the environment, 3, The gas that reduces the oxygen carrying capacity of blood. The gas that is mainly responsible for causing acid rains. 5, The outer crust of the environment. 6. A mixture of smoke, dust particles and small droplets of fog. 7. Gas that is responsible for greenhouse effect. 8. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria which live in root nodules of leguminous plants. C. Differentiate between the following. 1. Air pollution and water pollution 2. Pollution and pollutant 3. Greenhouse effect and global warming 4, Ozone layer depletion and greenhouse effect D. Very short answer type questions. 1. Define biosphere. Name various zones of biosphere. 2. What is atmosphere? 3, Name two processes which cause the removal of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere? 4, Write any two sources of air pollution and name the pollutants they emit, 8. How does carbon dioxide pollute the alr? Explain with an example, 6. What is greenhouse effect? Which atmospheric gas is responsible for groanhouse affect? 7. Write various effects of air pollution on human health 8. Describe water pollution with the help of an exemple. 8. What is soil erosion? 10. What are biogeochemical cycles? E. Short answer type questions. 1. Why is atmosphere essential for life? (cBsE) 2. Why Is water essential for ite? (case) 3. What are pollutants? Give the sources of following pollutants. Carbon monoxide b. Carbon dioxide . Sulphur dioxide 4. Chioroflucrocarbons 4, What is acid rain? Mention two harmful effects of acid rain. 5. How are living organisms dependent on soil? All organisms that live in water totally independent of soil as a resource? (CBSE) 6. How would the setting of a faciory on the bank of a river affect the population downstream? Explain. 7. There are two colonies A and B situated near a river. Ais al a higher place and B is at a distance down the stream. When members of colony A take bath or wash clothes, they contaminate the river water. Would you ‘expect this contamination to persist when it reaches colony B? Give reasons, 8. Describe how ozone present in the atmosphere is important for sustaining life on the earth. 9. State causes and effects of depletion of ozone layer in the atmosphere,aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.BIOLOGY for Classes 9 and 10 has «simple LANGUAGE and easy-to-read STYLE to make the books user-friendly. * self-study books supplemented.with tables, extensive diagrams and schematic presentations. * a comprehensive TEXT to build up a sound base for higher classes. clear and accurate DIAGRAMS to illustrate concepts. * ACTIVITIES and EXPERIMENTS to develop scientific skills. * exhaustive EXERCISES to test knowledge and understanding of concepts learnt. attractive LAY-OUT in four colour. 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