UNIT 10 ELECTRICAL MEASURING

Structure
10.1 Introduction
Objectives

10.2 Analog and Digital Instru~nents

10.3 Basic Features of an Analog Indicating Instrurnellt
20.4 The PMMC Instrument
10.4.1 Pr~nciplcof Operation
10.4.2 Adaptatin11;ls an Ammeter
10.4.3 Conversion into a Voltmeter
10.4.4 Voltanuneter
10.4.5 Ohmmeter
10.4.6 Instrument for Measuring very High Resistances
10.4.7 Rectifier I~~struments

10.5 Moving Iron Instrunlents

10.5.1 Feature of the Instrument
10.5.2 Constructional Details
10.5.3 Principle of Working
10.5.4 Scalc Shape
s
- Moving Iron Ammeters
10.5.5 Range and ~ t Extension
10.5.6 Range Extension of a Moving Iron Voltmeter
10.5.7 Sensitivity of a Voltnieter.

10.6 Electrodynamic Instruments

10.6.1 Need for a I'ower-measuring Instrument
Brief Consl~ctionalDetails
Principle of Working as a Wattn~eter
Connection of Wattmeter in a Circuit for Power Meaqi~remeot
10.6.5 Power Mcavurzment in a Thee-phase Load

10.6.2
10.6.3
10.6.4

10.7 Induction Type Energymeter

10.7.1 Energy Menwrenlent
10.7.2 Sinlple Scheniauc and Principle of Working
10.8 Errors in Measurement
10.8.1 Instrumcut Errors
10.8.2 A few Criteria on tho Choice of I ~ i s t r u n ~ e ~ ~ t s

10.9 Summary
10.10 Answers to SAQs

10.1 INTRODUCTION
In the preceding lessons, you have learnt that current, voltage, power and other electrical
variables are expressed in their respective units of A, V, W etc. In this chapter, we shall
study the principle of working and application of instruments which enable the
rneasurement of these variables. The presence of an electrical current or voltage can
ordinarily be felt only by some physical effect produced by it. For example, current through
a conductor causes thermal heating. The measurement of an electrical quantity is facilitated
by exploiting any one of such effects. Here, we shall confine ourselves to the study of
electrical instruments which use the electrortzagnetic effect.

Objectives
After going through this unit, you should be able to
explain the distinction between analog and digital instruments and their relative
merits,
outline the basic features of a general analog indicating instrument,

Electrical Maehiws &

hle~9uriaghtruments

describe the basic constructional features and principle of working of major

types of electrical instru~lleiltsused for nieasuring various electrical quantities.
*

use simple instrumelits in electrical circuits, and

explain briefly the errors that could occur in a typical measurement task.

10.2 ANALOG AND DIGITAL INSTRUMENTS

Instruments can he broadly classified into two types - analog and digital, -depending on
the nature of indication of the measurand. In analog instruments, the quantity is read in
terms of the position of a pointer or a light-spol moving on a graduated scale. In digital
inslruments, the final indication is obtained on a window that has suitably illuminated

Figure 10.1 : Type of read-out In ( a ) analog and (b) digital instruments.

digits. Figure 10.1 shows the read-oul systems of the two types.
It is clear that the digital instrument will be free from 'reading error' which can be present
when judging the posilion of a pointer lying between two scale divisions on an analog
instrument. On the other hand, il often happens that one or more of the least significant
digits in a digilal instrument may be constantly fluctuating. This may cause discomfort to an
operator keeping a manual watch on the readings on different instruments. The position of
the pointer of an 'analog instrument on the other hand, would give the operator at a distance,
an idea of the approximate value of the measurand. With the input quantity varying over a
given interval of time, the conlinuous movement of the pointer would give the nh~erveran
t
idea of the trend of variat~on.
In this unit we shall learn about the iinporlant types of 'analog electrical instruments. Analog
instruments which employ electronic circuits will be treated in Unit 15. You will learn
about digital iilstruments in Unit 16.

SAQ 1

Mention the relalive advantages 'and disadvanlages of using a digital indicating

inslrument vls-a-vis an analog instrument.

10.3 BASIC FEATURES OF AN ANALOG INDICATING

INSTRUMENT
All analog indicating instruments have the following constructional parts :
a deflecticin mechanism
a control mechanism
a damping mechanism and
*

an indicating mechanism.

The deflection mechanism causes a deflecting torque to act on the moving system of the
instrument. One part of this mechanism will be usually located on the stationary member of
the instrument and the other part on the moving member. Under llie action of the deflecting

torque (Md)* which is a function of the quantity to be measured (qi), the moving system
starts to rotate from the initial position. The details of the deflection mechanism depend on
the measurand and the effect of electrical current or voltage being exploited for the purpose
of measurement. The control mechanism serves to ensure that the rotation of the moving
system is limited to a fraction of a revolution and that the final deflection is to a definite
position for a given measurand q,. A pair of phosphor-bronze helical springs are usually
employed for this purpose. They excrt on the moving system, a control torque (M,), which
acts in a direction opposite to that of Md and is proportional to the angular displacement (0)
from the initial position. A damping mechanism is also provided in an instrument to avoid
undue oscillations of the moving system about the rest position whenever the measurand
changes. This enables readings to be taken quickly. The damping mechanism brings about
a damping torque (M,), proportional to the angular velocity of the moving system. It is
therefore clear that damping mechanism does not affect the final steady deflection which is
essentially dependent on a balance between the deflection and cor~troltorques. A typical
way of achieving damping action is by the movement of an aluminium vane in a chamber
(dash pot) against air-friction. Figure 10.2 shows typical arrangements of the control springs
and dashpot-vane combination on the moving system of an indicating instrument.

As mentioned in Section 10.2, a pointer attached to the moving system and a graduated
scale constitute the indicating mechanism. In very sensitive instruments, a mirror may be
fixcd to the moving system. Light from a spot-source will get reflected by this minor.

Figure 10.2 : Arrangements of (a) control spr111gsand (b) air dashpot damping

Rotation of the minor along with the moving system will cause the image of the light spot
to move on a graduated scale. In this manner, minute angular deflections of the moving
system can be made to produce large deflections on the scale.

SAQ 2
What is the need for damping torque in an analog indicating instrument?

10.4 THE PMMC INSTRUMENT

?he most versatile analog indicating instrument is the Permanent-Magnet Moving-Coil
(abbreviated as PMMC) Instrument. It is also used as the final "read out" device in almost
all analog electronic measurement systems.

As a variant lo the notation in earlier chapters of this Block, we use here the symbol M
to denote torque.
\

Electrical Measuring
Instruments

EJectricd Machines &

Memaring Instruments

10.4.1 Principle of Operation

The pnriciple of operation of a PMMC instrument can be easily understood if you refer to
Section 7.5 describing the operation a d.c. motor. Let us replace the electromagnet of the
ent through the armature conductors will produce
field system by a permanent magnet.
a driving torque. Let us dispense with the c m w t a t o r and restrict the rotation of the
armature to not more than half a revolution using the control springs mentioned in Section
10.3. We would then gct the basic form of the PMMC instrument. The constructional details
of a typical PMMC instrument are sketched in Figure 10.3.

$\

Top pivot

i4

Cont ml spring

Cur rent in

Formr
carrying coil

( bl

Figure 10.3 : A typical PMMC-instrument

(a) lllustratio~~
of the principle of working (b) Constructional features

The permanent magnets ( N -S of Figure 10.3) are usually manufactured in nearly

rectangular block Porms. A soft-iron cylinder C is located in the region between the pole
faces, so as to get a small, uniform, radial air-gap. A coil of sufficient number of turns
wound on a rectangular aluminium tbrmer, is capable of movement in the air-gap. A current
i in the range of 0.05 to 10 mA can be led into and out of the coil through two
phosphor-bronze control springs. The deflecting torque Md due to motor action will be
proportional to the current through the coil. Mathematically expressed, we have

where kd is a constant decided by the dimensions of the coil and the air-gap flux density.
The control torque M, due to the springs is given by

where 8 is the angular displacement of the moving system from the initial position and k, is
the spring constant. The moving system comes to rest, when M,. balances the average value
of M d . We then have the equation :

where I is the average value of the current i.

The dei'lection is directly proportional to the average current through the coil. The scale can
be graduated in terms of I. When the aluminium former moves along with the coil in the
air-gap field, it has an e.m.f. induced in it. As the former is in the form of a closed loop, the
e.m.f. causes a current to circulate through it. The interaction of this current (also called
eddy current) with the magnetic field produces the damping lorque. In these instruments
therefore, there is no need for an aluminium vane-cum-dashpot arrangement for this
purpose.

10.4.2 Adaptation as an Ammeter

The PMMC instrument described above is basically a current-operated instrument. But the
current thal can be directly passed through the coil can seldom exceed a few milliamperes.
'Ihe basic instrument must rightly be called a micl-oarnmeteror milliammeter. To measure
larger currents, a low resistance called shunt is connected in parallel with the
shown in Figure 10.4. Let R , and R,Thbe the rcsistar~cesof the meter and the
Both the shunt and the meter have tlie same voltage drop across them. Hence

Figure 10.4 : Adaptation of a PMMC instrument as an ammeter to measure a large current nI,

If the circuit current to be measured is n times the allowable meter current, then

Eq. (10.5) tells us that a large number of shunts can be supplied with a given instrument, to
measure various currents. In these cases, the reading on the basic meter must be multiplied
by n which is called the multiplying factor of the shunt. The full-scale current and the
corresponding vqltage drop are usually marked on the body of the shunt. We thus have, for
example, shumlts of rating 60 A, 150 niV, or 20 A, 100 mV.
Example 10.1
The shunt supplied along with a 1 mA, 100 mV PMMC instrument does not have its
rating marked on it. Its resistance is separately measured and found to be 0.2004 SL.
What is the full-scale range provided by the shunt?
Solution

= 500(1- 0.002) =

Therefore

n - 1 =499
n = 500

Full-scale = 500 x 1 = 500 mA.

499

Electrical Measuring
instruments

Electrical Macbines &

Messuring Lostruments

10.4.3 Conversion into a Voltmeter

As mentioned earlier, the PMMC instrument is essentially a current-operated (me. For use
as a voltmeter, a current proportional to the voltage to bemeasured is passed through the
instrument. The scale is then marked in Lerms of volts.
If I,,, is the current required to cause full-scale deflection, enough additiollal resistance R ,
must be included in series w i h the instrument, so that the current is I,, for the desired
full-scale voltage V.
Referring to Figure 10.5.
I,,, = V / (R, + R,)

R , is called the series multiplier.

Figure 10.5 : (lonversion of the PMMC mllliammeter iuto a voltmeter

SAQ 3
The 1 mnA, 100 mTJinstrument of Exarnple 10.1 is lo he used as a vollmcter of
full-scale 100 V. Find the series rcsislancc required.

SAQ 4
Similar to the case of the shunt discussed in Section 10.4.2, define a multiplying
factor n for the series resistance of a voltmeter. Find R, in terms R,,, and n.

Example 10.2

Find the multiplyiilg factor of the series resistor of SAQ 3.

Solution

As answer to SAQ 3, you would have got : R,v= 99900 2

!

Rs
Rm

99900
100

Eiedlical Measuring
Instruments

n is also equal to 1 + - = 1 + -

An ammeter is connected in series with the load whose current is to be measured. A

voltmeter should be connected in parallel with the load for voltage. measurement. These two
connections are symbolically indicated in Figure 10.6. Ideally, an anmmeter should have
zero resistance i.e., zero voltage drop across it so that its insertion in lhe circuit does not
alter the current previously existing in the load. Similarly, an ideal voltmeter should not '
draw any current, which may modify the circuit conditions existing prior to its insertion. An
ideal voltmeter should lherefore have infinite resistance.

F~gure10.6 : Insertion of (a) an ammeter and (h) a voltmeter for the purpose of measurement

In certain applications, it may be required to adapt a single meter-movement for the

measurement of both voltage and current in a given circuit. A method of achieving this is
shown in Figure 10.7.

Load

Rsh
Figure 10.7 : Circuit of a voItammeter

In position 1 of the switch, the PMMC instrument M in series with a resistance R , is

connccted across the load. In position 2, the same instrument gets connected across a shunt
resistance R,, and reads the load current. The switch referred to here, usually takes a
push-button form. A voltarnmeter is often mounted on the panel of a regulated d.c. power
supply unit. (vide Section 1.3.3)

10.4.5 Ohmmeter
We know from basic principles of circuit analysis that at constant supply voltage, the
current through a dc circuit is inversely proportional to the resistance of the circuit. If we rig
up a circuit as shown in Figure 10.8, we have the current given by

1, = V / (R, + R , + R , )
When

R x = m , Ix=I,=O

For

Rx=O, lx=Io=V/(Rn,+R,)

With lhe terminals a and 11 short-circuited, let R, be adjusted so that lois the full-scale
deflection of the PMMC-meter.

(10.7)

Figure 10.8 : Basic circuit of a simple ohmmeter

For any R, connected across the terminals a and b, the resulting current I, given by
Eq. (10.7) is a measure of the value of R,. The followillg worked example illustrates as to
how the scale of the PMMC-instrument can be calibrated in terms of resistance.
Example 10.3.

Fill up the following table showing scale markings in ohms, when the meter is
converted into an ohmmeter, employing a 3-V battery of negligible internal
resistance.
Scale div.

20

40

50

60

80

Ohms
(b)
Solution

Sketch the shape of the ohm-scale of the instrument in (a).

The circuit resistance required for full-scale deflection of 100 div

=3/(i ~ i o - ~ ) = ~ m n .
Meter resistance R, = 100 mV / 1 mA
=loon.
With R, = 0, R , in Figure 10.8 is therefore equal to 3000 - 100 = 2900 Q.
The total circuit resistance for various meter deflections are as under
Div.

1
1

A 1 mA, 100 mV PMMC-instrument has 100 scale divisions.

(a)

Circuit resistance (Q)

100

Subtractiilg (R, + R,) from each of the above resistance values, the Rx-marking on
the scale can be arrived at and the table can be filled up as shown below:

Note that
(1)

the resistance-scale runs from right to left and NOT from left to right,

(2)

at half full-scale deflection,

R x = 3 0 0 0 Q = R,+ R,, .

The half-scale point corresponds to the Thevenin-resistance(Refer Section 2.6.2) of the

meter circuit. The meter scale will look approximately as in Figure 10.9.

Figure 10.9 : The scale-markings on an ohmmeter

10.4.6 Instrument for Measuring very High Resistances

An instance where one needs to measure very large resistances occurs in the case of
electrical equipment and installations. From safety requirements, the resistance between any
conducting part of an electrical equipment and externally available insulated casing should
be at least a few M Q. This has to be checked at a fairly large applied voltage of 250, 500
or 1000 V. The conventional battery-operated ohmmeter described in Section 10.4.5 will
not be useful for this purpose. One goes for an instrument which has the following main
features:
The test voltage of 500 V or 1000 V is usually internally generated. In earlier years, this
was done by a pernment magnet generator whose shaft was cranked using a handle. In
certain modem instruments, this high d.c voltage is generated from a battery, using
additional electronic circuitry.
The moving system of the instrument has two coils rigidly fixed together at a predetermined
mechanical angle. Control springs are not provided. Currents are led to the two moving
coils through thin ligaments, which do not exert any restoring torque. The electrical
connections are as shown in Figure 10.10, where V stands for the internally generated d.c.
voltage. The crossed-coil arrangement is symbolically represented in the figure. The
currents I, and I, are given by

Figure 10.10 : Crossed Coil Instrument

Electrical Measuring
Instruments

Electrical Machines &

Measuring Lnstmments

where R, is Ule insulalion resistance to be measured.

The torques of the two coils are opposed to each other. One. say. due to I, can be looked
upon as the deflecting torque M, a i d the other, the controlling torque M, of the
conventional PMMC instrunlent. The moving systeni and the pointer come to rest when the
two torques balance each other. The scale is calibrated in M LL. The main advantage of the
crossed-coil instrument over thc conventional ohnuneter is Uial clla~lgesin Ulc battery
voltage do not contribute to errors, as any v~iiltionin V afl'ects both I, and I, equally.
An lnstrumnent of t h ~ stype is available in the market under the nanic "Mcgger" as already
indicated in Section 9.3.3. It is ol'Len uscd by utility authorities and manul'acturers of low
voltage electrical equipment to check the insulation resistance of installations.

10.4.7 Rectifier Instruments

Let us consider that il 50 Hz alternating current ol'a fcw 1t1A is passed Ulrough the moving
coil of the PMMCI-instrument 01' Section 10.4.1. Fifly tittles every second, the driving
torque will tc~ldto deflect the nioving system in one direction and another fifty times a
second in the opposite direction, with equal vigour. Because of its inertia, the moving
system can not execute oscillations at this frequency and will therefore remain in the
zem-position. This means that a PMMC-meter can not straightawi~ybe inserted into an a.c.
circuit for measurement ol'current or voltage. The a.c. current or voltage should be
converted into a proportional unidirectional quantity and Uicn applied to the instrument. A
device used l'or the convcrsio~iis the rectil'icr about which you will study in Section 11.4. At.
Ulis slnge, we shall agree to untlerstiu~dtliat a rectifier whose symbol is give11in
Figure 10.11 , is a nonlinear resistor h a t ol'l'ers zero resistance to current flow in one
direction, f i o ~ ntr to 17 ((~rrow-dii~(~ctiotz)
and does not allow any current to Ilow [roll1 h to rr
at all (hlockitzg vcrtictrl line).

Let two such rectifiers I),, D, and a PMMC-animeterA be connected in an a.c. circuit as
shown In Figure 10.12.

Figure. 10.12 : Rectifier-type ammeter

(a) Iilactrical Circuit (h) Waveforms of ( I ) A(:-load (ii) Meter current

If the load current i,, is si~iusoidalas in the top waveform of Figure 10.1 2(b), one half-wave
in each cycle (lower waveform) flows through the meter, Ulc other half being diverted

through the diode 112. If I is the effective value of i,,. we see lliat the average value of ,i is
one-half of the absolutc averagc value of i, and lierice equal Lo
0.5 1 1 (for111factor of a sinusoid) = ( a / n ) 1.
Example 10.4
A nor~nal(0-1A) PMMC-anl~neteris used on n sinusoidal a.c. circuit with a rectifier
as iri Figurc 10.12. The a.c. load current is 0.5 A. Firid tlic average current tlxough
the meter.
Solution
RMS valuc
Absolute average value of the a.c. currerit =
form factor of a sinusoid

Average value of meter current =

= 0.225 A
2Tt
As mentioned in Section 10.4.1, the deflection of the meter will correspond to the balancing
of the average value of M, by the spring. Thus the PMMC reads ( f i / n ) 1. This reading
can be nlultiplied by ( n / a ) to give the r.m.s. value of the lo;ld current.
Jn actual practice, such an a x . ammeter incorporates a scale in which the nlultiplication has
already been carried out at Ule manufacturing stilge.
I

Example 10.5
A 0- I niA, 100 mV PMMC-instrumelit is to be converted into a (0-0.5A) a.c.
anunetcr by using two ideal rcctitlers as in the circuit of Figure 10.12. Find the shunt
resistance required ;icross the iristrument.
Solution

Meter c u r r c ~corresponding
~t
to full scale = 0.5 x Tt

0.225
Multiplyi~igfactor oP shu111= -= 225
0.001
From Eq. (10.5)
1
100
Rs, = -R,,, = - = 0.446 52
( n - 1)
224

The circuit of a rectifier-type voltmeter is given in Figurc 10.13. As in thc case of the
PMMC-d.c. voltmeter (Section 10.4.3), a series-multiplier is to be uscd for dropping a large
portion of the load voltage. The instrument being a voltmeter, the points u and b in
Figure 10.13 are lo be connected across Ule load whose voltage is to be measured. Here
again, the meter scale is marked in terms of the r.1n.s. value of ,an a.c. sine wave input
voltage. Both the rectifier type ammeter of Figure 10.12 and voltmeter of Figure 10.13 will

Figure 10.13 :Circuit of asin~plcrccl~flrr-typt.voltmetcr

Electricill Measuring
Instruments

~ceCrid~iaea&

show deflection when used on d.c also if the polarity of the d.c. is such that the diode in

Ml m t~
m m d eseries with themeter conducts. Since the scale has earlier been modified for a.c. use, the
meter will not indicate the correct value on d.c. The reading will also be erroneous on ax.
circuits where the waveform of current or voltage is not sinusoidal. Commercial
rectifier-type instruments should therefore be used only on sinusoidal a.c. circuits.
For servicing work on various types of electrical and electronic equipment, one needs a
compact instrument which has a large number of voltage and current ranges. A comon form
of such an instrument, called a multimeter, has provision for meaurement of a.c. and d.c.
voltages, d.c. currents and resistances. A single PMMC movement is emp!syed for
indication on all these ranges. You will now appreciate that such an instrument is likely to
incorporate a rectifier circuit for a.c. voltage measurement and a battery for resistance
measurement.

10.5 MOVING IRON INSTRUMENTS

10.5.1 Feature of the Instrument
We have seen that the rectifier-type iilstrument exploits the advantages of the PMMC
instrument for use on ax. circuits. But the meter does not indicate the effmtive value of the
a.c. voltages or current unless the waveform is sinusoidal. The moving iron instrument to be
described below has the advantage that it can be used with reasonable accuracy on d.c. as
well as a.c. of any waveform.

10.5.2 Constructional Details

Moving im

addail C

Figure 10.14 : Constructional features of a moving-iron instrument

The basic constructional features are shown in Figure 10.14.

The coil C carries a current i. This is either the load current to be measured or a current
proportional to the voltage under measurement. A fixed iron piece is secured on to the inner
wall of Ihe bobbin on which the coil is wound. Another iron piece called the moving iron
vane is attached to the movable member suitably pivoted. The control springs are on the
moving system, but unlike in the PMMC-meter, they do not carry any current here.
Damping is provided by the air dash-pot arrangement.

10.5.3 Principle of Working

The name itself suggests that the action depends on the movement of iron. Current flowing
through the fixed coil causes both the pieces of iron to be similarly magnetised. By the
resulting force of repulsion, the movable iron vane moves away from the fixed iron piece
and deflects from its initial position. The pivoted moving system to which the movable vane
is attached comes to rest when the average value of the deflecting torque due to the current
is balanced by the control torque due to the springs.
The field along the axis of the coil C is proportional to the current. The magnetisation of the
two pieces of iron is likewise each proportional to i. The force of repulsion between them is
proportional to i2. Even if i is alternating, this force and the resulting deflecting torque are
both in the same direction (away from fixed iron). This enables the instrument to be used on
d.c. and a.c. The average value of the deflecting torque over one complete cycle of the a.c.
current is

Md oc Average of i2 over one complete cycle.

where I is the effective value of i. The control torque is

When the moving system comes to rest,

M, = M d

The scale can be graduated in terms of I, the effective value of the current.

10.5.4 Scale Shape

Let us say that the scale has 100 divisions and that a current of 1 A corresponds to full-scale
deflection. If the current is made 0.5 A, the deflecting torque M, will become 25 percent of
that with 1 A. Hence the necessary control torque is also 25 percent. The pointer will deflect
to 25 scale divisions. Now try the following SAQ.

SAQ 5
A moving iron ammeter has a full-scale value of 1 A which causes a deflection of
100 scale divisions. Find the current that will cause a deflection of 50 divisions.

For the SAQ, you would have got an answer of 0.707 A, i.e., a current of about 71 percent
of full-scale deflection will cause a deflection of-50 divisions. If the same instrument were a
1 A, PMMC-meter, 50 scale divisions would have covered a range of 50 percent of
full-scale value of current. It is clear therefrom that if the scale is marked in amperes, the
markings of 0.1,0.2,0.3 A in a 1 - A moving iron ammeter would all lie quite near the zero
of the scale. This is called initial cramping.
The PMMC instrument is said to have a uniform scale, since 8 is proportional to I. Since 8,
is proportiond to z2 in Eq. (10.9), the moving iron instrument is said to possess a square law
scale. In practice, suitable steps are taken in the design of a moving iron ammeter to make
the scale nearly uniform over the top 80% of scale. But the initial crowding can not be
avoided.

SAQ 6
Shown in Figure 10.15(a) and (b) are the zero and full-scale markings of two 0-5 A
ammeters, one of the PMMC and the other of the moving-iron type. Mark on each
scale, the points 1, 2.3 and 4 A. Assume that the moving iron meter has a square
law scale.

Figure 10.15 (a) : PMMC meter

Electrical Machines &

Memuring Imtnunents

A
Figure 10.15 (b) : Moving Iron meter

10.5.5 Range and its Extension - Moving Iron Ammeters

In the case of the PMMC-instrument, the current had to be carried by the coil on the moving
member. It has to he limited to a few nlilliamperes, as otherwise the weight of the moving
system would go up on account of the thicker gauge wire required. Such a limitation does
not exist with a moving iron type ammeter. Up to about 5 or 10 A, the current to be
measured is directly passed through the suitably designed fixed coil. No shunt is used. For
a.c. use, moving iron ammeters are usually manufactured for ranges of 0 to 1 A or 0 to 5 A.
For larger currents, they x c used in conjunction with an interposing device called current
transformer (abbreviated as C.T.). You are already inlroduced to this device in
Section 6.6.2.
Let us say that the load current we want to measure is 100 A.

Figure 10.16 : lJsz of a current transformer in conjunction with a

moving iron ammeter to measure large currents

As shown in Figure 10.16, the load current is passed through the primary winding of a ,
10015 A C.T. The 5 A-ammeter is connected to the secondary. A C.T. is essentially a
transformer which is a step-down transformer for currents (vide Section 6.6.2). It has less
number of turns on the primary winding than on the secondary. The transformer is specially
designed so that the ratio I, / I , in Figure 10.16 is maintained constant from very low
magnitudes of primary current up to its rated value and slightly higher. The 5 A ammeter
connected on the secondary side can have its scale modified to read from 0 to rated value of
I, (0-100 A in the example considered).
Example 10.6
The primary of a 5015 A current transformer has 6 turns. Estimate the number of
turns to be provided on the secondary.
Solution

N2=N1Z1/Z2=50x6/5=60turns.

SAQ 7
A 0-5 A moving iron ammeter is to be used in turn at three different points in a
circuit, where the rated currents are 20 A, 50 A and 60 A respectively. The
manufacturer of a C.T. supplies a single-secondary,multiple-ratio C.T.
If the 5 A-secondary winding has 120 turns, find the number of turns required
(a)
on the primary winding for each ratio.

(b)

Sketch the electrical connections pertaining to the winding.

10.5.6 Range Extension of a Moving Iron Voltmeter

As in the case of the PMMC-instrument, the range of a moving iron voltmeter can be
extended by providing a series resistance. As a.c. voltmeters, they are designed in this
manner up to a full-scale range of 600 V in the form of a single multiple-range instrument.
For larger voltages as may occur with high-voltage transmission and distribution systems,
the voltage to be measured is first stepped down using a voltage transformer (also called
'
potential transformer - abbreviated as V.T. or P.T.). The voltage appearing on the
secondary side is applied to a 0-150 V moving iron voltmeter. The unknown voltage is

I-

Figure 10.17 : Measurement of a large a.c. voltage in the kV range

Electrical Measuring
Instruments

E I e e b i c d ~ s c b k&
Mcppluing lmtlllmenta

measured from the voltmeter reading and the transformation ratio of the V.T. The
schematic of connections is given in Figure 10.17 for a 11 kV-circuit. You may recall that
the use of a transformer for this special applicaton has already been described in
Section 6.6.2
Example 10.7
The voltage across a 22 kV load is measured using 220001110V V.T. and a (0-150 V)
moving-iron voltmeter. The meter reads 108 V. Estimate thc voltage across the load.
Solution
V.T. ratio =

22000
110

-=

200

Load voltage = Voltmeter reading x V.T. ratio

= 200x108
= 21,600 V = 21.6 kV.

For measurement of voltage in a high voltage 3-phase circuit, the V.T. to be used will also
have to be of the three-phase type.

SAQ 8
Point out the differences between the PMMC and moving-iron type inslruments as
regards type of damping applied and scale shape.

10.5.7 Sensitivity of a Voltmeter

We are aware that a voltmeter should have as high a resistance as possible, so that the
circuit in which the voltage is being measured is not very much loaded. This property of the
meter is described by a term called sensitivity. The term is defined in such a way that the
higher the sensitivity of a voltmeter, the less is the loading caused by it on the measuring
circuit. Consider two voltmeters V, and V2 having the same full scale dekction of say,
10 V. Let V have a resistance of 10,000 R and V2, 100,000 R. If Ifi and Ifi are the
currents required for full-scale detlection,

V2 is more sensitive than V, .

1
1
ohms
and - have dimensions of (amperes)-' = % ~'r,
volts
Hence ohms per volt (n/t) is chosen as a unit, to describe quantitatively, the sensitivity of
a voltmneter. The higher this number, the more is the sensitivity and correspondingly less is
the loading.
Example 10.8
from a microammetcr of 50 p A full scale. What is the
If the voltmeter has a range of 100 V, what is the total
resistance offered by the voltmeter to the circuit into which it may be connected?
Solution
Sensitivity of the voltmeter = 1/(5&~ lo4 ) = 20000 WV

Resistance of the 100 V voltmeter

100 x 20000 Q
= 2MQ
=

SAQ 9
A laboratory has a (0-10V) moving iron voltmeter of resistance 2000 C! and a
(0-500mV) PMMC-voltmeter of resistance 500 Q. Which of the two is the more
sensitive meter?

10.6 ELECTRODYNAMIC INSTRUMENTS

10.6.1 Need for a Power-measuring Instrument
Both the PMMC and the moving-iom instrumen1.s are basically useful for measuring a
single quantity, namely, current or voltage. Power, as we are aware, is a quantity involving
the product of the above two electrical variables. To estimate the efficiency of various kind3
of electrical equipment, power often needs to be measured. We shall now learn the principle
of working of the electrodynamic instrunlent, which is widely used for measuring power.

10.6.2 Brief Constructional Details

Refer to the PMMC-Instrument of Figure 10.3 (a). Let the permanent magnet be replaced
by an electromagnet constituted by an air-cored coil of relatively low resistance. Let the soft
iron cylinder be removed. We now have the electrodynamic instrument of Figure 10.18,
with a fixed air-cored coil in two sections and a movable coil of thin gauge wire mounted in
the space between the two sections. Control torque is provided by springs, and damping by
air-friction.

Field coils

Moving coil

Figure 10.18 : Coil arrangement in an electrodynamic instrument

10.6.3 Principle of Working as a Wattmeter

Let the load current iL be passed through the fixed coil and the load voltage vL applied
across the moving coil and a series resistance R,. If the moving coil is purely resistive, the
VL
current through it will be ,i = ,where Rp is the combined series resistance of the moving
R"
coil and R,. R, is usually high, of the order of a few tens of k Q. This current-carrying coil is
located in the magnetic field produced by the iL flowing through the fixed coils. A
deflecting torque M dacts on this coil such that

WectIiesl Mcssaring
Instruments

EhdlicdMrbine3&
Mcudog ht~mncdr

where k, and k, are constants. i.e., the deflecting torque at any instant is proportional to the
instantaneous power in the load.
If
v, =
vLcos at
iL= dT~,cos (at- $1,

illid

the average value of the product vLiLover one complete cycle will be the true power,
namely,
P = VLILcos $

(vide Section 3.6).

With spring control, we have ;m equilibrium position 9 such that the torque M, = kc . 9
balances the average value of M,.
Hence
The instrument can therefore be used to measure power. Instantaneous power and average
power are one and the same oil d.c. The electrodyna~nicinstrument can be used to measure
power both in d.c. and a.c. circuits. The instrument is also called a dynanio~netertype
wattmeter.

SAQ 10
Can you guess why an electrodynamic instrument is also referred to as a
dynamonieter type one?

Just as there are circuit symbols for ammeters and voltmeters (vide Fig. 10.6), there is also a
method of representing a wattmeter in a circuit. The same is shown in Figure 10.19. The
fixed coil, called the current coil, has terminals M and L. This coil has a fewer number of
turns lhan the moving coil which is called the voltage coil. A high series resistance which
limits the current Lo a few tens of milliamperes is connected in series with the voltage coil.
The terminals of the voltage circuit carry the markings "Com" and V or a number. say,
"300 V" representing the rated voltage.

Md
Com

Figure 10.19 : Circuit symbol of a dynamometer type wattmeter

Example 10.9

What are the ideal values of resistance for the fixed and moving coil circuits of a
wattmeter?
Solution

Ideally, the fixed coil, like a current-measuring element, should have zero resistance.
The voltage-coil circuit should likewise have infinite resistance in an ideal case,
since it is used to sense Uie voltage.

10.6.4 Connection of Wattmeter in a Circuit for Power Measurement

A wattmeter has a current, a voltage and a full-scale power-rating. Typical sets of values of

these are:
2.5 A, 150 V, 375 W:
5 A, 300 V, 1500 W;
10 A, 250 V. 2500 W etc.

Figure 10.20 : Connecting a wattmeter in a circuit

Figure 10.20 shows a block representing a source on the left side and a block on the right
side standing for the load. The terminal 'M' of the current coil is connected to the mflinsor
the source and the terminal 'L' to the load. The reference load current iL then flows through
the instrument from M to L. The terminal "Com" of the voltage coil circuit is connected to
the reference positive terminal of the load, so that vLis applied as a voltage drop from the
terminal marked 'Com" to the other terminal '300 V' of thevoltage coil circuit.
,-.
A diagram, showing the method of connection is usually provided by the
wattmeter-manufacturer on the instrument cover. It is only with this type of connection that
the wattmeter will show a positive deflection to lndicate the power consumed by a load
supplied from a source. If the connections cither to the fixed coil or the moving coil (but not
both) is reversed, the pointer of the wattmeter will kick back.
Example 10.10
Two load impedances Z1 and & are connected in series across an a.c. mains. Show
the connections of a wattmeter to measure the power consumed in 2 2 .
Solution
The same current flows through Z1 and 2 2 . Hence the fixed coil can be placed in
series. But the voltage coil circuit should get across itself only the voltage across %.
The connections are as shown in Figure 10.21.

Figure 10.21 : For Solutinn to Example 10.10

Electlid Merrsluimg
Iostrmnents

Electrid M~chiiws&

M e a s d g Indmneh

10.6.5 Power Measurement in a Three-phase Load

Three-phase loads like pump motors and lifts are often met with in industry. The power
consumed in these loads would also have to be measured. Many such loads are of the
three-wire type, providing us access only to the three line currents and the three line
voltages. From Section 4.4.3 ,we know that the power consumed in a balanced 3-phase
load is PL = 6VLILcos Cp, where VLis the line voltage:.I, is the line current and cos Cp the
load p.f. Using the simple trigonometric formula involving sum and products of cosines, we
can wrike:
cos (30 + Cp) + cos(30 - Cp) = 2 cos 30 cos Cp
= 6 c o s Cp
Hence
PL = 6VLI, cos Cp

= VLILCQS (30 + Cp) + VLILcos (30 - Cp)

(10.12)

Consider Figure 10.21, which is the phasor diagram for a balanced star-connected load.
(Compare with Figure 4.16)

Figure 10.22 : Phasor diagram of voltages and currents in a balanced star-connected three-phase load

Example 10.11
What are the angles x and y in the phasor diagram of Figure 10.22 ?
Solution
(i)

x = (30" + Cp)

(ii) y = (Cp - 30")

The above example and Eq. (10.12) suggest that we can use two wattmeters Wland W2for
measuring the two terms on the R.H.S. of Eq. (10.12). Through the current coils of Wland
W2.we can pass i, and i, respectively. We can apply v, to the voltagecoil of Wland
vcb= - vbcto the pressure coil of W2.If the readings of the two wattmeters are P1 and PZ,we
have
PI = VLILcos (30" + Cp)

and

P2= VLILcos C
(p - 30),

P, + P, = 6 vLiL
cos $

so that

= power consumed by the three-phase load.

Thus, two wattmeters, properly connected, are sufficient to measure the power in a
three-phase, three-wire circuit. The method of connecting the wattmeters physically into the
circuit is shown Figure 10.23.

Source

Figure 10.23 : Insertion of two wattmeters for power measurement in a 3-phase, 3-wire load

Example 10.12

A balanced inductive 3-phase load of power factor 0.8 draws 10 A from a 400 V,
3-phase supply. Find the readings of the two wattmeters connected as in
Figure 10.23. Verify that their sum gives the total load power.
Solution

Load power PL =

6 VLILcos $

Reading of Wl is P1 = VLILcos (30" + $)

= 400 x 10 x cos 66.87"

Reading of W2 is P2 = VLILcos ($ - 30")

= 5 S 8 m = P,.

We know from Unit 8 that the power factor of operation of an induction motor would be
low under no-load conditions. (vide Example 8.6). Attempt the following SAQ.

SAQ 11
A 400 V, 3-phase induction motor runs on no load, drawing a current of 4 A from the
mains. If the power factor of operation is 0.3, what h e the readings of the two
wattmeters connected for power measurement?

Bearid Machima &

~essurins~ n m r e a t s

10.7 INDUCTION TYPE ENERGYMETER

10.7.1 Energy Measurement
So far, we have discussed the principle of working of instruments which measure current,
voltage, resistance or power. We are aware that to get quantities like energy or charge
expended in a given interval of time, one has to integrate power or current over the same
time interval. Measurement of energy is of importance with domestic and commercial
installations which use power continuously. It is clear that the utility authority which
provides electric supply at the door or terminals of a domestic or industrial consumer would
like to bill the latter from time to time for the energy drawn from the source. Hence energy
measurement assumes importance. Energymeters are called integrating meters as against
wattmeters, ammeters and voltmeters which go under the name of indicating instruments.

10.7.2 Simple Schematic and Principle of Working

One main difference between an energymeter and an ammeter or voltmeter is that there is
no pointer in the former. The moving system does not come to rest within a fraction of a
revolution from its zero-position. Integration is performed by the continuous rotation of the
moving system. Hence control springs are absent in an energymeter. Figure 10. 24 shows in
simple schematic form, the elements of an energymeter suitable for use in a.c. single-phase
circuits. There are two electromagnets - one energised by the load voltage and the other by
the load current. A light aluminium disc suspended in the gap has e.m.f.s. induced in it by
the fields of the two magnets due to induction. Eddy currents flow in the disc as a result of
the induced e.m.f.s. The interaction between the eddy currents and the fluxes of the

rTo counter

Figure 10.24 : Essential parts of an energymeter

A: Voltage Magnet; B: Current Magnet; C: Aluminium Disc; D: Permanent Magnet

electromagnets causes a torque to act on the moving system. The current coil circuit is
designed so that the field produced by the current magnet is in phase with the load current
Ik The voltage-circuit is made predominantly inductive so that the flux produced by the
by nearly 90". Under these conditions, it can be
voltage magnet lags the load voltage
shown that the driving torque M, acting on the moving system is proportional to the load
power PL = VLZLcos $. As mentioned earlier, there is no control spring. Under the action of
the driving torque, the moving system and the disc will accelerate. A permanent magnet
provided at one end of the disc causes an e.m.f. to be induced in the disc as soon as the
moving systemstxts from rest The currents induced in the disc as a result of this e.m.f.
cause a torque on t h b g system, akin to the damping torque in a PMMC instrument
(vide Section 10.4.1). This damping torque, called braking torque Mbin this case, is
proportional to the speed N of the disc. We have

vL

The disc accelerates and attains a steady speed at which the braking torque equals the
driving torque.

here PL is the power. Hence the speed of the disc is proportional to the power in the load.

The number of revolutions of the moving system or the aluminium disc in a given interval
of time fromt= t, t o t = t, is

where W is the energy consumed in the particular time interval. The counting of the
number of revolutions is carried out by a mechanical arrangement of wheels and pinions
and a final read-out, usually in digital form is provided against a window. Readings are
taken by the Utility Company at one or two-month intervals and the consumer is billed for
his energy consumption during the period.
The above energymeter can be used only on ac circuits, since the action of the meter
depends on induction principle.
Example 10.14
Mention the type of torque that is present in an indicating instrument but is absent in
an energymeter.
Solution

Control torque

SAQ 12
A 10 A, 230 V energymeter carries full-load current at 0.5 lag. The meter constant is
600 revolutions per kwh. Assuming the meter to be error-free, find the time taken by
the disc to make 10 revolutions.

10.8 ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT

10.8.1 Instrument Errors
A measurement in the area of Electrical Engineering is normally carried out using supply
sources, passive elements and measuring instruments. Not every required quantity can be
directly obtained from a meter reading. In such an event, readings are taken on different
instruments and using certain mathematical relationships, results are estimated by
computation. For example, the measurement of the constants of the series elements of the
equivalent circuit of a transformer is done by the short-circuit test using a set-up as in
Figure 10.25.
The element values in the above example are calculated from the readings of the voltmeter,
ammeter and the wattmeter - V,Z and P respectively.

and

Figure 10.25 : Set-up for conducting short-circuit test oa a single-phase transfornler

In the above equations, the subscript eq stands for "equivalent value" referred to one side.
Because of inherent imperfections in manufacturing, the reading of any instrument is likely
to differ from the true value of the quantity being measured with it. The manufaciurer of an
instrument normally guarantees a certain accuracy for the instrument by specifying the
maximum margin of error that can be present in any reading taken on the instrument. He
expresses this magnitude as a percentage of full-scale reading. Anuneters, voltmeters and
wattmeters for industrial use are typically nlanufactured for a maximunl uncertainty of 1 or
1.5 per cent of full-scale. Thus, any reading taken on such a voltmeter of range (0-150 V)
can have a maximum error of 1.5 V or 2.25 V respecitvely. The sign indicates that the
error could lie on the positive or negative side. If a reading of 150 V is taken on a (0-1 50 V)
instrument having an uncertainty of 1 per cent of full-scale, the maximum percentage error
in the reading will be (+ 1.5 / 150) x 100 = 1 per cent. On the other hand, let us say that a
reading of 75 V is obtained on the same instrument when connected in a circuit. This
reading can have a maximum relative uncertainty of (+ 1.5 /75) x 100 = 2 percent.

10.8.2

A few Criteria on the Choice of the Instruments

In the light of the preceding discussion, one general rule that may be stated is :"Choose the
range of an instrument so tltat the expecterl reading will he as nearfull-scale vulue as
possible. " For example, if the current under measurement is likely to be 2 A, do not choost
a meter of full-scale 5 A. Try to use an ammeter of 2.5 A full scale value.
Turning to Eq. (10.14), Zeqis given by the ratio of V/I. Errors in thc measured values of V
and I could be of opposite nature i.e., Vcould have been measured as ( V + 6V) and I as
(I - 61), where 6V and 61 are the maximum possible errors in V and I. The measured value
of Zeqcan lie between (V + 6V) / ( I - 61) and (V- 6V) / ( I + 6)3. The point to bc appreciated
is that when a quantity is computed using an algebrac expression involving a number of
measured variables, the error in the result will depend on the errors occurring in the
measuremen1 of the different variables and the algebraic relation involved. Let us consider
the following example.
Example 10.14

The resistance of a strain gauge is measured as 600 12 without the application of an

external load. It is measured as 603 62 when the member on which the gauge is
pasted undergoes tension. The maximum uncertainty in the resistance measured is
0.1 percent in either case. Compute the increase in resistance of the gauge and the
maximum possible uncertainty in it.
Solution

0.1
Resistance before application of load = 600 -x 600
100

Electrical Measuring
Instruments

Resistance under applied strain

= 603

0.1
+x 603
100

Increase in resistance can be any value between 603.603 - 599.4 = 4.203 Q on the
high side and 602.397 - 600.6 = 1.797 L2 on h e low side.
While the nominal value of increase in resistance as obtained from the measurement
is 603 - 600 = 3 Q, the actual in value could have any value lying between 1.797 and
4.203. The maximum percentage uncertainties would be

= k 40.1 percent.

The above example is revealing in the sense that the percentage uncertainty in a quantity,
which is estimated as the difference between two nearly equal quantities could be much
larger than the maximum percentage uncertainty in the two individual quantities. A second
general rule therefore is: A quantity which is expecteii to be of srrtall mrzgnitude should he

measured directly and not estimated as a clifference between two individually measured
Inrge qunntities.
A th~rdpoint to be remembered is that the tendency to go in for highly accurate instruments
for every measurement should be avoided. For example, if a particular method of
measurement can yield an overall result of, say, at most 5 per cent accuracy, there is no
need to use instruments which have a very high accuracy, say, of 0.01 per cent for one of
the component nleasurements.

10.9 SUMMARY
In this unit, we first learnt about Ule difference between analog and digilal indicaling
instrumncnls. We next studied briefly the constructional details and working of analog
electrical measuring instruments of the cleclrolnagnetic type. Ammeters and voltmeters for
use in d.c. and a.c. circuits were discussed. The electrodynamic instrument suitable for
power measurement was introduced and its application outlined. A brief idea has been
given abouut h e induction type energyn~eterused by any domeslic electricity consumer.
That every measurement is marred by unavoidable errors is pointed out and the need for the
proper choice of instruments for a specific measuring task is stressed.
It 1s true h a t conventional electrical measuring instruments for current and voltage that
havc been discussed in this unit are slowly giving way to electronic instruments. They are
slill however in common use. Principles of measurement and measuring techniques are
mostly similar for both electrical and electronic instruments. We shall be learning about the
laltcr in Units 15 and 16.

Should you get fascinated towards the pursuit of the topics in this subject, please go through
the books listed under "Further Reading" at the end of this Block.

10.10 ANSWERS TO SAOs

t
I

SAQ 1

Advantages :

1. Absence of reading error due to interpolation

Disadvantages :

2. Possibility of oblaining a finer resolution

1. Discomfort to the humw observer, when .the. measured
quantity is varying.

2. It is difficult to judge the trend of varialions.

Electrid MoJIincs &

Instme&

SAQ 2
The damping torque enables the moving system to come to the equilibrium position
quickly, without undue oscillations whenever the moving system goes from one
steady state position to another. ?he new reading can then be easily noted.
SAQ 3
In Eq. (10.6), we shall insert the values of V, Imand Rm.We then get

Rm = 100 Q and hence

SAQ 4

Multiplying factor n =

Full scale with the series resistor

Full scale of the basic instrument

SAQ 5
Let I be the current. From Eq. (10.9),

50 divisions-deflection will be caused by a current of 0.707 A which is nearly

71 percent of full-scale value.
SAQ 6

(a)

The PMMC ammeter has a uniform scale. Its graduations are clearly marked
out on the figure (a) below at equal distances.

Figure (a) for Answer to SAQ 6 (a) drawn with scale-markings

(b)

From Eq. (10.9), 0 is proportional to 12.Taking 100% to be the deflection

corresponding to full-scale of 5 A, the percentage deflection for different
currents are as under (refer to the discussions on scale shape) :
Current, A

0 .

Percentage
deflection

16

36

64

100

The markings can now be inserted as in the figure (b) below.

Figure (b) for Answer to SAQ 6 (b) drawn with scale-markings

SAQ 7

(a)

N2 = 120 turns; N2 12 = 120 x 5 = 600 ampere turns

Since N1Il = N2 12, the primary number of turns for each ratio will be as given
below:

(b)

Instead of having three separate primary windings, a single 30-turn winding

can be provided with taps brought out. One terminal (P2) can be common for
e
all the three current ranges. The arrangement is shown in the f ~ u r below:

Figure for Answer to SAQ 7 (b)

SAQ 8

The differences are listed below:

PMMC

M.I.

Type of Damping

Eddy current in the

coil former

Air friction

Scale shape

Uniform

Square law

SAQ 9

For the M.I. voltmeter,

1
-

$1

1
For the PMMC-voltmeter, -=
Ih

1
(10/2ooO)

1
(500 x 10-~/500)

Hence the PMMC-voltmeter is more sensitive.

SAQ 10

The instrument is a meter working essentially on the principle of the dynamo. Hence
The name dynamometer.
SAQ 11

cos $ = 0.3 (lag)

Therefore, $ = 72.54"
(30" + $) = 102.54"; (Q, - 30 ") = 42.54"
The wattmeter readings are : P1 = 400 x 4 x cos 102.54"

Electrical Machiws &

Memuring Instruments

P2 = 400 x 4 x cos 42.54O

= 1178.9 W

Notice that one of the wattmeter readings comes out as negative. In practice, the
pointer detlects to the left ol the zero-position. You should reverse the connections to
'Corn' and 'V' of the pressure coil circuit and note down the resulting reading as a
negative value.
Input Power Pi = P I + P2

As a check, we can see that 4 5 x 4 0 0 x 4 x 0.3 = 831.4 which agrees with the
algebraic sum of Y 1and P?. It ;nay therefore be stated with reference to Eq. (10.13)
that the algebraic sum P I + P2 of the two wattmeter readings gives the tolal power in
a three-phase load.
SAQ 12

Energy corresponding to 10 revolutions= 10 (1 /6W)

= (1 /60) kwh
Power consumed by the load = 230 x 10 x 0.5
= 1150W
= 1.15

kW

Let t be the time in seconds taken by Ule disc for 10 revolutions

Therefore t =

60
1.15

- - 52.17 s.

BLOCK 2 FURTHER READING

1. V. Dcl Toro, "Principles of Electrical Enginecriog", Prenlicc-Hall of India, New Delhi,
1972.

2. A. E. ' ~ i t z ~ e r aand
l d others, "Electric Machinery", McGraw Hill, 1985.
3. M. R . Stoul, "Basic Electrical Measurements", Prcnlice-Hall Inc.. Englewcu,d Cliffs.
N.J. 1960.
4. WiD. Cooper and A.D. Hellrick, "ElecLronic lnslrumentalio~~
ant1 Mcilsurer~lenL
Techniques", Edn. 3, Prentice-Hall of Tndia, New Dclhi, 1985.