First Course on

POWER SYSTEMS

Ned Mohan
Oscar A. Schott Professor of Power Electronics and Systems
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
University of Minnesota
Minneapolis, MN 55455
USA

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

A 345-kV Example System

Bus-1

Bus-3

200km

P + jQ

Pm1

Pe1

150km

150km

Bus-2
Pe 2
Pm 2

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

TOPICS IN POWER SYSTEMS

Week Book Chapters
1

Chapter 1: Overview
Chapter 2: Fundamentals

Laboratory
Lab 1: Visit to a local substation; otherwise a
virtual substation

Chapter 3: Energy Sources

Lab 2: Introduction to PSCAD/EMTDC; 3phase circuits, vars, power-factor correction

Chapter 4: Transmission Lines

Lab 3: Transmission Lines using PSCADEMTDC

Chapter 5: Power Flow

Lab 4: Power Flow using MATLAB and

PowerWorld

Chapter 6: Transformers

Lab 5: Including Transformers in Power Flow

using PowerWorld and MATLAB

Chapter 7: HVDC, FACTS

Lab 6: Power Converters and HVDC using

PSCAD-EMTDC, HVDC in PowerWorld

Chapter 8: Distribution Systems

Lab 7: Power Quality using PSCAD-EMTDC

Chapter 9: Synchronous
Generators

Lab 8: Synchronous Generators and AVR

using PSCAD-EMTDC.

Chapter 10: Voltage Stability

Lab 9: Voltage Regulation using PowerWorld

10

Chapter 11: Transient Stability

Lab 10: Transient Stability using MATLAB

11

Chapter 12: Interconnected

Systems, Economic Dispatch

Lab 11: AGC using Simulink, and Economic

Dispatch using PowerWorld

12

Chapter 13: Short-Circuit

Faults, Relays, Circuit Breakers

Lab 12: Transmission Line Faults using

PowerWorld and MATLAB

13

Chapter 14: Transient OverVoltages, Surge Arrestors,

Insulation Coordination

Lab 13: Over-voltages and Surge Arrestors

using PSCAD-EMTDC

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

Chapter 1
POWER SYSTEMS: A CHANGING
LANDSCAPE

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

NATURE OF POWER SYSTEMS

Fig. 1-1 Interconnected North American Power Grid [2].

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

Control Areas

Fig. 1-2 NERC Interconnections [3]. Source: NERC.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

One-line Diagram
Step up
Transformer

Generator
Transmission
line

13.8 kV

Feeder

Load

Fig. 1-3 One-line diagram as an example.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

CHANGING LANDSCAPE OF POWER SYSTEMS AND UTILITY

DEREGULATION

(a)

( b)

Fig. 1-4 Changing landscape [4]. Source: ABB.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF BASIC
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS AND
ELECTROMAGNETIC
CONCEPTS

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

Symbols and
Conventions
+

a
+

vab

b
+

va

vb

Fig. 2-1 Convention for voltages and currents.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

10

Phasors
Imaginary

positive
angles

V = V 0 Real

I = I

Fig. 2-2 Phasor diagram.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

11

Phasor Analysis
i( t )

v( t )
= 2V cos( t )

+
V = V 0

j L = j X L

(b)

jX c

jX L

Z
1
j
= j XC
C

C
(a )

Im

Re

0
(c)

Fig. 2-3 A circuit (a) in time-domain and (b) in phasor-domain; (c) impedance triangle.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

12

Example of Impedance
Calculation
j 0.1

j5

Fig. 2-4 Impedance network of Example 2-1.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

13

Example of Impedance
Calculation
0.3

j 0.5

j 0.2

+
I1
V1

7.0

j15
Im

I2

Fig. 2-5 Circuit of Example 2-2.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

14

Power Flow
+

Subcircuit 1

v (t )

Subcircuit 2

p (t ) = v (t ) i (t )

Figure 2-6 A generic circuit divided into two sub-circuits.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

15

Real and Reactive

Power
average
power

p (t )

v(t )

p (t )

average
power

v (t )
(a )

i (t )

( b)

i (t )

Figure 2-7 Instantaneous power with sinusoidal currents and voltages.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

16

P, Q and VA by Phasors
I
+

Subcircuit 1

Subcircuit 2

S = P + jQ

(a)

Im

V = V v

Re

Im

S
Q

I = I i
(b)

Re

(c)

Fig. 2-8 (a) Circuit in phasor-domain; (b) phasor diagram; (c) power triangle.
Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

17

Example of Power Factor

Correction
P = PL

+
jQC

V1

j13.963

PL + jQL

Fig. 2-9 Power factor correction in Example 2-5.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

18

One-line Diagram
Step up
Transformer

Generator
Transmission
line

13.8 kV

Feeder

Load

Fig. 2-10 One-line diagram of a three-phase transmission and distribution system.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

19

Three-Phase Voltages
van (t ) vbn (t ) vcn (t )

Vcn

a bc
positive
sequence
120

120
120

Vbn

Van

( b)

3
(a )

Fig. 2-11 Three-phase voltages in time and phasor domain.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

20

Balanced Three-Phase
Circuit Analysis
a

Ia

Ia

+
ZL

V an
V cn
+

V bn
+

V an

N
c

Ic

(a)

Ib

V cn n V bn
+
+

Ic

ZL

In

N
c

Ib

(b)

Fig. 2-12 Balanced wye-connected, three-phase circuit.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

21

Per-Phase Analysis
Ia

a
+

V cn

V an

Ib
(Hypothetical)

Ic

V an

Ia

V bn
(a)
(b)
Fig. 2-13 Per-phase circuit and the corresponding phasor diagram.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

22

Balanced Mutual
Coupling
Ia

Z self

A
Ib

Z self

Z mutual

Z aA
A

Z mutual
B

Ic

Z self

Z mutual

(Hypothetical)

C
(a)

( b)

Fig. 2-14 Balanced three-phase network with mutual couplings.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

23

Line-Line Voltages
Vcn
Vca

Vb

Vab
30 o

Van

Vbn

Vbc

Fig. 2-15 Line-to-line voltages in a three-phase circuit.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

24

Wye-Delta
Transformation
Ia

Ia

a
Z

I ab Z
I ca

Ibc

Z
b

Z
(a)

(b)

Fig. 2-16 Delta-wye transformation.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

25

Power Flow in AC
Systems
I
jX

Vs
+

Vs

jXI

VR

VR

I
( b)

(a )

Fig. 2-17 Power transfer between two ac systems.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

26

Power-Angle Diagram
P / Pmax
1.0
0.5
0

180
90
Fig. 2-18 Power as a function of .

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

27

Per Unit Quantities

Vbase
Rbase , Xbase , Zbase =
Ibase

(in )

(2-48)

Ibase
Gbase , Bbase ,Ybase =
Vbase

(in

(2-49)

Pbase ,Qbase ,(VA)base =Vbase Ibase

(in Watt, VAR, or VA)

(2-50)

In terms of these base quantities, the per-unit quantities can be specified as

actual value
Per-UnitValue =
base value
Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

(2-51)

28

Energy Efficiency of
Apparatus
Pin

Power
System
Apparatus

Po

Ploss

Fig. 2-19 Energy Efficiency = Po / Pin .

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

29

Electro-Magnetic
Concepts:
Amperes Law
dl
H

i3

i1
i2

(a)

(b)

(c)

Fig. 2-20 Amperes Law.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

30

Example of a Toroid
i

rm

ID

ID

OD

OD

(a)

(b)

Fig. 2-21 Example 2-9.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

31

B-H Curves in
Ferromagnetic Materials
Bm

Bm

Bsat

m
o
Hm

(a)

Hm

(b)

Fig. 2-22 B-H characteristic of ferromagnetic materials.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

32

Flux and Flux-Density

Am

Fig. 2-23 Toroid with flux m .

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

33

Inductance
i

Am
i

N

Am

Hm

(m)

N
Lm =

(a)

Bm

(Am)

(N)

N2
Am
mAm

(b)

Fig. 2-24 Coil inductance.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

34

Example of a Toroid
w

Fig. 2-25 Rectangular toroid.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

35

Faradays Law
(t )
i (t )
+
e (t )

Fig. 2-26 Voltage polarity and direction of flux and current.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

36

Plot of time-varying Flux

and Voltage
e(t )

(t )

Fig. 2-27 Example 2-11.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

37

Leakage Flux
m
i
i

+
e

(a)

(b)

Fig. 2-28 Including leakage flux.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

38

Representation of Leakage
Flux by Leakage
Inductance
m
i (t )
+

Ll
Ll

e(t )

di
dt

em (t )

Ll

R
+
v(t )
Lm

+
e(t )

i (t )
+
em (t )

(a)

(b)
Fig. 2-29 Analysis including the leakage flux.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

39

CHAPTER 3

ELECTRIC ENERGY AND

THE ENVIRONMENT

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

40

Energy Consumption and

Production in the U.S.

(a)

(b)

Fig. 3-1 Production and consumption of energy in the United States in 2004 [1].

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

41

Power Generation by
Various Fuel Types in the
U.S.

Fig. 3-2 Electric power generation by various fuel types in the U.S. in 2005 [1].

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

42

Hydro Power Generation

Water

Penstock
Generator

Turbine

Fig. 3-3 Hydro power (Source: www.bpa.gov).

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

43

Rankine Thermodynamic
Cycle in Coal Plants
Steam at High pressure
Heat in

Boiler

Pump

Turbine

Condenser

Gen

Heat out

Fig. 3-4 Rankine thermodynamic cycle in coal-fired power plants.

Visit the following website for Power Plant Animations:

http://www.cf.missouri.edu/energy/?fun=1&flash=ppmap

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

44

Brayton Cycle in Gas

Turbines
Fuel in

Compressor
Air in

Combustion
Chamber

Turbine
Exhaust

Fig. 3-5 Brayton thermodynamic cycle in natural-gas power plants.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

45

Nuclear Power Plant

Types

(a )

( b)

Fig. 3-6 (a) BWR and (b) PWR reactors [5].

Visit the following websites for Nuclear Power Plant Animations:

PWR: http://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/basic-ref/students/animated-pwr.html
BWR: http://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/basic-ref/students/animated-bwr.html
Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

46

Wind Resources in the

U.S.

Fig. 3-7 Wind-resource map of the United States [6].

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

47

Coefficient of
Performance

Fig. 3-8 c p as a function of [7]; these would vary based on the turbine design.
Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

48

Wind Generation using an

Induction Generator
Connected Directly to the
AC Grid
Induction
Generator

Wind
Turbine

Utility

Fig. 3-9 Induction generator directly connected to the grid [8].

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

49

Wind Generation using a Doubly-Fed

Induction Generator
Wound rotor
Induction Generator

AC
Wind
Turbine

DC
DC

Generator-side
Converter

AC
Grid-side
Converter

Fig. 3-10 Doubly-fed, wound-rotor induction generator [9].

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

50

Wind Generation using an AC

Generator Connected through Power
Electronics
Power Electronics Interface

Gen

Conv1

Conv 2
Utility

Fig. 3-11 Power Electronics connected generator [10].

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

51

Photovoltaics

Fig. 3-12 PV cell characteristics [11].

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

52

Interfacing PV with AC
Grid
Isolated
DC-DC
Converter

PWM
Converter

Max. Powerpoint Tracker

Utility
1

Fig. 3-13 Photovoltaic systems.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

53

Fuel Cells
Maximum Theoretical Voltage

E=
Activation
Losses

Cell Voltage ( VC in Volts )

1.2 -

- g

- 1200

2F
- 1000

1-

Ohmic

0.8 -

- 800

Losses
- 600

0.6 -

Cell Power
PC= VC x i

Mass
Transport
Losses

0.4 -

- 400

- 200

0.2 -

0 -|
0

Cell Power ( PC in mW )

Open 1.4 Circuit

Voltage

500

1000

1500

2000

Current Density ( i in mA/cm2 )

-0

Fig. 3-14 Fuel cell v-i relationship and cell power [12].

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

54

Greenhouse Effect

Fig. 3-15 Greenhouse effect [13].

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

55

Resource mix
XcelEnergy
6
5
1

3
2

1
2
3
4
5
6

Fig. 3-16 Resource mix at XcelEnergy [14].

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

56

Fuel Costs in the U.S. in

2005

Fig. 3-17 Electric power industry fuel costs in the U.S. in 2005 [1].

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

57

CHAPTER 4

AC TRANSMISSION LINES
AND UNDERGROUND
CABLES

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

58

Transmission Tower,
Conductor and Bundling

(b)

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006 (a )

(c)

Fig. 4-1 500-kV transmission line (Source: University of Minnesota EMTP course).

59

Transposition
a
D2

D1

b
D3
c
1 cycle
(a )

(b)

Fig. 4-2 Transposition of transmission lines.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

60

Distributed Parameters
line
line

C
neutral (zeroimpedance)

Fig. 4-3 Distributed parameter representation on a per-phase basis.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

61

Calculation of
Transmission Line
Resistance: Skin Effect
J
T

D
(a )

surface

( b)

towards center

Fig. 4-4 (a) Cross-section of ACSR conductors, (b) skin-effect in a solid conductor.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

62

Calculation of
Transmission Line
Inductance
c

ic

a
ia

b
r

ib

ia

dx

D
a

D
(a )

ib

(b)

dx

(c)

Fig. 4-5 Flux linkage with conductor-a.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

63

Electric Field Due to

Transmission Line Voltage
x

x1

q
x2
Fig. 4-6 Electric field due to a charge.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

64

Calculation of Transmission Line

Capacitance
c

qc
C
qa

qb

hypothetical
neutral
C

b
D
(a )

a
( b)

Fig. 4-7 Shunt capacitances.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

65

Typical Parameters for various

Voltage Transmission Lines
Table 4-1
Transmission Line Parameters with Bundled Conductors (except at 230 kV)
at 60 Hz [2, 6]
Nominal Voltage

R ( / km )

L ( / km )

C ( / km )

230 kV

0.055

0.489

3.373

345 kV

0.037

0.376

4.518

500 kV

0.029

0.326

5.220

765 kV

0.013

0.339

4.988

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

66

Calculating Transmission
Line Parameters using
EMTDC

Fig. 4-8 A 345-kV, single-conductor per phase, transmission system.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

67

Distributed-Parameter
Representation
I S ( s)
+

I x ( s)
+

VS ( s )

Vx ( s )

R
1
sC

sL

I R (s)
+
VR ( s )

Fig. 4-9 Distributed per-phase transmission line ( G not shown).

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

68

Voltage Profile under

SIL
+

j L

IS

1
j
C

VS

(a )

+
Zc

IR

V R = V R 0

VS

VR

( b)

Fig. 4-10 Per-phase transmission line terminated with a resistance equal to Z c .

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

69

Typical Surge Impedances and SIL

for various Voltage Transmission
Lines
Table 4-2
Surge Impedance and Three-Phase Surge Impedance Loading [2, 6]
Nominal Voltage

Z c ()

SIL ( MW )

230 kV

375

140 MW

345 kV

280

425 MW

500 kV

250

1000 MW

765 kV

255

2300 MW

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

70

Loadability of
Transmission Lines
Table 4-3
Loadability of Transmission Lines [6]
Line Length (km)

Limiting Factor

Multiple of SIL

0 - 80

Thermal

>3

80 - 240

5% Voltage Drop

1.5 - 3

240 - 480

Stability

1.0 1.5

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

71

Long-Line
Representation
I S ( s)

Z series

+
VS ( s )

I R (s)
+

Yshunt
2

Yshunt
2

VR ( s )

Fig. 4-11 Long line representation.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

72

Transmission Line
Representations
Z series

IS
+

VS

IR

+
Yshunt
2

Yshunt
2

IS

VR

VS

(a )

j Lline

Rline
j
j

2
Cline
( b)

2
Cline

IR

IS

j Lline

Rline

IR
+

VR

VS

VR

(c )

Fig. 4-12 Per-phase transmission line representation based on length.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

73

Underground Cables

Fig. 4-13 Underground cable.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

74

CHAPTER 5

POWER FLOW IN
POWER SYSTEM
NETWORKS

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

75

Three-Bus Example Power

System
Bus 1

Bus 3

200km

150km

150km

Slack Bus

P + jQ
PQ Bus

Bus 2

PV Bus

Fig. 5-1 A three-bus 345-kV example system.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

76

Transmission Lines in
Example Power System
Table 5-1 Per-Unit Values in the Example System
Total Susceptance B in

Line

Series Impedance Z in (pu)

1-2

Z12 = (5.55 + j56.4) = (0.0047 + j 0.0474) pu

BTotal = 675

= (0.8034) pu

1-3

Z13 = (7.40 + j 75.2) = (0.0062 + j 0.0632) pu

BTotal = 900

= (1.0712) pu

2-3

Z 23 = (5.55 + j56.4) = (0.0047 + j 0.0474) pu

BTotal = 675

= (0.8034) pu

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

(pu)

77

Calculating Y-Bus in the

Example Power System
Bus 1

Bus 3

Z13

V3

V1

Z12

Z 23

I1

I3
Bus 2

V2

I2

Fig. 5-2 Example system of Fig. 5-1 for assembling Y-bus matrix.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

78

Newton-Raphson
Procedure
4 x2
4
2

0
2

x (2)
0.5

1.0

1.5

x (1)

x (0)
3.0

3.5

4.0

4
6
8

10
12

Fig. 5-3 Plot of 4 x 2 as a function of x .

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

79

Power Flow Results in the

Example Power System
V1 = 100 pu

V3 = 0.978-8.79 0 pu

( 2.39 + j 0.29 ) pu
( 0.69 - j1.11) pu

( 5.0 +

P1 + jQ1 = (3.08 - j 0.82) pu

V2 = 1.05-2.07 0 pu

( 2.68 +

j1.0 ) pu

j1.48) pu

P2 + jQ2 = ( 2.0

+ j 2.67) pu

Fig. 5-4 Power-Flow results of Example 5-4.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

80

CHAPTER 6

TRANSFORMERS IN POWER
SYSTEMS

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

81

Transformer Principle:
Generation of Flux
m
+
e1

im

N1
e1

Lm

(a)

(b)

Fig. 6-1 Principle of transformers, beginning with just one coil.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

82

Core in Transformers
Bm

Bm

Bsat

m
o
Hm

(a)

Hm

(b)

Fig. 6-2 B-H characteristics of ferromagnetic materials.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

83

Flux Coupling
m
+

+
e1

N1

e1
N2

e2

im

Lm

e2

(a)

N1
N2

 

Ideal
Transformer

(b)

Fig. 6-3 Transformer with the open-circuited second coil.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

84

Transformer with Load

Connected to the
Secondary
+
e1

i1 (t )

+
N1

i2 (t )

e1

N2

i2 (t )

i1 (t )

i2 (t )

im

Lm

e2

N1
N2

 

Ideal
Transformer

e2

(a)

(b)

Fig. 6-4 Transformer with load connected to the secondary winding.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

85

Transformer Model
I1

R1

I 2'

jX l1
+

+
Rhe

V1

E1

jX l 2

im
jX m

N1

Real Transformer

R2

I2

E2

V2

N2

Ideal Transformer

Fig. 6-5 Transformer equivalent circuit including leakage impedances and core losses.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

86

Eddy Current and

Hysteresis Losses
m
circulating
currents

circulating
currents
i

(a)

(b)
Fig. 6-6 Eddy currents in the transformer core.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

87

Transformer Simplified
Model
Ip
+

Zp

Is

1: n

Zs

Vp

Vs n p

ns

+
Vs

Fig. 6-7 Simplified transformer model.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

88

Transferring Leakage
Impedances from One Side
to Another
Ip
Z ps

Vp

Is

1: n

+
np

ns

Vs

(a)

Ip

1: n

Z sp

+
Vp

np

ns

Is
+
Vs

( b)

Fig. 6-8 Transferring leakage impedances across the ideal transformer of the model.
Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

89

Transformer Equivalent
Circuit in Per Unit
I (pu)

I (pu)

Z tr (pu)

V p (pu)

Vs (pu)

Fig. 6-9 Transformer equivalent circuit in per unit (pu).

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

90

Connection of Transformer
Windings

(a )

(b)

Fig. 6-10 Winding connections in a three-phase system.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

91

Including Nominal TurnsRatio Transformer in

Power Flow Studies
Bus 1

Bus 3
500 kV

345 / 500 kV

500 / 345kV

Fig. 6-11 Including nominal-voltage transformers in per-unit.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

92

Auto-Transformer
n2
I1

+
V2

V1

+
V2

I2

n2
n1

(a)

I2
+

( I1 + I 2 )
+

(V1 + V2 )
I1

V1

n1

( b)

Fig. 6-12 Auto-transformer.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

93

Phase-Shift Due to WyeDelta Transformers

n1 j 300
e : n2
3

a
VA

A
n1
C

Va

n2

VA

Va

(a )

(b)

(c)

Fig. 6-13 Phase-shift in -Y connected transformers.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

94

Phase-Shift Control by
Transformers
a
Va

Vab

Va

Vca

c
c

Vca

b
(a )

Va

Vc

Vc

Vb

Vb
(b)

Va b

Vbc

( c ) Vbc

Fig. 6-14 Transformer for phase-angle control.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

95

Three-Winding AutoTransformers
Z L ()
a
H

C
c

(a )

Z H ()

n2

n1
n3 Z T ()

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

A
T
C

( b)
Fig. 6-15 Three-winding auto-transformer.

96

General Representation of
Auto- and Phase-Shift
Transformers
I2

I1

+
V1

YA = 1/ Z A

+
V2
t

+
V2

1: t
Fig. 6-16 General representation of an auto-transformer and a phase-shifter.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

97

PU Representation of OffNominal Turns-Ratio

Transformers
I1 Y = 1/ Z
A
A

I2

I1

V1

V2

V1

1: t
(a )

YA / t

1
1 YA
t
1 1
2 YA
t
t

I2

+
V2

(b)

Fig. 6-17 Transformer with an off-nominal turns-ratio or taps in per unit; t is real.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

98

Example of Off-Nominal Turns-Ratio

Transformers
I1 j 0.1 pu

I2

I1

V1

V2

1: t

+
V1

Z s = j 0.11 pu

I2
+

Y1 = j 0.909 pu
Y2 = j 0.826 pu

(a )

V2

(b)

Fig. 6-18 Transformer of Example 6-3.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

99

CHAPTER 7

HIGH VOLTAGE DC (HVDC)

TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

100

Power (VA)

108

Thyristor

IGCT

IGBT
(a)

MOSFET

106

Thyristor

Symbols and Capabilities

of Power Semiconductor
Devices
IGCT
IGBT

104
102

MOSFET

101 102 103 104

Switching Frequency (Hz)
(b)

Fig. 7-1 Power semiconductor devices.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

101

Device current [A]

Power Semiconductor
Devices and Applications
104
Traction
103
102
101

HVDC

FACTS
Motor
Drive

Power
Supply
Automotive

Lighting
100
101

102

103

104

Device blocking voltage [V]

(a )

( b)

Figure 7-2 Power semiconductor devices: (a) ratings (source: Siemens), (b) various
applications (source: ABB).

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

102

HVDC System
HVDC Line
AC1

AC2

Fig. 7-3 HVDC system one-line diagram.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

103

HVDC Systems: VoltageLink and Current-Link

+

AC1

AC2

(a )

AC1

AC2

(b)

Fig. 7-4 HVDC systems: (a) Current-Link, and (b) Voltage-Link.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

104

HVDC Projects in North

America
2250MW
320MW

2000MW
312MW

150MW

350MW

1620MW

2138MW

370MW
500MW
200MW

200MW
1000MW

690MW
2000MW

1000MW
330MW

200MW
3100MW
100MW
200MW
1920MW

210MW

200MW
200MW

200MW
600MW

36MW

Fig. 7-5 HVDC projects, mostly current-link systems, in North America [source: ABB]
Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

105

Current-Link HVDC
System

Fig. 7-6 Block diagram of a current-link HVDC system.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

106

Thyristors
A
A
(a)

(b)
G

pn1

pn2

pn3

Fig. 7-7 Thyristors.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

107

Primitive Thyristor
Circuits
is
+

+
vs

(a )

Ls

vd

vd

Vd

( b)

is

0
iG
0

t = 0

vs

t
t

Fig. 7-8 Thyristor circuit with a resistive load and a series inductance.
Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

108

Three-Phase Thyristor
Converter
id
+

van
+
n

vbn
vcn

ia

van
+

ia

1
P

Ls

vd

4
6

+
4

(a)

Id

vd

(b)

Fig. 7-9 Three-phase Full-Bridge thyristor converter.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

109

Three-Phase Diode
Rectifier Waveforms
va

vb

vc

vP

ia

120 o

60 o

ib
vN

(a)
vd

2VLL

ic
Vdo

(b)

(c)

Fig. 7-10 Waveforms in a three-phase rectifier with Ls = 0 and = 0 .

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

110

Three-Phase Thyristor
Converter Waveforms with
zero AC-Side Inductance
v Pn

van

vcn

vbn

v Nn
ia
0

ib

6
ic

5
2

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

Fig. 7-11 Waveforms with Ls = 0 .

111

Three-Phase Inverter
Waveforms
v Nn
van

vbn

vcn

vPn
ia

0
4
ib

0
6
ic

0
2

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006Fig.

7-12 Waveforms in the inverter mode.

112

DC-Side Voltage as a
Function of Delay Angle
Vd

Vd

Rectifier
P = Vd I d = +

1800
0

90

(a )

160

Id

( b)

Inverter
P = Vd I d =

Fig. 7-13 Average dc-side voltage as a function of .

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

113

Thyristor Converter
Waveforms in the
Presence of AC-Side
Inductance
v Pn

van

vcn

vbn

Au

v Nn

u
ia
0

1
4

1
4

Fig. 7-14 Waveforms with Ls .

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

114

Power Factor Angle in

Rectifier and Inverter
Modes
Va

Va

1
1

I a1
I a1
(a )

(b)

Fig. 7-15 Power-factor angle.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

115

CU One-line Diagram

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

116

12-Pulse Waveforms
ia (Y Y )

ia (Y )

(a )

( b)

Fig. 7-17 Six-pulse and 12-pulse current and voltage waveforms [2].

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

117

HVDC System
Representation for Control
id
+

vd 1

AC 1

Rd

Ld

vd 2

AC 2

Fig. 7-18 A pole of an HVDC system.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

118

Control of HVDC
Converters
Vd 1

Inverter characteristic
with = min

Rectifier characteristic
in a current-control mode

0
I d , ref

Id

Fig. 7-19 Control of an HVDC system [3].

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

119

A Voltage-Link HVDC
System in Northeastern
U.S.

Copyright Ned
2006
Fig.Mohan
7-20 Voltage-link

HVDC transmission system [source: ABB].

120

Voltage-Link HVDC
System Block Diagram
+

AC1

P1 , Q1

P2 , Q2

AC2

Fig. 7-21 Block diagram of voltage-link HVDC system.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

121

Phasor Diagram on the AcSide of the Voltage-Link

Converter
IL

IL

+
Vd

iL

vconv

vbus

L
(a )

+ jX L I L

Vconv

Vconv

( b)

jX L I L

Vbus

Vbus

IL
(c)

Fig. 7-22 Block diagram of a voltage-link converter and the phasor diagram.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

122

Representation of VoltageLink Converter with Ideal

Transformers
a
b
c

+
Vd

ida
ia

Vd

1: d a

1: d b
(a )

1: d c

vaN
1: d a

( b)

Fig. 7-23 Synthesis of sinusoidal voltages.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

123

Synthesis of Average
Sinusoidal Voltages
da
1
0.5

da

0
vaN
Vd
0.5Vd

Va

t
0
Fig. 7-24 Sinusoidal variation of turns-ratio d a .
Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

124

Converter Output Voltages

and Voltages across the
Load
a

Vd

c
va

vb

vc

Vd
2

Vd
2

Vd
2
N
(a )

vaN

vbN

vcN

va
ac-side

0.5Vd

0
(a )

Fig. 7-25 Three-phase synthesis.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

125

Switching Power-Pole of
Voltage-Link Converters
Buck

Boost

+
ida

a
+
vaN

Vd

qa

(a)

ia

ia

Vd

+
vaN

qa

qa
(b)

Fig. 7-26 Realization of the ideal transformer functionality.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

126

Switching in Sinusoidal
Average Voltage
Waveform
Vd

vaN
0

vaN

vaN
0

vaN

Ts
(a )
Vh

f1

fs

2 fs

3 fs

( b)

Fig. 7-27 PWM to synthesize sinusoidal waveform.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

127

CHAPTER 8

Distribution System, Loads

and Power Quality

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

128

Residential Distribution
System
120V

13.8kV

120V

House1

House2

Transformer
120V

House 3

Fig. 8-1 Residential distribution system.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

129

Daily Load and LoadDuration Curves

peak

Load
(MW)

kW

12

6
AM

12
NOON
Time

6
PM

12

(a)

percentage of the time

100%

(b)

Fig. 8-2 System load.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

130

Utility Load Distribution

Lighting 19%
29%
Industrial
35%
Commercial

36%
Residential

IT
14%
HVAC 16%

(a )

Motors 51%
( b)

Fig. 8-3 Utility loads.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

131

Power Factor and Voltage

Sensitivity of Power
Systems Load
Table 8-1 Power Factor and Voltage Sensitivity of Power Systems Load
Type of Load

Power Factor

a = P / V

b = Q / V

Electric Heating
Incandescent Lighting
Fluorescent Lighting
Motor Loads
Modern PowerElectronics based
Loads

1.0
1.0
0.9
0.8 0.9
1.0

2.0
1.5
1.0
0.05 0.5
0

0
0
1.0
1.0 3.0
0

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

132

Voltage-Link System used

in Power Electronics
Based Loads
+
Vd
Utility

Load

Fig. 8-4 Voltage-link-system for modern and future power-electronics based loads.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

133

Induction Motor Per-Phase

Diagram
Rs
+

Va
(at )

I ra '

Ia

j Lls

Ema

j Llr '

I ma
j Lm

Rr '

syn
slip

Fig. 8-5 Per-phase, steady state equivalent circuit of a three-phase induction motor.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

134

Torque-Speed
Characteristics
Tem

f5

f4

f3

f2

slip syn
3

f1

Load
Torque

slip syn
1

Fig. 8-6 Torque-speed characteristic of induction motor at various applied frequencies.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

135

Switch-Mode DC Power
Supplies
input
rectifier
60Hz
ac

dc to HF ac

Vin

topology to convert
dc to dc with isolation

Output
Vo
HF transformer

Feedback
controller

Vo*

Fig. 8-7 Switch-mode dc power supply.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

136

Uninterruptible Power
Supplies (UPS)
Rectifier

Inverter

Filter

Critical
Load

Energy
Storage

Fig. 8-8 Uninterruptible power supply.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

137

Static Power-Transfer
Switch
Feeder 1

Load
Feeder 2

Fig. 8-9 Alternate feeder.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

138

CBEMA Curve Showing

Acceptable Voltage-Time
Region

Fig. 8-10 CBEMA curve.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

139

Dynamic Voltage
Restorers (DVR)

vinj

+
vs

Power Electronic
Interface

Load

Fig. 8-11 Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR).

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

140

Voltage Regulating
Transformers

Fig. 8-12 Three-Phase Voltage Regulator (Courtesy of Siemens) [5].

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

141

STATCOM
jX
Utility

STATCOM

Fig. 8-13 STATCOM [4].

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

142

Linear Load
is
+

Vs

vs

(b)

Is

(a)

Figure 8-14 Voltage and current phasors in simple R-L circuit.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

143

Waveforms Associated
with Power ElectronicsBased Load
vs

idistortion (= is is1 )

is1

is

1 /
T1

t
( b)

(a )
Figure 8-15 Current drawn by power electronics equipment without PFC.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

144

Example of Distorted
Current
is
(a)

I
t

T1
4I /

is1
(b)

idistortion
I
(c)

I
Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

Figure 8-16
Example 8-1.
Figure
5-4 Example
5-1.

145

Influence of Distortion on
Power Factor
1

0.9
0.8
0.7

PF
DPF 0.6
0.5
0.4
0

50

100

150

200

250

300

%THD

Fig. 8-17 Relation between PF/DPF and THD.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

146

IEEE Harmonic Limits

5-1 Harmoniccurrent
current distortion
(Ih/I(1I)h / I 1 )
TableTable
8-1 Harmonic
distortion
Odd Harmonic Order h (in %)

Total
Harmonic
Distortion(%)

h < 11

11 h < 17

17 h < 23

23 h < 35

35 h

< 20

4.0

2.0

15
.

0.6

0.3

5.0

20 50

7.0

3.5

2.5

10
.

0.5

8.0

50 100

10.0

4.5

4.0

15
.

0.7

12.0

100 1000

12.0

5.5

5.0

2.0

10
.

15.0

> 1000

15.0

7.0

6.0

2.5

14
.

20.0

I sc / I1

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

147

Short-Circuit Current
Zs

Zs

I sc

Vs

Vs

(a)

(b)

Figure
8-185-6
(a)(a)Utility
(b)short
Short-Circuit
Current.
Figure
UtilitySupply,
supply; (b)
circuit current.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

148

Retail Price of Electricity in

the U.S.

Fig. 8-19 Average retail price of electricity to ultimate customers [4].

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

149

CHAPTER 9

SYNCHRONOUS
GENERATORS

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

150

Application of
Synchronous Generators
Steam at High pressure

Heat in

Boiler

Turbine

Water

Gen

Penstock

Pump

Condenser
(a )

Generator

Turbine

Heat out

(b)

Fig. 9-1 Synchronous generators driven by (a) steam turbines, and (b) hydraulic turbines.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

151

Cross-section of
Synchronous Generators
Stator
Air gap

(a)

(b)

Fig. 9-2 Machine cross-section.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

152

Synchronous Generator
Structure
S
N

S
N

(a)

(b)

(c)

Fig. 9-3 Machine structure.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

153

Sinusoidally-Distributed
Windings
b axis

ib
3'

2 / 3
2 / 3

ia

2 / 3

a axis

4'

5'

1'

7'
1

ic

(a)

ia

c axis

ia

6'

2'

(b)

Fig. 9-4 Three phase windings on the stator.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

154

Three-Phase Winding
Connection in a Wye
b axis
120 o

ib

b'

ib

a axis
a 0 o
a ' ia

ic

ia

c'

ic
c

c axis
240 o

(a)

(b)

Fig. 9-5 Connection of three phase windings.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

155

Synchronous Generator
Rotor Field

syn

a-axis
S

Fig. 9-6 Field winding on the rotor that is supplied by a dc current I f .

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

156

Voltage induced in the

Stator Phase due to
Rotating Rotor Field
+

syn

a-axis

ea

Fig. 9-7 Current direction and voltage polarities; the rotor position shown induces
maximum ea .
Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

157

Representation of Induced
Stator Voltage due to
Rotor Field
G
B f (at t = 0)

syn
a-axis

syn

eaf

Im

N
Re

a-axis

(a )

Eaf

S
( b)

(c)

Fig. 9-8 Induced emf eaf due to rotating rotor field with the rotor.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

158

Armature Reaction Due to

Three Stator Currents
e
b axis

2
3

Im

ib
2 / 3

2 / 3
2 / 3

ia

e j0
a axis

Re

900

ic

Ea , AR

4
3

(a )

Ia

c axis
j

a-axis

(b )

G
B AR (at t = 0)

(c)

Fig. 9-9 Armature reaction due to phase currents.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

159

Superposition of the two

Induced Voltages and PerPhase Representation

Ea , AR

jX m I a

Ia

Im
Eaf
Ea , AR

Re
jX m I a

+
Eaf

Ea

X As

Rs

Ea

Va

Ia

(a)

(b )

Fig. 9-10 Phasor diagram and per-phase equivalent circuit.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

160

Power Out as a function of

rotor Angle
P

steady state
stability limit

Ia

jX T

generator
mode

90 o

V =V 0 o

Eaf = Eaf

90 o

(a )

motoring
mode

steady state
stability limit

(b)

Fig. 9-11 Power output and synchronism.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

161

Steady State Stability

Limit
Pe

Pe

Pe,max
Pe2
Pe1
0 1 2

Pm2
Pm1
90 o
(a )

90 o
(b)

Fig. 9-12 Steady state stability limit.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

162

Reactive Power Control by

Field Excitation
Eaf

Eaf
jX s I a

jX s I a

Ia

Va

I aq

(a )

Eaf

Va

I aq

90 o

jX s I a

Ia
Va

Ia

90 o
( b)

(c)

Fig. 9-13 Excitation control to supply reactive power.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

163

Synchronous
Condenser

Synchronous
Condenser

Fig. 9-14 Synchronous Condenser.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

164

Automatic Voltage
Regulation (AVR)
phase-controlled
rectifier
field winding
ac input

Generator

output

slip rings

ac regulator

Fig. 9-15 Field exciter for automatic voltage regulation (AVR).

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

165

Armature Reaction Flux in

Steady State Leading to
Synchronous Reactance

Fig. 9-16 Armature reaction flux in steady state.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

166

Simulation of a ShortCircuit Assuming a

Constant-Flux Model

(a )

( b)

Fig. 9-17 Armature (a) and field current (b), after a sudden short circuit [source: 4].

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

167

Representation for Steady State,

Transient Stability and Fault
Analysis
Ia

Eaf

Eaf'

Im

Eaf''

jX s I a
jX s' I a

jX s'' I a

Eaf
Eaf'

Re

Ea

jX s I a
jX s' I a
jX s'' I a

Ea

Eaf''

(a )

Ia

(b)

Fig. 9-18 Synchronous generator modeling for transient and sub-transient conditions.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

168

CHAPTER 10

VOLTAGE REGULATION
AND STABILITY IN
POWER SYSTEMS

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

169

A Radial System
VS PS + jQS

PS + jQS

PR + jQR VR

jX L

Load
(a)

PR + jQR

jX L

VS

VR

(b)

Fig. 10-1 A radial system.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

170

Voltages and Current

Phasors with Both-Side
Voltages at 1 PU
VS

/2

PS + jQS
jX L I

jX L

VS

VR

PR

QR

VR
(a)
(b)
Fig. 10-2 Phasor diagram and the equivalent circuit with VS = VR = 1pu .

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

171

Voltage Profile for Three

Values of SIL
+

VS

Vx

VR

VS
(1pu)

PR < SIL
PR > SIL

VR
(1pu)

(a)

Vx

(b)

Fig. 10-3 Voltage profile along the transmission line.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

172

Nose Curves at Three

Power Factors as a
function of Loading
VS

VR
VS

VR

1.4

1.2

jX L

0.6

(a )

PF = 1

0.8

PR + jQR

PF = 0.9
(lagging)

PF = 0.9
(leading)

0.4

0.2

0
0

0.5

1.5

( b)

2.5

3.5

PR / SIL

Fig. 10-4 Voltage collapse in a radial system (example of 345-kV line, 200 km long).

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

173

Synchronous Generator
Reactive Power Supply
Capability
Q
B

A
0

Fig. 10-5 Reactive power supply capability of synchronous generators.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

174

Effect of Current Power

Factor on Bus Voltage
I
+
+

jX Th I
jX Th

I
+
VTh
Vbus

VTh

jX Th I
Vbus

Vbus

jX Th I

VTh

(a)
(b)
I

Fig. 10-6 Effect of leading and lagging currents due to the shunt compensating device.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

175

Static Var
Compensators (SVC)
Vbus

Vbus
1
jC

IC

IC
(a )

0
( b)

Fig. 10-7 V-I characteristic of SVC.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

176

Thyristor Controlled
Reactors (TCR)
Vbus
Vbus

vbus
IL

iL
iL
900
> 900

0
(a )

( b)

(c )

IL

Fig. 10-8 Thyristor-Controlled Reactor (TCR).

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

177

Voltage Control by SVC

and TCR Combination
Vbus

Vbus

1
jC

IL

IC

Vbus

A
B

V2

Linear
Range

capacitive

(a )

V1

inductive

( b)

capacitive

V2
V1

inductive

(c)

Fig. 10-9 Parallel combination of SVC and TCR.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

178

STATCOM
I conv
I conv

Vbus

Vconv

jXI conv

+
+

jXI conv

Vd

+
Vconv

Vbus

(a )

( b)

Fig. 10-10 STATCOM.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

179

STATCOM V-I
Characteristic
Vbus
Linear
Range

capacitive

inductive I

conv

Fig. 10-11 STATCOM VI characteristic.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

180

Thyristor-Controlled
Series Capacitor (TCSC)

(a )

(b)

(c)

Fig. 10-12 Thyristor-Controlled Series Capacitors (TCSC) [source: Siemens Corp.].

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

181

CHAPTER 11

TRANSIENT AND
DYNAMIC STABILITY OF
POWER SYSTEMS

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

182

One-Machine Infinite-Bus
System
V1

XL

VB = VB 0

j ( X d' + X tr )

E
Pm

Pe

XL
(a )

+
V1

jX L / 2

+
VB 0

( b)

Fig. 11-1 Simple one-generator system connected to an infinite bus.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

183

Power-Angle
Characteristic in OneMachine Infinite-Bus
System
Pre-fault
post-fault

Pe

Bus 1

XL

VB = VB 0

Pm
during-fault
0

0 1

(a )

Pm

XL

Pe
(b)

Fig. 11-2 Power-angle characteristics.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

184

Rotor-Angle Swing
Following a Fault and a
Line Taken Out
5 5
5 0
4 5
4 0
3 5
3 0
2 5
2 0

0 .2

0 .4

0 .6

0 .8

1 .2

1 .4

Fig. 11-3 Rotor-angle swing in Example 11-1.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

185

Power-Angle
Characteristics
Pe

Bus 1

XL

Pre-fault

VB = VB 0

post-fault
B

Pe = Pm
A

Pm

during fault

XL

Pe

(a )

cA

(b)

max

Fig. 11-4 Fault on one of the transmission lines.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

186

Rotor Oscillations After

the Fault is Cleared
Pe
Pre-fault
post-fault

Pe = Pm
D

Fig. 11-5 Rotor oscillations after the fault is cleared.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

187

Critical Clearing Angle

using Equal-Area Criterion
Pe
Pre-fault
post-fault
B

Pe = Pm

0 1

crit

max

Fig. 11-6 Critical clearing angle.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

188

Example using Equal-Area

Criterion
Pe ( pu ) 40
35

Pre-fault

30
25
20

Pe = Pm 15
A

10

during fault

5
0
0

post-fault

20

40

0 = 22.470

60

cA =80750

100

1400
m 120
= 115.28

160

180

Fig. 11-7 Power angle curves and equal-area criterion in Example 11-2.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

189

Transient Stability
Calculations in Large
Networks
Initial Power Flow
Calculate Pe and E '
for each generator
for k = 1,2,3....
Pm , k = Pe, k
Pm , k and Ek' held constant
Electro-dynamic
differential
Equations

k and k
Pe , k

Phasor Calculations
using Ek' k
(load may be assumed
as a constant impedance)

Fig. 11-8 Block diagram of transient stability program for an n-generator case.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

190

Example Power System for

Transient Stability
Analysis
Bus-1

Pm1

Bus-3

Pe1
Bus-2
Pe 2
Pm 2

Fig. 11-9 A 345-kV test example system.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

191

Rotor Angle Swings in the

Example Power System
Following a Fault
8 0 0
7 0 0
6 0 0
5 0 0
4 0 0
3 0 0

2 0 0
1 0 0
0

0 .2

0 .4

2
0 .6

0 . 8

1 .2

1 .4

1 .6

Fig. 11-10 Rotor-angle swings of 1 and 2 in Example 11-3.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

192

Importance of Dynamic
Stability

Fig. 11-11 Growing Power Oscillations: Western USA/Canada system, Aug 10, 1996 [4].

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

193

CHAPTER 12

CONTROL OF
INTERCONNECTED
POWER SYSTEM AND
ECONOMIC DISPATCH

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

194

Automatic Voltage
Regulation (AVR)
phase-controlled
rectifier
field winding
ac input

Generator

output

slip rings

ac regulator

Fig. 12-1 Field exciter for automatic voltage regulation (AVR).

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

195

Control Areas (Balancing

Authorities)

(a )

( b)

Fig. 12-2 (a) The Interconnections in North America, (b) Control Areas [Source: 2]

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

196

Load-Frequency Control
and Regulation
Frequency
G

f
1
R

Supplementary
Control

Regulator
Turbine
Governor

f0
Steam-Valve
Position

a
f

b
slope = R

Turbine

Pm
Pm
(a )

Pe

PLoad

(b)

Pm

Pm

Fig. 12-3 Load-Frequency Control (ignore the supplementary control at present).

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

197

Load Sharing
unit 2

Pm 2

G
G1 unit1 1

f0

Pe 2

unit 2
G2

e
c

( Pm1 + Pm 2 ) G1

unit 1

G1

G2

Pm 2
Pm1

Pm1

Pe1
(a )

PLoad

Pm 2

Pm1

Pm

(b)

Fig. 12-4 Response of two generators to load-frequency control.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

198

Synchronizing Torque
between Two Control
Areas
Area 1

P12

P21
jX 12

Area 2

Fig. 12-5 Two control areas.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

199

Automatic Generation
Control (AGC) and Area
Control Error (ACE)
f (frequency deviation)
1
R

B
Supplementary
Controller

+
+

ACE
(Area Control Error)

k
s

Governor

Change in Steam Valve Position

P (tie-line flow deviation)

Fig. 12-6 Area Control Error (ACE) for Automatic Generation Control (AGC).

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

200

Two Control Areas in the

Example Power System
Bus-1

Bus-3

P13
M

Pm1

Area 1
Pe1
P1 2

Area 2

Load

Bus-2
Pe 2
Pm 2

Fig. 12-7 Two control areas in the example power system with 3 buses.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

201

Power Flow on Tie-Lines

between Two Control
Areas Following a Load
Change

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

202

Electrical Equivalent of
Two Areas
E11

jX 1

jX 12

jX 2

+
E2 2

Fig. 12-9 Electrical equivalent of two area interconnection.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

203

Modeling of Two Control

Areas with AGC
1/ syn
1
R1

B1

+
ACE1

1
K1
s Ts1s + 1
Regulator

PLoad 1

Ps1

1
TG1s + 1

1
TS 1s + 1

Pv1

Governor

Steam Turbine

+
Pm1

P12 = T12 ( 1 2 )

syn

s1

M 1s + D1
Area 1

T12

1
( 1 2 )

1
s

ACE 2

K2
1
s Ts 2 s + 1

Ps 2

Regulator
1
R2

B2

1
TG 2 s + 1
Governor

Pv 2

1
TS 2 s + 1
Steam Turbine

Pm 2

1
s

syn
M 2 s + D2

s 2

Area 2

PLoad 2
1/ syn

Fig. 12-10 Two-area system with AGC. Source: adapted from [6].

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

204

Results of Simulink
Modeling Following a Step
Load Change in Control
Area 1
1.5

Pm1
0.5

Pm 2

-0.5

P12
-1
0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

8000

9000

10000

Fig. 12-11 Simulink results of the two-area system with AGC in Example 12-3.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

205

Economic Dispatch: Heat

Rate of a Power Plant
Heat Rate
11.0

At this point, to produce 40 MW

Fuel Consumption = 400 MBTU-per-Hour

MBTU-per-Hour
10.0
MW
9.0
0

20

40

60

80

100 P [ MW ]

Fig. 12-12 Heat Rate at various generated power levels.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

206

Cost Curve and Marginal

Cost of a Power Plant
Ci ( Pi )

Ci ( Pi )
Pi

[$ / hour ]

[$ / MWh ]
Pi
0

Ci

(a )

Pi [ MW ]

0
( b)

Pi [ MW ]

Fig. 12-13 (a) Fuel cost and (b) Marginal cost, as functions of the power output.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

207

Load Sharing between

Three Power Plants
C1 ( P )
P

C2 ( P )
P

P1

C3 ( P )
P

P2

P3

Fig. 12-14 Marginal costs for the three generators.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

208

CHAPTER 13

TRANSMISSION LINE
FAULTS, RELAYING AND
CIRCUIT BREAKERS

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

209

Fault (Symmetric or
Unsymmetric) on a
Balanced Network
a

a
ia

ib

b
Ia

Ib

ic
g

(a )

Ic
g

( b)

Fig. 13-1 Fault in power system.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

210

Symmetrical
Components
Ia
Ic

I c0 I

I c1

I a1

Ia2

I b2

b0

Ia0

Ib
Ic2
I b1
Fig. 13-2 Sequence components.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

211

Sequence Networks: PerPhase Representation of a

Balanced Three-phase
representation
Z1
+
Ea1

Z2
+ I a1
Va1

Z0
+ Ia2
Va 2

+ Ia0
Va 0

Fig. 13-3 Sequence networks.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

212

Three-Phase Symmetrical
Fault (ground may or may
no be involved)
f

Z1

b
Ia

Ib

Ic
g

+
Va1 = 0

+
Ea 1

I a1

(b)

(a )

Fig. 13-4 Three-phase symmetrical fault.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

213

Single-Line to Ground
(SLF) Fault through a Fault
Impedance
+
f

Ea1

I a1

Z1

Va1

Ia2

Z2

Ia

3Z f

Va 2

Ia0

Zf

Z0

Va 0

(a )
( b)

Fig. 13-5 Single line to ground fault.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

214

Double-Line to Ground
Fault
a
b
c
g

I a1

+
Ic

Ib
(a )

Ea1

Z1

+
Va1

Ia2

Z2

+
Va 2

Ia0

Z0

+
Va 0

( b)

Fig. 13-6 Double line to ground fault.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

215

Double-Line Fault (ground

not involved)
+ Z f I a1

a
b
c
g

I a1
Ib
Ic
(a )

+
Ea1

Z1

Ia2

+
Va1

Z2

+
Va 2

(b)

Fig. 13-7 Double line fault (ground not involved).

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

216

Path for Zero-Sequence

Currents
(a)

( b)

(c)

Fig. 13-8 Path for zero-sequence currents in transformers.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

217

Neutral Grounded through

an Neutral Impedance)
Ia0

Z0
Zn
(a )

3Z n

+
Va 0

( b)

Fig. 13-9 Neutral grounded through an impedance.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

218

One-Line Diagram of a
Simple System)
V1 = 1.00 pu

Bus-2

V3 = 0.98 11.790 pu

X Line1 = 0.10 pu
1 = 0.12 pu
X gen
X gen 2 = 0.12 pu
X gen 0 = 0.06 pu

Bus-1
X tr1 = 0.10 pu

X Line 2 = 0.10 pu
X Line 0 = 0.20 pu

Bus-3

PLoad = 1 pu
QLoad = 0

X tr 2 = 0.10 pu
X tr 0 = 0.10 pu

Fig. 13-10 (a) One-line diagram of a simple power system and bus voltages.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

219

Thee-phase Fault on Bus-2

in the Simple System
j 0.12 pu

j 0.10 pu

I Load

I fault
V1 = 1.00 pu

j 0.10 pu

RLoad = 0.9604 pu

Fig. 13-11 Positive-sequence circuit for calculating a 3-phase fault on bus-2.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

220

Single-Line to Ground
(SLG) Fault in the Simple
System
I a / 3 ( = I fault / 3)

I a1
+
E

j 0.12 pu

+ j 0.10 pu +

V1 = 1.00 pu

Va1

j 0.10 pu
RLoad = 0.9604 pu

Ia2
j 0.12 pu

j 0.10 pu

Va 2

j 0.10 pu
RLoad = 0.9604 pu

Va = 0

Ia0
j 0.06 pu

j 0.10 pu

+
Va 0

j 0.20 pu
RLoad = 0.9604 pu

Fig. 13-12 Sequence networks for calculating fault current due to SLG fault on bus-2.
Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

221

An SLG Fault in the

Example 3-Bus System
Bus-1

Pm1

Bus-3

Pe1
Bus-2

Pe 2
Pm 2

Fig. 13-13 A SLG fault in the example 3-bus power system.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

222

Protection in Power
System
CT

PT

CB

Fig. 13-14 Protection equipment.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

223

Current Transformers
(CT)
CT

Burden

(b)
(a)

Fig. 13-15 Current Transformer (CT) [5].

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

224

Capacitor-Coupled Voltage
Transformers (CCVT)

(a)

(b)

Fig. 13-16 Capacitor-Coupled Voltage Transformer (CCVT) [5].

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

225

Differential Relays
CT
CT
CT

Relay

Fig. 13-17 Differential relay.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

226

Directional Over-Current
Relays
CT

PT

CB

Fig. 13-18 Directional over-current Relay.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

227

Ground Directional OverCurrent Relays for Ground

Faults
Time
instantaneous

Fig. 13-19 Ground directional over-current Relay.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

228

Impedance (Distance)
Relays
X

Fig. 13-20 Impedance (distance) relay.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

229

Microwave Terminal for

Pilot Relays

Fig. 13-21 Microwave terminal [5].

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

230

Zones of Protection
Zone 3: 1-1.5 sec
Time

Zone 2: 20-25 cycles

Zone 1: instantaneous

Fig. 13-22 Zones of protection.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

231

Protection of Generator
and its Step-up
Transformer
Transformer

Relay

CT

Gen

Relay

F1 CT

F2

CT

Relay

Fig. 13-23 Protection of generator and the step-up transformer.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

232

Relaying in the 3-Bus

Example Power System
Zone 2
Zone1
A

B
Zone 2
P + jQ

Fig. 13-24 Relying in the example 3-bus power system.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

233

Circuit Breakers

Fig. 13-25 SF6 circuit breaker [5].

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

234

Illustration of Current
Offset in R-L Circuits
2

R
+
vs ( t )

offset

i (t )

v (t )

asymmetric
symmetric

1 .5

0 .5

00
- 0 .5

-1

0 .05

(a )

0.1

0 .15

0 .2

(b)

Fig. 13-26 Current in an RL circuit.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

235

CHAPTER 14

TRANSIENT OVER-VOLTAGES,
SURGE PROTECTION AND
INSULATION COORDINATION

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

236

Lightning Current
Impulse
i

I peak

0.5I peak

t1

t2

t[ s ]

Fig. 14-1 Lightening current impulse.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

237

Lightening Strike to Shield

Wire and Backflash

(a )

(b)

Fig. 14-2 Lightening strike to the shield wire.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

238

Switching Surges
va
vb

L
L

A
B
500 kV Line
100 miles

vc

(open)

L
C
(a )
( b)

Fig. 14-3 Over-voltages due to switching of transmission lines.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

239

Frequency Dependence of
Transmission Line
Parameters

Fig. 14-4 Frequency dependence of the transmission line parameters [Source: 2].

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

240

Calculation of Switching
Over-Voltages on Line 1-3
in the Example 3-Bus
Power System
Bus-1

Bus-3

Fig. 14-5 Calculation of switching over-voltages on a transmission line.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

241

Standard Voltage Impulse

to Define Basic Insulation
Level (BIL)
i

V pea k

0.5 V pe ak

0 1 .2 s

40 s

Fig. 14-6 Standard Voltage Impulse Wave to define BIL.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

242

Transformer Insulation
Protected by a ZnO
Arrester
1500

chopped
wave

Transformer Insulation
Withstand Capability Curve
BIL
1175kV

1300
Line-to-ground
(Peak kV) 1100

BSL
Arrester Voltage, subjected to a
8 20 s Lightning Current Impulse
with a peak of 20 kA

900
700
1

10

100
time in s

1000

10000

Fig. 14-7 A 345-kV transformer voltage insulation levels.

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006

243