Limits and Continuity

Definition
Evaluation of Limits
Continuity
Limits Involving Infinity

Limit
We say that the limit of f ( x) as x approaches a is L and write
lim f ( x) L
x a

if the values of f ( x) approach L as x approaches a.

y f ( x)

L
a

Limits, Graphs, and Calculators

x 1
1. a) Use table of values to guess the value of lim 2
x 1 x 1

x 1
b) Use your calculator to draw the graph f ( x) 2
x 1

and confirm your guess in a)

Graph 1

2. Find the following limits

sin x
a) lim
by considering the values

x 0
x

x 1, 0.5, 0.1, 0.05, 0.001. Thus the limit is 1.

sin x
Confirm this by ploting the graph of f ( x)
x

Graph 2

 x by considering the values

b) lim sin
x 0

(i) x 1, 1 , 1
, 1
10
100
1000

(ii) x 1, 2 , 2
, 2
3
103
1003
This shows the limit does not exist.

Confrim this by ploting the graph of f ( x) sin

Graph 3

c) Find

3x if x 2
lim f ( x) where f ( x)
x 2
1 if x 2
lim f ( x) = lim 3 x

x 2

3 lim x
x 2

3(2) 6

Note: f (-2) = 1
is not involved

x 2

-2

3)

Use your calculator to evaluate the limits

a.

4( x 2 4)
lim

x 2
x

b.

1, if x 0 Answer : no limit
lim g ( x), where g ( x)
x 0
1, if x 0

c.

1
lim f ( x), where f ( x) 2
x 0
x

d.

lim
x 0

1 x 1

Answer : 16

Answer : no limit
Answer : 1/2

The - Definition of Limit

We say lim f ( x) L if and only if
xa

given a positive number , there exists a positive such that

if 0 | x a | , then | f ( x) L | .
L

L
y f ( x)

L
a
a

This means that if we are given a

small interval ( L , L ) centered at L,
then we can find a (small) interval ( a , a )

such that for all x a in ( a , a ),

f ( x) is in ( L , L ).

Examples

1. Show that lim(3 x 4) 10.

x2

Let 0 be given. We need to find a 0 such that

if | x - 2 | , then | (3 x 4) 10 | .

But | (3 x 4) 10 || 3 x 6 | 3 | x 2 |

if | x 2 |
3

So we choose
.
3

1
2. Show that lim 1.
x 1 x

Let 0 be given. We need to find a 0 such that

if | x 1| , then | 1 1| .
x

x 1 1
1
But |
1||
| | x 1| .
x
x
x

What do we do with the

x?

1
If we decide | x 1| , then 1 x 3 .
2
2
2

1
And so <2.
x

1
1
Thus |
1| | x 1| 2 | x 1| .
x
x

1
Now we choose min , .
3 2

1/2 1 3/2

One-Sided Limit
One-Sided Limits
The right-hand limit of f (x), as x approaches a,
equals L
written: lim f ( x) L
x a

if we can make the value f (x) arbitrarily close

to L by taking x to be sufficiently close to the
right of a.
y f ( x)

L
a

The left-hand limit of f (x), as x approaches a,

equals M
written:

lim f ( x) M

xa

if we can make the value f (x) arbitrarily close

to L by taking x to be sufficiently close to the
left of a.
y f ( x)

M
a

Examples

Examples of One-Sided Limit

1. Given

f ( x)

x 2 if x 3
2x if x 3

Find lim f ( x)
x 3

lim f ( x) lim 2 x 6

x 3

x 3

Find lim f ( x)
x 3

lim f ( x) lim x 2 9

x 3

x 3

More Examples
x 1, if x 0
2. Let f ( x)
x 1, if x 0.

a)

b)

Find the limits:

lim f ( x) lim ( x 1)

x 0

x 0

0 1 1

lim f ( x) lim ( x 1) 0 1 1

x 0

x 0

x 1) 1 1 2
c) lim f ( x) lim(

x 1

d) lim f ( x)
x 1

x 1

lim(
x 1)

x 1

11 2

A Theorem
lim f ( x) L if and only if lim f ( x) L and lim f ( x) L.
xa

x a

xa

This theorem is used to show a limit does not

exist.
For the function

x 1, if x 0
f ( x)
x 1, if x 0.

lim f ( x) does not exist because lim f ( x) 1 and lim f ( x ) 1.

x 0

x 0

x 0

But
lim f ( x) 2 because lim f ( x) 2 and lim f ( x) 2.
x 1

x 1

x 1

Limit Theorems
If c is any number, lim f ( x) L and lim g ( x) M , then
xa

a)

c)

e)

g)
i)

x a

b) lim f ( x) g ( x) L M

lim f ( x) g ( x) L M

xa

xa

lim f ( x) g ( x) L M

xa

xa

lim c f ( x) c L
x a

lim c c
x a

lim x n a n
xa

lim f ( x )

d)

f)

h)
j)

L , ( M 0)

g ( x)
M

lim f ( x) Ln
n

x a

lim x a
x a

lim
xa

f ( x) L , ( L 0)

Examples Using Limit Rule

Ex. lim x 1 lim x lim1
2

x 3

x 3

lim x
x 3

x 3

lim1
x 3

32 1 10
lim 2 x 1
2 lim x lim1
2x 1
x 1
x 1
x 1
Ex. lim

x 1 3 x 5
lim 3 x 5
3lim x lim 5
x 1

x 1

x 1

2 1 1

35 8

More Examples
1. Suppose lim f ( x) 4 and lim g ( x) 2. Find
x 3

x 3

f ( x) lim g ( x)
a) lim f ( x) g ( x) lim
x 3
x 3
x 3

4 (2) 2

b) lim f ( x) g ( x) lim f ( x) lim g ( x)

x 3
x 3

4 (2) 6

x 3

lim 2 f ( x) lim g ( x)
2 f ( x) g ( x)
x 3
x 3
c) lim

x 3
lim f ( x) lim g ( x)
f ( x) g ( x)
x 3
x 3

2 4 ( 2) 5

4 ( 2)
4

Indeterminate Forms
Indeterminate forms occur when substitution in the limit
results in 0/0. In such cases either factor or rationalize the
expressions.
Ex.

x5
Notice
lim 2
x 5 x 25
x5
lim
x 5 x 5 x 5
1
1
lim

x 5 x 5
10

0
form
0

Factor and cancel

common factors

More Examples
a)

lim
x 9

x 3

x9

( x 3)( x 3)
lim

x 9
(
x

9)
(
x

3)

x 9

lim
lim

x 9
x 9 ( x 9)( x 3)

b)

4 x2
(2 x)(2 x)
lim
= lim

x 2 2 x 2 x 3
2
x 2

x
(2

x
)

2 x
= lim
2
x 2
x

2 (2) 4

1
2
(2)
4

1
1

6
x 3

The Squeezing Theorem

If f ( x) g ( x) h( x) when x is near a, and if
g ( x) L
lim f ( x) lim h( x) L, then lim
x a
xa

x a

Example: Show that lim x 2 sin 0.

x
x 0
Note that we cannot use product rule because lim sin
x 0

But 1 sin

x DNE!

1 and so x 2 x 2 sin x 2 .
x
x

Since lim x 2 lim( x 2 ) 0, we use the Squeezing Theorem to conclude

x 0

x 0

x 0.

lim x 2 sin
x 0

See Graph

Continuity
A function f is continuous at the point x = a if
the following are true:

i ) f (a ) is defined
ii ) lim f ( x) exists
x a

f(a)
a

A function f is continuous at the point x = a if

the following are true:

i ) f (a ) is defined
ii ) lim f ( x) exists
x a

iii ) lim f ( x) f (a)

xa

f(a)
a

Examples

At which value(s) of x is the given function

discontinuous?
2
x 9
1. f ( x) x 2
2.
g ( x)
x3
Continuous everywhere

Continuous everywhere
except at x 3

lim( x 2) a 2
xa

and so lim f ( x) f (a)

x a

g (3) is undefined
4

-6

-4

-2

-2

2
-4

-4

-2

2
-2

-6

-8

-10

 1, if x 0
4. F ( x)
1, if x 0

x 2, if x 1
3. h( x)
1, if x 1
lim h( x ) 1

x 1

and lim h( x)
x 1

lim F ( x) 1 and lim F ( x) 1

x 0
x 0

Thus h is not cont. at x=1.

h is continuous everywhere else

Thus F is not cont. at x 0.

F is continuous everywhere else

3
2

-10
-2

-5

5
-1

-1
-2
-3

-2

-3

10

Continuous Functions
If f and g are continuous at x = a, then

f g , fg , and f

g (a) 0

are continuous

at x a
A polynomial function y = P(x) is continuous at
every point x.
A rational function R( x) p( x) q( x) is continuous
at every point x in its domain.

Intermediate Value Theorem

If f is a continuous function on a closed interval [a, b]
and L is any number between f (a) and f (b), then there
is at least one number c in [a, b] such that f(c) = L.
y f ( x)

f (b)
f (c) = L
f (a)
a c

Example
2

Given f ( x) 3 x 2 x 5,
Show that f ( x) 0 has a solution on 1, 2 .

f (1) 4 0
f (2) 3 0
f (x) is continuous (polynomial) and since f (1) < 0
and f (2) > 0, by the Intermediate Value Theorem
there exists a c on [1, 2] such that f (c) = 0.

Limits at Infinity
1
1
For all n > 0, lim n lim n 0
x x
x x
1
provided that n is defined.
x

5 1
3

2
3x 5 x 1
x
x
lim
Ex. xlim
2
2 4

x
2 4x
x2
2

x lim 1 x

lim 3 lim 5

x lim 4

lim 2

Divide
2
by x

3 0 0
3

04
4

More Examples

2 x3 3x 2 2
1. lim 3

2
x
x

100
x

2 x3 3x 2 2
3 3
3
x
x
x
x 3 x 2 100 x 1
3 3 3
3
x
x
x
x

lim
x

lim
x

3 2
2 3
x x
1 100 1
1 2 3
x x
x

2
2
1

2.

4 x 5 x 21
lim

x 7 x 3 5 x 2 10 x 1

4 x 2 5 x 21
3 3
3
x
x
x

7 x3 5 x 2 10 x 1
3 3 3
3
x
x
x
x

lim
x

lim
x

7
0

4 5
21
2 3
x x
x
5 10 1
7 2 3
x x
x

3.

x 2 2 x 4
lim

x
12
x

31

x 2 2 x 4

x x
lim x
x
12 x 31

x
x

4
x 2 x
lim

x
31
12
x

12

4.

lim

lim
x

x 1 x
2

x2 1 x

x 1 x

x 2 1 x

x2 1 x2

lim
x

x 1 x

lim
x

x 1 x
1
1

0

2

Infinite Limits
20

For all n > 0,

lim

x a

15
10

x a

-8

-6

-4

-2

2
-5
-10
-15
-20

40

lim

x a

x a

30

if n is even

20
10

-2

-10
-20

lim

x a

x a

20

if n is odd

15
10
5
-8

-6

-4

-2

2
-5

More Graphs

-10
-15

Examples
Find the limits
3 x 2 2 x 1
1. lim

2
x 0
2x

2.

3 2 1 2
x
x
= lim

x 0
2

2 x 1
2x 1
lim
= lim

x 3 2 x 6
x 3 2( x 3)
40

20

-8

-6

-4

-2

2
-20

Limit and Trig Functions

From the graph of trigs functions

f ( x) sin x and g ( x) cos x

1

0.5

0.5

-10

-5

10

-10

-0.5

-5

10

-0.5

-1

-1

we conclude that they are continuous everywhere

lim sin x sin c and lim cos x cos c

x c

x c

Tangent and Secant

Tangent and secant are continuous everywhere in their
domain, which is the set of all real numbers
x

, 3

, 5

, 7

y sec x

,L
15

30

y tan x

10
20

5
10

-6
-6

-4

-2

-4

-2

2
-5

-10

-10
-20

-15
-30

a) lim sec x

c)

lim

x 3

Examples
b) xlim

tan x

e) lim cot x
x

d)

sec x

lim

x 3

tan x

f) lim tan x 1
x

cos x 0
0
g) lim cot x x lim
3 sin x
1

x 3
2
2

Limit and Exponential Functions

y a , a 1
x

10
10

2
-6

-4

-2

y a , 0 a 1
x

-6

-4

-2

-2

-2

The above graph confirm that exponential

functions are continuous everywhere.

lim a a
x

x c

Asymptotes
The line y L is called a horizontal asymptote
of the curve y f ( x) if eihter

lim f ( x) L or lim f ( x) L.
x

The line x c is called a vertical asymptote

of the curve y f ( x) if eihter

lim f ( x) or lim f ( x) .

x c

x c

Examples
Find the asymptotes of the graphs of the functions

x 1
1. f ( x) 2
x 1
(i) lim f ( x)
2

x 1

Therefore the line x 1

is a vertical asymptote.

(ii) lim f ( x) .
x 1

Therefore the line x 1

is a vertical asymptote.

(iii) lim f ( x) 1.
x

Therefore the line y 1

is a horizonatl asymptote.
10
7.5
5
2.5
-4

-2

2
-2.5
-5
-7.5
-10

x 1
2. f ( x) 2
x 1
x 1
(i) lim f ( x) lim 2
x 1
x 1
x 1

(iii) lim f ( x) 0.
x

Therefore the line y 0

x 1
1
1
= lim
lim
. is a horizonatl asymptote.

x 1
x 1
2
x 1
( x 1)( x 1)

Therefore the line x 1

10
7.5

is NOT a vertical asymptote.

(ii) lim f ( x) .
x 1

Therefore the line x 1

is a vertical asymptote.

5
2.5
-4

-2

2
-2.5
-5
-7.5
-10