Convergent Evolution

Not all similarity is inherited from a

common ancestor:

Species from different evolutionary branches may

resemble each other if they have similar ecological

roles.

Reptile: icthyosaur (extinct)

This is called convergent evolution.

Similarity due to convergence is not a basis for

including species in the same taxonomic group.

Fish: shark

Example: The swimming carnivore niche.

This niche was exploited by a number of unrelated

vertebrate groups at different times in the history of life.

The selection pressures of this niche produced fins

Mammal: dolphin

or flippers and a streamlined body shape for rapid

movement through the water.

Bird: penguin

Convergent Evolution
in Mammals

Marsupial and
placental
mammals have
evolved separately
to occupy
equivalent niches
on different
continents; they are
ecological
equivalents.

Marsupial Mammals

Placental Mammals

Australia

North America
Wombat

Wood
chuck

Flying
phalanger

Flying
squirrel

Marsupial
mole

Mole

Marsupial
mouse

Mouse

Tasmanian
wolf

Wolf

Long-eared
bandicoot

Rabbit

Analagous structures
Same function, different anatomical (or biological) origin:

Divergent
Evolution

The diversification of an
ancestral group into two or
more species in different
habitats is called divergent
evolution.

Speciation
by splitting

When divergent evolution

involves the formation of a
large number of species to
occupy different niches this is
called an adaptive radiation.

Genetic changes
accumulate to form
a new species

Extinction

A hypothetical family tree

showing divergence from

common ancestors on two
occasions is shown here:

Time

Changes in the
genetic make-up
of the two species

Speciation
by budding

Little genetic change:

species remains
relatively unchanged

Adaptive Radiation
When an organism develops a new adaptive feature, a new niche
may become available to it.

Once new niches are made available, new species develop to

exploit different habitats and there is a radiation from the point of

species origin.

Adaptive radiation is more

common in periods of major

environmental change,
e.g. cooling climates.

These changes may be the

driving force for adaptive radiation

or they may have an indirect effect
by increasing extinction rates.

The early ancestors of whales left the land to

exploit a new niche as marine predators

Adaptive Radiation
EXAMPLE: The radiation of the mammals occurred after
the extinction of the dinosaurs, which has made niches
available for exploitation.

Arboreal herbivore
niche

Marine predator
niche

Terrestrial predator
niche

Underground
herbivore niche

Freshwater
predator niche

Flying predator/
frugivore niche

Browsing/
grazing niche

Megazostrodon
an early mammal ancestor

The Diversity of Mammals

Modern mammals are represented by 17 orders:
Chiroptera

Insectivora
Xenarthra

Probiscidea

Carnivora
Perissodactyla

Pholidota

Lagomorpha
Cetacea

Tubulidentata

Artiodactyla

Sirenia
Primates
Rodentia

Pinnipedia

Dermoptera

Hyracoidea

Mammal Adaptive Radiation

The mammals have diversified widely to fill many different niches:

Mammalian taxa
Sea-cows
Elephants
Hyraxes

Even-toed ungulates
Aardvark
Odd-toed ungulates
Whales & dolphins
Carnivores

Early
mammals

Placentals
diverge from
marsupials

Pinnipeds
Insectivores
Bats
Colugos
Primates
Elephant shrews
Rodents
Hares, rabbits
Pangolins
Anteaters, sloths
Marsupials
Monotremes

Divergent Evolution
of the Ratites
The ratites are an ancient group of birds

that have evolved from one ancestor and

lost their powers of flight early in their
evolutionary development.

Ostrich
Africa

Their distribution can be explained by

continental drift following the break-up of

Gondwana.
Emu
Australia

Moa
New Zealand (extinct)

Elephantbird
Madagascar (extinct)

Rhea
South America

Kiwi
New Zealand

Cassowary
Australia/New Guinea

Divergence and Radiation

of the Ratites
Mesozoic Era

Cenozoic Era
All other living birds

Birds evolved from a

dinosaur ancestor about
150 million years ago

Moa 1: Anomalopteryx
Moa 2: Pachyornis
Moa 3: Dinornis
Moa 4: Megalapteryx
Little Spotted Kiwi
Fossil evidence suggests that
ratite ancestors possessed a
keeled breastbone and an
archaic palate (roof of mouth)

Ratites diverge from

the line to the rest of
the birds about 100
million years ago

Great Spotted Kiwi

Brown Kiwi
Emu
Cassowary
Ostrich
Elephantbird
Rhea 1
Rhea 2
Tinamou (can fly)

Coevolution

Coevolution is used to describe cases

where two (or more) species reciprocally
affect each other's evolution.

Each party in a co-evolutionary relationship

exerts selective pressures on the other and,
over time, the species become mutually
dependent on each other.

Bees are excellent pollinators and collect

nectar from many flower types.

Coevolution is a likely consequence

when different species have close
ecological interactions with one another.
These relationships include:

Predator-prey relationships
Parasite-host relationships
Mutualistic relationships such as those
that have arisen between plants and their
pollinators (photos, right).

Beetles are an ancient group with many

modern species. Their high diversity has
been attributed to coevolution with
flowering plants.

Acacia-Ant Coevolution

Flower structure has evolved in many

different ways in response to the
many types of animal pollinators.
Flowers and their pollinators have
coordinated traits known as
pollination syndromes.

Ant

This makes it relatively easy to deduce

pollinator type from the appearance of
flowers (and vice versa).

Plants and animals involved in such

pollination associations often become
highly specialized in ways that
improve pollination efficiency:
innovation by one party leads to
some response from the other.

Thorn

Swelling
Photo courtesy of Alex Wild

The long, hollow thorns of the swollenthorn Acacia provide living space for
the aggressive stinging Pseudomyrmex
ants which patrol the plant and protect it
from herbivores. The Acacia provides
the ants with protein-rich food.

Flowers and their Pollinators

Flower structure has evolved in

many different ways in response to
the many types of animal pollinators.

Flowers and their pollinators have

coordinated traits known as
pollination syndromes.

This makes it relatively easy to deduce

pollinator type from the appearance of
flowers (and vice versa).

Plants and animals involved in such

pollination associations often
become highly specialized in ways
that improve pollination efficiency:
innovation by one party leads to
some response from the other.

The sweet fragrance of many flowers is attracts

their nectar seeking pollinators, but flowers
pollinated by many flies can give off dung or
rotten meat smells.

Pollination
Syndromes: Birds

Bird pollinators typically:

Usually require a perching site, although

some, like hummingbirds, can hover.

Have good color vision, including red

and poor smell.

Feed during the day

Have high energy requirements

Bird-pollinated flowers are typically:

Large and damage resistant

Red or other bright colors
Not very fragrant
Open during the day
Produce copious nectar

Hummingbirds can hover and are able to

feed from hanging flowers. Their long
tongues can take nectar from flowers with
deep tubes. As they feed, their heads are
dusted with pollen.

Pollination
Syndromes: Bats

Bat pollinators typically:

Are active during the night but

cannot fly in foliage

Color blind but with an excellent sense

of smell

Have high energy requirements

Have high blossom intelligence
Bat-pollinated flowers typically:

Open at night
Are light or drab colored
Produce strong, often bat-like odors
Are an open shape to allow easy access
Produce plentiful nectar and pollen

The short-tailed bat (above) crawls on the

forest floor, feeding on and pollinating the
rare parasitic plant, Dactylanthus (below).
The drab flowers do not attract other
pollinators.

Pollination Syndromes:
Beetles
Beetles:

Are an ancient group with many

modern representatives

Have a good sense of smell

Have hard smooth bodies
Consume ovules as well as nectar
and pollen

Beetle-pollinated flowers are

typically:

Members of ancient plant groups

Produce strong, fruity odors
Are large, often flat, with easy
access

Ovule herbivory by beetles may have driven the

evolution of protective carpels in angiosperms.

Pollination
Syndromes: Bees

Bees typically:

Are strong, with medium length tongues

Color vision into UV, but not red
Have a good sense of smell
Require both nectar and pollen for
feeding brood

Have high blossom intelligence and can

communicate with their social group

Bee-pollinated flowers are:

Fragrant, often with a complex structure

Typically blue, purple, lavender, yellow or
white (not red)

Offer nectar and pollen as rewards

Bees favor bright, fragrant flowers with

nectar guides (patterns or lines used to
guide the insect to the reproductive parts
of the flower). Some nectar guides are
only visible in the UV.

Predators and Coevolution

Predators have evolved to exploit

prey; hunting ability is paramount so
they have adaptations to improve
hunting efficiency, including:

Speed, strength, and stamina

Good vision and hearing
Offensive weapons (teeth, claws)
Hunting strategies such as group
cooperative behavior

Prey have evolved numerous

strategies to protect themselves
from predators, including:

Large size and strength

Protective coverings
Defensive weapons (e.g. horns)
Toxicity

Lions may hunt cooperatively to increase their

chances of securing a kill from swift, herding
species such as zebra.

Coevolution
and Mimicry

Palatable insect species may

evolve to resemble toxic or
unpalatable species. This is
called Batesian mimicry.
Plants may evolve mimicry to
protect themselves from
herbivores:

The dangerous
common wasp

and its harmless Batesian

mimic, the wasp beetle

Female Helicornius butterflies

Photo courtesy of Missouri Botanical Gardens

will not lay their eggs on plants

already occupied by eggs,
because their larvae are
cannibalistic.

Passionfruit plants have

exploited this by creating fake

yellow eggs on leaves and buds.
Passionfruit plant (Passiflora) with egg mimics

Parasites and Coevolution

Trypanosomes provide an example
of host-parasite coevolution.

They must evade their host defenses,

but

Virulence is constrained because they

must keep their host alive.

Molecular studies show that

Trypanosoma brucei coevolved in
Africa with the first hominids around
5mya.

However, T. cruzi contact with

human hosts occurred in South
America only after settlements were
made by nomadic cultures.

Photo courtesy of CDC

Trypanosome parasites in human blood

Gradualism

New species

Parent species

Gradualism assumes that

populations slowly diverge

from one another by
accumulating adaptive
characteristics in response
to different selective
pressures.

Each species
undergoes
gradual changes
in its genetic
makeup and
phenotype

If species evolve by

gradualism there should be

transitional forms seen in
the fossil record (as with the
evolution of the horse).

New species
diverges from the
parent species

Punctuated Equilibrium
There is abundant

New Species Parent Species

evidence in the fossil

record that, instead of
gradual change, species
stay much the same for
long periods (stasis) and
then have short bursts of
evolution that produce new
species quite rapidly.

According to this

punctuated equilibrium
theory, most of a species
existence is spent in stasis
and little time is spent in
active evolutionary change.

New species 'bud off'

from the parent species
and undergo rapid
change, followed by a
long period of stability

New Species