MISCELLANEOUS TOPICS IN

FIRST YEAR MATHEMATICS

W W L CHEN
c

W W L Chen, 1994, 2008.

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Chapter 2
POLYNOMIALS

2.1. Introduction
We shall be considering polynomials with rational, real or complex coefficients. Accordingly, throughout
this chapter, F denotes Q, R or C.
Definition. We denote by F[x] the set of all polynomials of the form
p(x) = pk xk + pk1 xk1 + . . . + p1 x + p0 ,

where k N {0} and p0 , . . . , pk F;

in other words, F[x] denotes the set of all polynomials in variable x and with coefficients in F. Suppose
further that pk 6= 0. Then pk is called the leading coefficient of the polynomial p(x), pk xk is called the
leading term of the polynomial p(x), and k is called the degree of the polynomial p(x). In this case, we
write k = deg p(x). Furthermore, if pk = 1, then the polynomial p(x) is called monic.
Example 2.1.1. The polynomial 3x2 + 2 is in Q[x], R[x] and C[x]. Furthermore, it has degree 2 and
leading coefficient 3.
Example 2.1.2. The polynomial 4x2 + 3x
degree 2 and leading coefficient 4.

5 is in R[x] and C[x] but not Q[x]. Furthermore, it has

Example 2.1.3. The polynomial x3 + (3 + 2i)x 3 is in C[x] but not Q[x] or R[x]. Furthermore, it has
degree 3 and is monic.
Example 2.1.4. The constant polynomial 5 is in Q[x], R[x] and C[x]. Furthermore, it has degree 0 and
leading coefficient 5.
Chapter 2 : Polynomials

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Remark. We have defined the degree of any non-zero constant polynomial to be 0. Note, however, that
we have not defined the degree of the constant polynomial 0. The reason for this will become clear from
Proposition 2A.
Definition. Suppose that
p(x) = pk xk + pk1 xk1 + . . . + p1 x + p0

and

q(x) = qm xm + qm1 xm1 + . . . + q1 x + q0

are two polynomials in F[x]. Then we write

p(x) + q(x) = (pn + qn )xn + (pn1 + qn1 )xn1 + . . . + (p1 + q1 )x + (p0 + q0 ),

(1)

where n = max{k, m}. Furthermore, we write

p(x)q(x) = rk+m xk+m + rk+m1 xk+m1 + . . . + r1 x + r0 ,

(2)

where, for every s = 0, 1, . . . , k + m,

rs =

s
X

pj qsj .

(3)

j=0

Here, we adopt the convention pj = 0 for every j > k and qj = 0 for every j > m.
Example 2.1.5. Suppose that p(x) = 3x2 + 2 and q(x) = x3 + (3 + 2i)x 3. Note that k = 2, p0 = 2,
p1 = 0 and p2 = 3. Note also that m = 3, q0 = 3, q1 = 3 + 2i, q2 = 0 and q3 = 1. If we adopt the
convention, then k + m = 5 and p3 = p4 = p5 = q4 = q5 = 0. Now
p(x) + q(x) = (0 + 1)x3 + (3 + 0)x2 + (0 + 3 + 2i)x + (2 3) = x3 + 3x2 + (3 + 2i)x 1.
On the other hand,
r5 = p0 q5 + p1 q4 + p2 q3 + p3 q2 + p4 q1 + p5 q0 = p2 q3 = 3,
r4 = p0 q4 + p1 q3 + p2 q2 + p3 q1 + p4 q0 = p1 q3 + p2 q2 = 0 + 0 = 0,
r3 = p0 q3 + p1 q2 + p2 q1 + p3 q0 = p0 q3 + p1 q2 + p2 q1 = 2 + 0 + 3(3 + 2i) = 11 + 6i,
r2 = p0 q2 + p1 q1 + p2 q0 = 0 + 0 9 = 9,
r1 = p0 q1 + p1 q0 = 2(3 + 2i) + 0 = 6 + 4i,
r0 = p0 q0 = 6,
so that
p(x)q(x) = 3x5 + (11 + 6i)x3 9x2 + (6 + 4i)x 6.
Note that our technique for multiplication is really just a more formal version of the usual technique
involving distribution, as
p(x)q(x) = (3x2 + 2)(x3 + (3 + 2i)x 3)
= (3x2 + 2)x3 + (3x2 + 2)(3 + 2i)x 3(3x2 + 2)
= (3x5 + 2x3 ) + (3(3 + 2i)x3 + 2(3 + 2i)x) (9x2 + 6)
= 3x5 + (11 + 6i)x3 9x2 + (6 + 4i)x 6.
More formally, we have
p(x)q(x) = (p2 x2 + p1 x + p0 )(q3 x3 + q2 x2 + q1 x + q0 )
= (p2 x2 + p1 x + p0 )q3 x3 + (p2 x2 + p1 x + p0 )q2 x2 + (p2 x2 + p1 x + p0 )q1 x + (p2 x2 + p1 x + p0 )q0
= (p2 q3 x5 + p1 q3 x4 + p0 q3 x3 ) + (p2 q2 x4 + p1 q2 x3 + p0 q2 x2 ) + (p2 q1 x3 + p1 q1 x2 + p0 q1 x)
+ (p2 q0 x2 + p1 q0 x + p0 q0 )
= p2 q3 x5 + (p1 q3 + p2 q2 )x4 + (p0 q3 + p1 q2 + p2 q1 )x3 + (p0 q2 + p1 q1 + p2 q0 )x2 + (p0 q1 + p1 q0 )x + p0 q0 .
Chapter 2 : Polynomials

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The following result follows immediately from the definitions. For purely technical reasons, we define
deg 0 = , where 0 represents the constant zero polynomial.
PROPOSITION 2A. Suppose that
p(x) = pk xk + pk1 xk1 + . . . + p1 x + p0

q(x) = qm xm + qm1 xm1 + . . . + q1 x + q0

and

are two polynomials in F[x], where both pk and qm are non-zero, so that deg p(x) = k and deg q(x) = m.
Then
(a) deg p(x)q(x) = k + m; and
(b) deg(p(x) + q(x)) max{k, m}.
Proof. (a) Suppose first of all that p(x) and q(x) are both different from the zero polynomial 0. Then
it follows from (2) and (3) that the leading term of the polynomial p(x)q(x) is rk+m xk+m , where
rk+m = p0 qk+m + . . . + pk1 qm+1 + pk qm + pk+1 qm1 + . . . + pk+m q0 = pk qm 6= 0.
Hence deg p(x)q(x) = k + m. If p(x) is the zero polynomial, then p(x)q(x) is also the zero polynomial.
Note now that deg p(x)q(x) = = + deg q(x) = deg p(x) + deg q(x). A similar argument applies
if q(x) is the zero polynomial.
(b) Recall (1) and that n = max{k, m}. If pn + qn 6= 0, then deg(p(x) + q(x)) = n = max{k, m}. If
pn + qn = 0 and p(x) + q(x) is non-zero, then there is a largest j < n such that pj + qj 6= 0, so that
deg(p(x) + q(x)) = j < n = max{k, m}. Finally, if pn + qn = 0 and p(x) + q(x) is the zero polynomial 0,
then deg(p(x) + q(x)) = < max{k, m}.

2.2. Polynomial Equations

An equation of the type ax + b = 0, where a, b F and a 6= 0, is called a linear polynomial equation, or
simply a linear equation, and has unique solution
b
x= .
a
Occasionally a given linear equation may look a little more complicated. However, with the help of some
simple algebra, one can reduce the given equation to the form given above.
An equation of the type
ax2 + bx + c = 0,
where a, b, c F are constants and a 6= 0, is called a quadratic polynomial equation, or simply a quadratic
equation. To solve such an equation, we observe first of all that
!


 2
2
b
c
b
b
c
b
ax2 + bx + c = a x2 + x +
= a x2 + 2 x +
+ 2
a
a
2a
2a
a 4a
!
2

b2 4ac
b

=a
x+
=0
2a
4a2
precisely when


Chapter 2 : Polynomials

b
x+
2a

2
=

b2 4ac
.
4a2

(4)
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Suppose first of all that F = R, so that we are considering quadratic equations with real coefficients.
Then there are three cases:
(1) If b2 4ac > 0, then (4) becomes

b
b2 4ac
=
,
x+
2a
2a

so that

x=

b2 4ac
.
2a

We therefore have two distinct real solutions for the quadratic equation.
(2) If b2 4ac = 0, then (4) becomes

x+

b
2a

2
= 0,

so that

x=

b
.
2a

Indeed, this solution occurs twice, as we shall see later.

(3) If b2 4ac < 0, then the right hand side of (4) is negative. It follows that (4) is never satisfied for
any real number x, so that the quadratic equation has no real solution.
Suppose next that F = C, so that we are considering quadratic equations with complex coefficients.
Then there are two cases:
(1) If b2 4ac 6= 0, then (4) becomes

b2 4ac
b
=
,
x+
2a
2a

so that

x=

b2 4ac
.
2a

We therefore have two distinct complex solutions for the quadratic equation.
(2) If b2 4ac = 0, then (4) becomes


b
x+
2a

2
= 0,

so that

x=

b
.
2a

Again, this solution occurs twice, as we shall see later.

For polynomial equations of degree greater than 2, we do not have general formulae for their solutions.
However, we may occasionally be able to find some solutions by inspection. These may help us find other
solutions. However, we need to understand better how the solutions of polynomial equations are related
to factorization of polynomials. We therefore first study the general problem of attempting to divide a
polynomial by another polynomial.

2.3. Division of Polynomials

Let us consider the question of division in Z. It is possible to divide an integer b by a non-zero integer
a to get a main term q and remainder r, where 0 r < |a|. In other words, we can find q, r Z such
that b = aq + r and 0 r < |a|. In fact, q and r are uniquely determined by a and b. Note that what
governs the remainder r is the restriction 0 r < |a|; in other words, the size of r.
If one is to propose a theory of division in F[x], then one needs to find some way to measure the size
of polynomials. This role is played by the degree. Let us now see what we can do.
Chapter 2 : Polynomials

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Example 2.3.1. Let us attempt to divide the polynomial b(x) = x4 + 3x3 + 2x2 4x + 4 by the non-zero
polynomial a(x) = x2 + 2x + 2. Then we can perform long division is a way similar to long division for
integers.
x2 +
2

x + 2x+ 2 )

x + 3x + 2x 4x+
x4 + 2x3 + 2x2

x3
4x+
x3 + 2x2 + 2x

2x2 6x+
2x2 4x
2x+

4
4
8

Let us explain this a bit more carefully. We attempt to divide the polynomial x4 + 3x3 + 2x2 4x + 4
by the polynomial x2 + 2x + 2. A factor of x2 will lift the term x2 in the smaller polynomial to the
term x4 in the bigger polynomial, so let us take this first step, and examine the consequences.

x + 2x+ 2 )

x2
x + 3x + 2x2 4x+
x4 + 2x3 + 2x2
4

x3

4x+

4
4

We next attempt to divide the polynomial x3 4x + 4 by the polynomial x2 + 2x + 2. A factor of x will

lift the term x2 in the smaller polynomial to the term x3 in the bigger polynomial, so let us take
this second step, and examine the consequences.
x2 +
2

x + 2x+ 2 )

x + 3x + 2x 4x+
x4 + 2x3 + 2x2

x3
4x+
x3 + 2x2 + 2x

2x2 6x+

We then attempt to divide the polynomial 2x2 6x + 4 by the polynomial x2 + 2x + 2. A factor of

2 will reconcile the x2 terms, so let us take this third step, and complete our task. If we now write
q(x) = x2 + x 2 and r(x) = 2x + 8, then b(x) = a(x)q(x) + r(x). Note that deg r(x) < deg a(x). We
can therefore think of q(x) as the main term and r(x) as the remainder. If we think of the degree as a
measure of size, then the remainder r(x) is clearly smaller than a(x).
In general, we have the following important result.
PROPOSITION 2B. Suppose that a(x), b(x) F[x], and that a(x) 6= 0. Then there exist unique
polynomials q(x), r(x) F[x] such that
(a) b(x) = a(x)q(x) + r(x); and
(b) either r(x) = 0 or deg r(x) < deg a(x).
Proof. Consider all polynomials of the form b(x) a(x)Q(x), where Q(x) F[x]. If there exists
q(x) F[x] such that b(x) a(x)q(x) = 0, our proof is complete. Suppose now that b(x) a(x)Q(x) 6= 0
for any Q(x) F[x]. Then among all polynomials of the form b(x) a(x)Q(x), where Q(x) F[x],
there must be one with smallest degree. More precisely, m = min{deg(b(x) a(x)Q(x)) : Q(x) F[x]}
exists. Let q(x) F[x] satisfy deg(b(x) a(x)q(x)) = m, and let r(x) = b(x) a(x)q(x). Then
deg r(x) < deg a(x), for otherwise, writing a(x) = an xn + . . . + a1 x + a0 and r(x) = rm xm + . . . + r1 x + r0 ,
where m n, we have


mn
mn
r(x) (rm a1
)a(x) = b(x) a(x) q(x) + rm a1
F[x].
n x
n x
Chapter 2 : Polynomials

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mn
Clearly deg(r(x) (rm a1
)a(x)) < deg r(x), contradicting the minimality of m. On the other
n x
hand, suppose that q1 (x), q2 (x) F[x] satisfy deg(b(x) a(x)q1 (x)) = m and deg(b(x) a(x)q2 (x)) = m.
Let r1 (x) = b(x) a(x)q1 (x) and r2 (x) = b(x) a(x)q2 (x). Then r1 (x) r2 (x) = a(x)(q2 (x) q1 (x)).
If q1 (x) 6= q2 (x), then deg(a(x)(q2 (x) q1 (x))) deg a(x), while deg(r1 (x) r2 (x)) < deg a(x), a
contradiction. It follows that q(x), and hence r(x), is unique.

2.4. Roots of Polynomials

In this section, we study the relationship between roots and factors of a polynomial. The first step in
our investigation is given by the following special case of Proposition 2B.
PROPOSITION 2C. Suppose that b(x) F[x], and that F. Then there exists a unique polynomial
q(x) F[x] such that b(x) = (x )q(x) + b().
Proof. By Proposition 2B, there exist unique polynomials q(x), r(x) F[x] such that
b(x) = (x )q(x) + r(x),
where either r(x) = 0 or deg r(x) = 0. It follows that r(x) is a constant polynomial, so that
b(x) = (x )q(x) + r,
where r F. Substituting x = , we have r = b().
We can now establish the following nice relationship between roots and factors of a polynomial. First
we need a precise definition of factors of a polynomial.
Definition. Suppose that a(x), b(x) F[x]. Then we say that a(x) is a factor of b(x), denoted by
a(x) | b(x), if there exists c(x) F[x] such that b(x) = a(x)c(x).

Example 2.4.1. In R[x], x 2 is a factor of x2 2, for x2 2 = (x 2)(x + 2). However, in Q[x],

x2 2 has no factor of the form x , where Q.
Example 2.4.2. In C[x], x 2i is a factor of x2 + 4, for x2 + 4 = (x 2i)(x + 2i). However, in R[x],
x2 + 4 has no factor of the form x , where R.
PROPOSITION 2D. Suppose that b(x) F[x]. Then F is a root of b(x) if and only if x is a
factor of b(x).
Proof. By Proposition 2C, there exists a unique polynomial q(x) F[x] such that
b(x) = (x )q(x) + b().

(5)

If is a root of b(x), then b() = 0, so that b(x) = (x )q(x), whence x is a factor of b(x). On
the other hand, if x is a factor of b(x), then it follows from (5) that x must be a factor of
b() = b(x) (x )q(x). Clearly we must have b() = 0.
Let us apply this result to study roots of quadratic and cubic polynomials. For simplicity, we study
only the case when the roots are distinct. The results in fact hold without this restriction.
Suppose that , F are the two distinct roots of the quadratic polynomial ax2 + bx + c, where
a 6= 0. Then the polynomial must have two factors x and x . We must therefore have
ax2 + bx + c = a(x )(x ) = ax2 a( + )x + a.
Chapter 2 : Polynomials

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Equating coefficients, we have

+ =

b
a

and

c
.
a

Suppose that , , F are the three distinct roots of the cubic polynomial ax3 + bx2 + cx + d, where
a 6= 0. Then the polynomial must have three factors x , x and x . We must therefore have
ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = a(x )(x )(x ) = ax3 a( + + )x2 + a( + + )x a.
Equating coefficients, we have
++ =

b
a

and

+ + =

c
a

and

d
= .
a

2.5. Fundamental Theorem of Algebra

Consider the polynomial x2 2 Q[x]. This has no roots in Q. To see this, suppose on the contrary
that there exists x Q such that x2 = 2. In other words, suppose that there exist p Z and q N such
that (p/q)2 = 2. Without loss of generality, we can assume that p and q are relatively prime. Clearly,
p2 = 2q 2 , so that p must be even. Write p = 2r, where r Z. Then 4r2 = 2q 2 , so that q 2 = 2r2 , whence
q is even. It follows that both p and q are even, giving a contradiction. On the other hand, clearly
2
2 R is a root of x2 2. It follows from Proposition 2D that if we study the polynomial

x 2 in
2
R[x], then it has a factor x 2. Furthermore, on dividing, we have x 2 = (x 2)(x + 2).
Next, consider the polynomial x2 + 4 R[x]. This has no roots in Q. To see this, note simply that for
every x R, we have x2 0, and so x2 6= 4. On the other hand, clearly 2i C is a root of x2 + 4. It
follows from Proposition 2D that if we study the polynomial x2 + 4 in C[x], then it has a factor x 2i.
Furthermore, on dividing, we have x2 + 4 = (x 2i)(x + 2i).
We may now reasonably ask the following question. Are there non-constant polynomials b(x) C[x]
with no roots in C? If so, how do we extend C in order to find a root of this polynomial?
The answer to these questions is given by the the following result.
FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF ALGEBRA. Suppose that b(x) C[x] is a monic polynomial
of degree k 1. Then there exist 1 , . . . , k C, not necessarily distinct, such that
b(x) = (x 1 ) . . . (x k ).
Furthermore, any C different from 1 , . . . , k cannot be a root of b(x).
We omit the rather complicated proof.

2.6. Roots of Real Polynomials

In this section, we study polynomials with coefficients in R, and think of their roots as elements of C,
as justified by the Fundamental theorem of algebra. Our first result shows that non-real roots come in
pairs.
Chapter 2 : Polynomials

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PROPOSITION 2E. Suppose that b(x) R[x]. Suppose further that C is a root of b(x). Then ,
the complex conjugate of , is also a root of b(x).
Proof. Write
b(x) = bk xk + . . . + b1 x + b0 ,

where b0 , . . . , bk R.

Since C is a root, we must have b() = 0. Hence

0 = b() = bk k + . . . + b1 + b0 = bk k + . . . + b1 + b0 = bk k + . . . + b1 + b0 = b().
Hence is a root of b(x).
A simple consequence is the following result.
PROPOSITION 2F. Every polynomial b(x) R[x] of odd degree has a root in R.
Proof. Consider b(x) as a polynomial in C[x]. Then all the roots are given by the Fundamental
theorem of algebra. Suppose on the contrary that none of these is real. Then by Proposition 2E, the
roots occur as conjugate pairs. It follows that there must be an even number of roots. This contradicts
the Fundamental theorem of algebra.
Example 2.6.1. Consider the polynomial b(x) = x5 7x4 + 21x3 33x2 + 28x 10. We are given that
x = 1 + i is a root of the equation b(x) = 0. Then by Proposition 2E, x = 1 i is also a root of this
equation. It follows from Proposition 2D that x 1 i and x 1 + i are both factors of b(x). Note that
(x 1 i)(x 1 + i) = x2 2x + 2. Long division gives b(x) = (x2 2x + 2)(x3 5x2 + 9x 5), and
so the other roots of b(x) must be roots of x3 5x2 + 9x 5. This is a real polynomial of odd degree,
so it follows from Proposition 2F that it must have a real root. By inspection, x = 1 is a solution of the
equation x3 5x2 +9x5 = 0, so it follows from Proposition 2D that x1 is a factor of x3 5x2 +9x5.
Long division gives x3 5x2 + 9x 5 = (x 1)(x2 4x + 5). The last two roots of b(x) must then be
roots of x2 4x + 5. The quadratic equation can easily be solved to give roots x = 2 i.

2.7. Rational Functions

A rational function is the quotient of two polynomials; in other words, an expression of the form
p(x)
,
q(x)
where p(x) and q(x) are polynomials in R[x].
If the degree of p(x) is not smaller than the degree of q(x), then in view of Proposition 2B (with slightly
different notation), we can always find real polynomials a(x) and r(x) such that p(x) = q(x)a(x) + r(x),
where r(x) = 0 or has degree smaller than the degree of q(x), so that
p(x)
r(x)
= a(x) +
.
q(x)
q(x)
Chapter 2 : Polynomials

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Example 2.7.1. Consider the rational function

x5 + 2x4 + 4x3 + x + 1
.
x2 + x + 1
Long division gives x5 + 2x4 + 4x3 + x + 1 = (x3 + x2 + 2x 3)(x2 + x + 1) + (2x + 4), so that
x5 + 2x4 + 4x3 + x + 1
2x + 4
= (x3 + x2 + 2x 3) + 2
.
2
x +x+1
x +x+1
We can therefore restrict our attention to the case when the polynomial p(x) is of lower degree than the
polynomial q(x). We wish to express the given rational function as a sum of simpler rational functions.
To do this, we study the technique of partial fractions.
The first step is to factorize the polynomial q(x) into a product of irreducible factors. We shall use the
fundamental result in algebra that a real polynomial q(x) can be factorized into a product of irreducible
linear factors and quadratic factors with real coefficients.
Example 2.7.2. Suppose that q(x) = x4 4x3 + 5x2 4x + 4. Then q(x) can be factorized into a
product of irreducible linear factors in the form (x 2)2 (x2 + 1).
Suppose that a linear factor (ax + b) occurs n times in the factorization of q(x). Then we write down
a decomposition
A1
A2
An
+
+ ... +
,
2
ax + b (ax + b)
(ax + b)n
where the constants A1 , . . . , An will be determined later. Suppose that a quadratic factor (ax2 + bx + c)
occurs n times in the factorization of q(x). Then we write down a decomposition
A1 x + B1
A2 x + B 2
An x + Bn
+
+ ... +
,
2
2
2
ax + bx + c (ax + bx + c)
(ax2 + bx + c)n
where the constants A1 , . . . , An and B1 , . . . , Bn will be determined later. We proceed to add all the
decompositions and equate their sum to
p(x)
,
q(x)
and then calculate all the constants by equating coefficients.
Example 2.7.3. Suppose that
p(x)
3x + 4
= 2
.
q(x)
x +x6
We note that x2 + x 6 = (x + 3)(x 2), so we write
p(x)
3x + 4
c1
c2
=
=
+
.
q(x)
(x + 3)(x 2)
x+3 x2
But then
c1
c2
c1 (x 2) + c2 (x + 3)
+
=
,
x+3 x2
(x + 3)(x 2)
Chapter 2 : Polynomials

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Miscellaneous Topics in First Year Mathematics

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so that
c1 (x 2) + c2 (x + 3) = 3x + 4.
Note now that c1 (x 2) + c2 (x + 3) = (c1 + c2 )x + (3c2 2c1 ). Equating coefficients gives rise to a system
of linear equations c1 + c2 = 3 and 3c2 2c1 = 4, with solution c1 = 1 and c2 = 2. Another technique is
to substitute particular values of x so as to eschew various terms. Putting x = 3 gives 5c1 = 5, so
that c1 = 1. Putting x = 2 gives 5c2 = 10, so that c2 = 2. Whichever method we use, we have
3x + 4
1
2
=
+
.
x2 + x 6
x+3 x2
Example 2.7.4. Suppose that
p(x)
x2 + x 3
= 3
.
q(x)
x 2x2 x + 2
We note that x3 2x2 x + 2 = (x 2)(x + 1)(x 1) we easily note a root x = 1, so the problem
becomes a quadratic one. Accordingly we write
p(x)
x2 + x 3
c1
c2
c3
=
=
+
+
.
q(x)
(x 2)(x + 1)(x 1)
x2 x+1 x1
But then
c2
c3
c1 (x + 1)(x 1) + c2 (x 2)(x 1) + c3 (x 2)(x + 1)
c1
+
+
=
,
x2 x+1 x1
(x 2)(x + 1)(x 1)
so that
c1 (x + 1)(x 1) + c2 (x 2)(x 1) + c3 (x 2)(x + 1) = x2 + x 3.

(6)

Note that the left hand side of (6) is equal to (c1 + c2 + c3 )x2 (3c2 + c3 )x (c1 2c2 + 2c3 ). Equating
coefficients gives rise to a system of linear equations c1 +c2 +c3 = 1, 3c2 +c3 = 1 and c1 2c2 +2c3 = 3,
with solution c1 = 1, c2 = 21 and c3 = 12 . Alternatively, substituting x = 2, 1, 1 into equation (6), we
obtain respectively 3c1 = 3, 6c2 = 3 and 2c3 = 1, so that c1 = 1, c2 = 21 and c3 = 12 again. Hence
x2 + x 3
1
1
1
=

+
.
x3 2x2 x + 2
x 2 2(x + 1) 2(x 1)
Example 2.7.5. Suppose that
p(x)
2x3 11x2 + 17x 16
= 4
.
q(x)
x 4x3 + 5x2 4x + 4
We note that x4 4x3 + 5x2 4x + 4 = (x 2)2 (x2 + 1) this is by no means obvious, and involves
some trial and error. Accordingly we write
p(x)
2x3 11x2 + 17x 16
c1
c2
c3 x + c4
=
=
+
+ 2
.
q(x)
(x 2)2 (x2 + 1)
x 2 (x 2)2
x +1
But then
c3 x + c4
c1 (x 2)(x2 + 1) + c2 (x2 + 1) + (c3 x + c4 )(x 2)2
c1
c2
+
+
=
,
x 2 (x 2)2
x2 + 1
(x 2)2 (x2 + 1)
Chapter 2 : Polynomials

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Miscellaneous Topics in First Year Mathematics

W W L Chen, 1994, 2008

so that
c1 (x 2)(x2 + 1) + c2 (x2 + 1) + (c3 x + c4 )(x 2)2 = 2x3 11x2 + 17x 16.
Note now that
c1 (x 2)(x2 + 1) + c2 (x2 + 1) + (c3 x + c4 )(x 2)2
= c1 (x3 2x2 + x 2) + c2 (x2 + 1) + c3 (x3 4x2 + 4x) + c4 (x2 4x + 4)
= (c1 + c3 )x3 + (2c1 + c2 4c3 + c4 )x2 + (c1 + 4c3 4c4 )x + (2c1 + c2 + 4c4 ).
Equating coefficients, we have
c1

+ c3

2,

2c1 + c2 4c3 + c4 = 11,

+ 4c3 4c4 =

c1
2c1 + c2

17,

+ 4c4 = 16.

This system has solution c1 = 1, c2 = 2, c3 = 1 and c4 = 3. Hence

2x3 11x2 + 17x 16
1
2
x3
=

+ 2
.
4
3
2
2
x 4x + 5x 4x + 4
x 2 (x 2)
x +1
Remark. Note that the method reduces to solving a system of linear equations. The solution of such
systems is discussed in detail in linear algebra.
Example 2.7.6. Consider the rational function
x6 2
.
x4 + x2
Using long division, we conclude that
x6 2
x2 2
2
=
x

1
+
,
x4 + x2
x4 + x2
so we concentrate our discussion on the rational function
p(x)
x2 2
= 4
.
q(x)
x + x2
We note easily that x4 + x2 = x2 (x2 + 1), so we write
p(x)
x2 2
c1
c2
c3 x + c4
c1 x(x2 + 1) + c2 (x2 + 1) + (c3 x + c4 )x2
= 2 2
=
+ 2+ 2
=
.
q(x)
x (x + 1)
x
x
x +1
x2 (x2 + 1)
It follows that
c1 x(x2 + 1) + c2 (x2 + 1) + (c3 x + c4 )x2 = x2 2.
Equating coefficients, we have
c1

+ c3
c2

c1
c2
Chapter 2 : Polynomials

0,

+ c4 =

1,

0,

= 2.
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Miscellaneous Topics in First Year Mathematics

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This system has solution c1 = 0, c2 = 2, c3 = 0 and c4 = 3. Hence

2
3
x2 2
= 2 + 2
,
x4 + x2
x
x +1
and so
x6 2
2
3
= x2 1 2 + 2
.
4
2
x +x
x
x +1

2.8. Greatest Common Divisor

PROPOSITION 2G. Suppose that a(x), b(x) F[x], not both zero. Then there exists a unique monic
polynomial d(x) F[x] such that
(a) d(x) | a(x) and d(x) | b(x);
(b) if c(x) F[x] and c(x) | a(x) and c(x) | b(x), then c(x) | d(x). Furthermore,
(c) there exist polynomials s(x), t(x) F[x] such that d(x) = a(x)s(x) + b(x)t(x).
Proof. Consider the set
I = {a(x)u(x) + b(x)v(x) : u(x), v(x) F[x]}.
Clearly I contains some non-zero polynomial in F[x]. Let d(x) I be a non-zero polynomial of smallest
degree. We may assume without loss of generality that d(x) is monic. Since d(x) I, there exist
s(x), t(x) F[x] such that
d(x) = a(x)s(x) + b(x)t(x).
This gives (c). Suppose that c(x) F[x] and c(x) | a(x) and c(x) | b(x). Then there exist f (x), g(x) F[x]
such that a(x) = c(x)f (x) and b(x) = c(x)g(x). It follows that
d(x) = c(x)(f (x)s(x) + g(x)t(x)),
so that c(x) | d(x). This gives (b). On the other hand, the uniqueness of d(x) follows from (a) and
(b), since if d1 (x) and d2 (x) both satisfy the requirements of d(x), then we must have d1 (x) | d2 (x)
and d2 (x) | d1 (x). Since both d1 (x) and d2 (x) are monic, it follows that d1 (x) = d2 (x). It remains
to prove (a). Suppose on the contrary that d(x) - a(x). Then it follows from Proposition 2B that
there exist unique polynomials q(x), r(x) F[x] such that a(x) = d(x)q(x) + r(x), where r(x) 6= 0 and
deg r(x) < deg d(x). Note now that
r(x) = a(x) d(x)q(x) = a(x) a(x)s(x)q(x) b(x)t(x)q(x) = a(x)(1 s(x)q(x)) b(x)t(x)q(x) I,
contradicting the assumption that d(x) I is of smallest degree. Hence d(x) | a(x). A similar argument
gives d(x) | b(x).
Definition. Suppose that a(x), b(x) F[x], not both zero. Then the unique monic polynomial d(x)
F[x] in Proposition 2G is called the greatest common divisor of the polynomials a(x) and b(x). We write
d(x) = (a(x), b(x)).
Proposition 2G and its proof give us little help in finding the greatest common divisor of the polynomials a(x) and b(x). A much easier way is given by the following result.
Chapter 2 : Polynomials

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Miscellaneous Topics in First Year Mathematics

W W L Chen, 1994, 2008

PROPOSITION 2H. (EUCLIDS ALGORITHM) Suppose that a(x), b(x) F[x] are non-zero, with
deg a(x) deg b(x). Suppose further that q1 (x), . . . , qn+1 (x) F[x] and r1 (x), . . . , rn (x) F[x] are
polynomials such that 0 deg rn (x) < . . . < deg r1 (x) < deg b(x) and
a(x) = b(x)q1 (x) + r1 (x),
b(x) = r1 (x)q2 (x) + r2 (x),
r1 (x) = r2 (x)q3 (x) + r3 (x),
..
.
rn2 (x) = rn1 (x)qn (x) + rn (x),
rn1 (x) = rn (x)qn+1 (x).
Then the greatest common divisor (a(x), b(x)) is a constant multiple of rn (x).
Proof. We shall first of all prove that
(a(x), b(x)) = (b(x), r1 (x)).

(7)

Note that (a(x), b(x)) | b(x) and (a(x), b(x)) | (a(x) b(x)q1 (x)) = r1 (x), so that
(a(x), b(x)) | (b(x), r1 (x)).
On the other hand, (b(x), r1 (x)) | b(x) and (b(x), r1 (x)) | (b(x)q1 (x) + r1 (x)) = a(x), so that
(b(x), r1 (x)) | (a(x), b(x)).
Since both (a(x), b(x)) and (b(x), r1 (x)) are monic, (7) follows. Similarly,
(b(x), r1 (x)) = (r1 (x), r2 (x)) = (r2 (x), r3 (x)) = . . . = (rn1 (x), rn (x)).

(8)

Note now that

(rn1 (x), rn (x)) = (rn (x)qn+1 (x), rn (x)) = crn (x)

for some c F \ {0}.

(9)

The result follows on combining (7)(9).

Example 2.8.1. Let a(x) = 2x5 3x4 + x3 2x2 + x + 1 and b(x) = x3 + x2 x 1. Then
2x5 3x4 + x3 2x2 + x + 1 = (x3 + x2 x 1)(2x2 5x + 8) + (13x2 + 4x + 9),
 


17
16
16
1
3
2
2
+
x
,
x + x x 1 = (13x + 4x + 9) x
13
169
169
169



16
16
2197
1521
x

x
.
13x2 + 4x + 9 =
169
169
16
16
It follows that (a(x), b(x)) is a constant multiple of
16
16
x
.
169
169
Since (a(x), b(x)) is monic, we must have
169
(a(x), b(x)) =
16

Chapter 2 : Polynomials

16
16
x
169
169


= x 1.

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Miscellaneous Topics in First Year Mathematics

W W L Chen, 1994, 2008

Problems for Chapter 2

1. For each of the following, find q(x) and r(x) such that b(x) = a(x)q(x) + r(x), where r(x) = 0 or
deg r(x) < deg a(x):
a) a(x) = x2 + 3x + 1, b(x) = x4 + x2 + 5x + 2
b) a(x) = x4 + x2 + 5x + 2, b(x) = x2 + 3x + 1
c) a(x) = 2x2 , b(x) = 3x3 + x + 1
2. For each of the following real polynomials, try to guess one integer root, and then use it to find all
the roots of the polynomial:
a) x3 x2 + 3x + 5
b) x3 + 8x2 + 22x + 20
b) x3 + 5x2 + 7x 13
3. Find a real polynomial p(x) that satisfies all of the following properties, and explain carefully
whether the polynomial that you have found is the only one that satisfies all these properties:
p(x) has x = 1, x = 3 + i and x = 1 2i as three of its roots;
p(x) has degree 5; and
the coefficient of the x5 term in p(x) is equal to 3.
4. Apply partial fraction technique to each of the following rational functions:
x2
x2 + 3x 1
1
1
b) 3
c)
d) 2
a) 2
2
4
3
2
x + 4x 5
x + 3x + 3x + 1
x +x +x +x
x 5x 36
2x + 3
1
x4
x2 + 1
e) 2
f) 2
g)
h)
x + 3x 4
x 4x + 3
(x2 + 4)(x + 1)
(x + 1)4
5. For each of the following, find the greatest common divisor (a(x), b(x)):
a) a(x) = x5 + 3x3 2x2 + x 3, b(x) = 4x3 2x2 + 7x 9
b) a(x) = 2x7 + 4x, b(x) = x10 + 7x5
c) a(x) = x3 + 6x2 , b(x) = x2 + 2x + 2

Chapter 2 : Polynomials

page 14 of 14