ENGINEERING ELECTROMAGNETICS The time-average power loss is easily obtained, since the average value of the cosine- squared factor is one-half, (89) Comparing (88) and (89), we see that they are identical. Thus the average power Joss in a conductor with skin effect present may be calculated by assuming that the total current is distributed uniformly in one skin depth. In terms of resistance, we may say that the resistance of a width b and length L of an infinitely thick slab with skin effect is the same as the resistance of a rectangular slab of width b, length Z, and thickness 3 without skin effect, or with uniform current distribution. We may apply this to a conductor of circular cross section with litte error, provided that the radius a is much greater than the skin depth. The resistance at a high frequency where there is a well-developed skin effect is therefore found by considering a slab of width equal to the circumference 2sra and thickness 6. Hence L L oS 2xaod (90) A round copper wire of | mm radius and 1 km length has a resistance at direct current of 10° 710-(5.8 x 107) ACI MH, the skin depth is 0.066 mm. Thus 6 < a, and the resistance at | MHz is found by (90), Rec 482 3 — cats 2x 10-35.8 x 107)(0.066 x 10%) D44.7. A steel pipe is constructed of a material for which 4, = 180 and o =4 x 10° S/m. The two radii are $ and 7 mm, and the length is 75 m. If the total current I(t) carried by the pipe is 8 cos wt A, where w = 1200z rad/s, find: (a) the skin depth; (b) the effective resistance; (c) the de resistance; (d) the time-average power loss. Ans. 0.766 mm; 0.557 9; 0.249 9; 17.82 W 11.5 WAVE POLARIZATION In the previous sections, we have treated uniform plane waves in which the electric and magnetic field vectors were assumed to lie in fixed directions. Specifically, with the wave propagating along the z axis, E was taken to lie along x, which then required H to lic along y. This orthogonal relationship between E, H, and S is always true for auniform plane wave. The directions of E and H within the plane perpendicular to a,CHAPTER 11. The Uniform Pane Wave may change, however, as functions of time and position, depending on how the wave ‘was generated or on what type of medium it is propagating through. Thus a complete description of an electromagnetic wave would not only include parameters such as its wavelength, phase velocity, and power, but also a statement of the instantaneous orientation of its field vectors. We define the wave polarization as the time-dependent electric field vector orientation at a fixed point in space. A more complete character- ization of a wave's polarization would in fact include specifying the field orientation at all points because some waves demonstrate spatial variations in their polarization Specifying only the electric field direction is sufficient, since magnetic field is readily found from E using Maxwell's equations. In the waves we have previously studied, E was in a fixed straight orientation for all times and positions. Such a wave is said to be linearly polarized. We have taken E to lie along the x axis, but the field could be oriented in any fixed direction in the xy plane and be linearly polarized, For positive z propagation, the wave would in general have its electric field phasor expressed as ol (Exoay + Eyoay)e where Exo and Eo are constant amplitudes along x and y. The magnetic field is readily found by determining its x and y components directly from those of E,. Specifically, H,, for the wave of Eq. (91) is H, = [Hyoay + Hyoay] ee 1 = [-A2s, + *24,| ee ibe (92) 0 n ‘The two fields are sketched in Figure 11.4. The figure demonstrates the reason for the minus sign in the term involving Eyo in Eq. (92). The direction of power flow, given by E x H,, is in the positive z direction in this case. A component of E in the Figure 11.4 Electric and magnetic field configuration for a general linearly polarized plane wave propagating in the forward z direction (out of the page). Field components correspond to those in Eqs. (91) and (92).ENGINEERING ELECTROMAGNETICS positive y direction would require a component of H in the negative x direction—thus the minus sign, Using (91) and (92), the power density in the wave is found using (77) {S, 1 | ZRelE x HY} Jf ExoE%y eet} 2 n n 1 1 GRe(Eroltfolas x ay) + BoHHinlay x a,)}e 2 202, = 5Re{ =} cer + |Eyol)e 7a, Wim? This result demonstrates the idea that our linearly polarized plane wave can be con- sidered as two distinct plane waves having x and y polarizations, whose electric fields are combining in phase to produce the total E. The same is true for the magnetic field components. This is a critical point in understanding wave polarization, in that any polarization state can be described in terms of mutually perpendicular components of the electric field and their relative phasing. We next consider the effect of a phase difference, $, between Ey and Eyo, where $ < 1/2. For simplicity, we will consider propagation in a lossless medium. The total field in phasor form is, (Eyoa, + Eyoe aye (93) Again, to aid in visualization, we convert this wave to real instantaneous form by multiplying by ¢/*” and taking the real part: Ez, 1) = Exo cos(wt — Bz)ax + Eyo cos(wt — Bz + d)ay (94) where we have assumed that E,o and Eyy ate real. Suppose we set ¢ = 0, in which case (94) becomes [using cos(—x) = cos(x)] E(z, 0) = Exo cos(Bz)ay + Eyo cos(Bz — d)ay (95) ‘The component magnitudes of E(z, 0) are plotted as functions of z in Figure 11.5 Since time is fixed at zero, the wave is frozen in position. An observer can move along the z axis, measuring the component magnitudes and thus the orientation of the total electric field at each point. Let’s consider a crest of E,, indicated as point a in Figure 11.5. If @ were zero, Ey would have a crest at the same location, Since @ is not zero (and positive), the crest of E,, that would otherwise occur at point a is now displaced to point b farther down z. The two points are separated by distance $/8 Ey thus lags behind E, when we consider the spatial dimension. Now suppose the observer stops at some location on the z axis, and time is allowed to move forward. Both fields now move in the positive z direction, as (94) indicates. But point b reaches the observer first, followed by point a. So we see that E, leads E, when we consider the rime dimension. In either case (fixed r and varying z, of vice versa) the observer notes that the net field rotates about the z axis while its magnitude changes. Considering a starting point in z and r, at which the field has a given orientation and magnitude, the wave will return to the same orientation andCHAPTER 11. The Uniform Pane Wave Observer - location \ Figure 11.5 Plots of the electric field component magnitudes in Eq, (95) as ‘functions of z. Note that the y component lags behind the x component in z, ‘As time increases from zero, both waves travel to the right, as per Eq. (94). Thus, to an observer at a fixed location, the y component leads in time, F4,0) magnitude at a distance of one wavelength in z (for fixed 1) or at atime t = 2 /w later (at a fixed 2) For illustration purposes, if we take the length of the field vector as a measure of its magnitude, we find that at a fixed position, the tip of the vector traces out the shape of an ellipse over time t = 2st /a. The wave is said to be elliptically polarized. Elliptical polarization is in fact the most general polarization state of a wave, since it encompasses any magnitude and phase difference between E, and Ey. Linear polatization is a special case of elliptical polarization in which the phase difference is zero. Another special case of elliptical polarization occurs when Exo = Eyo = Eo and when g = 7/2. The wave in this case exhibits circular polarization. To see this, ‘we incorporate these restrictions into Eq, (94) to obtain Eee, Eoleos(ot — Bz)a, + cos(wt — Bz = 1/2)ay] Eoleos(wt — Bz)a, $ sin(wt — Bz)ay] (96) If we consider a fixed position along z (such as z = 0) and allow time to vary, (96), with @ = +7/2, becomes EO,1 Eolcos(wt)a, — sin(wt)ay] (7) If we choose —z/2 in (96), we obtain EO, 1) = Eoleos(wr)ay + sin(wr)ay] (98) The field vector of Eq. (98) rotates in the counterclockwise direction in the xy plane, while maintaining constant amplitude Eo, and so the tip of the vector traces out a circle. Figure 11.6 shows this behavior, 397ENGINEERING ELECTROMAGNETICS Field rotation Me Figure 11.6 Flectric field in the xy plane of a right circulatly polatized plane wave, as described by Eq, (92). As the wave propagates in the forward z direction, the field vector rotates counterclockwise in the xy plano, Choosing +77/2 leads to (97), whose field vector rotates in the clockwise direction. The handedness of the circular polarization is associated with the rotation and propa- gation directions in the following manner: The wave exhibits left cirewlar polarization (Le-p.) if, when orienting the left hand with the thumb in the direction of propagation, the fingers curl in the rotation direction of the field with time. The wave exhibits right circular polarization (rc.p.) if, with the right-hand thumb in the propagation direc- tion, the fingers cur] in the field rotation direction.” Thus, with forward z propagation, (97) describes a left circularly polarized wave, and (98) describes a right circularly polarized wave. The same convention is applied to elliptical polarization, in which the descriptions left elliptical polarization and right elliptical polarization are used. Using (96), the instantaneous angle of the field from the x direction can be found for any position along z through 2 ff 1 ( Esin@wr = 62) where again the minus sign (yielding l.c.p. for positive z travel) applies for the choice of ¢ = +2/2 in (96); the plus sign (yielding rc.p. for positive z travel) is used if ) =F@r— 62 09 7 This convention is reversed by some workers (most notably in optics) who emphasize the importance of the spatial field configuration. Note that re-p. by our definition is formed by propagating a spatial field that isin the shape ofa left-handed screw, and for that reason iis sometimes called left citcular polarization (see Figure 11.7). Left circular polarization as we define it results from propagating spatial field inthe shape of a right-handed screw, and itis called right ciccular polazization by the spatial enthusiasts. Caution is obviously necessary in intexpreting what is meant when polarization handedness is stated in an unfumilia text.CHAPTER 11. The Uniform Pane Wave y Figure 14.7 Representation of a right circularly polarized wave. The electric field vector (in white) will rotate toward the y axis as the entire wave moves through the xy plane in the direction of k. This counterclockwise rotation (when looking toward the wave source) satisfies the temporal right-handed rotation ‘convention as described in the text. The wave, however, appears as a left-handed screw, and for this reason its called left circular polarization in the ‘other convention. $ = 1/2. If we choose z = 0, the angle becomes simply wf, which reaches 27 (one complete rotation) at time 1 = 2/w. If we choose t = 0 and allow z to vary, we form a corkscrew-like field pattern. One way (o visualize this is to consider a spiral staircase-shaped pattem, in which the field lines (stairsteps) are perpendicular to the z (or staircase) axis. The relationship between this spatial field pattern and the resulting time behavior at fixed z as the wave propagates is shown in an artist’s conception in Figure 11.7. ‘The handedness of the polarization is changed by reversing the pitch of the corkscrew pattern. The spiral staircase model is only a visualization aid. It must be remembered that the wave is still a uniform plane wave whose fields at any position along z are infinite in extent over the transverse plane. ‘There are many uses of circularly polarized waves. Pethaps the most obvious advantage is that reception of a wave having circular polarization does not depend on the antenna orientation in the plane normal to the propagation direction, Dipole antennas, for example, are required to be oriented along the electtic field direction of the signal they receive. If circularly polarized signals are transmitted, the receiver orientation requirements are relaxed considerably. In optics, citcularly polarized light400 ENGINEERING ELECTROMAGNETICS can be passed through a polarizer of any orientation, thus yielding linearly polarized light in any direction (although one loses half the original power this way). Other uses involve treating linearly polarized light as a superposition of circularly polarized waves, to be described next. Circularly polarized light can be generated using an anisotropic medium—a material whose permittivity is a function of electric field direction, Many crystals have this property. A crystal orientation can be found such that along one direction (say, the x axis), the permittivity is lowest, while along the orthogonal direction (y axis), the permittivity is highest. The strategy is to input a linearly polarized wave with its field vector at 45 degrees to the x and y axes of the crystal. It will thus have equal-amplitude x and y components in the crystal, and these will now propagate in the z direction at different speeds. A phase difference (or retardation) accumulates between the components as they propagate, which can reach 1/2 if the crystal is long enough. The wave at the output thus becomes circularly polarized. Such a crystal, cut to the right length and used in this manner, is called a quarter-wave plate, since it introduces a relative phase shift of 1 /2 between E, and E,,, which is equivalent to 2/4. Ic is useful to express circularly polarized waves in phasor form. To do this, we note that (96) can be expressed as E(c.1) = Rel Eee [a +e" a,]} Using the fact that e*/*/? = +: j, we identify the phasor form as: E, = Eo(a, + jaye /** (100) where the plus sign is used for left circular polarization and the minus sign for right circular polarization. If the wave propagates in the negative z direction, we have E, = Eo(a, + ja,)e*/* (ol) where in this case the positive sign applies to right circular polarization and the minus sign to left circular polarization. The student is encouraged to verify this. Let us consider the result of superimposing left and right circularly polarized fields of the same amplitude, frequency, and propagation direction, but where a phase shift of 8 radians exists between the two. Solution. Taking the waves to propagate in the +z direction, and introducing a relative phase, 6, the total phasor field is found, using (100): Eur = Exp + Ez = Eolas — jayle! + Bolas + jayle ie? Grouping components together, this becomes Exr = Eol( +e! Jay — j1 ~e*Jayle* Factoring out an overall phase term, ¢/*/?, we obtain Ey = Boel? [(-18? 4 el8? ya, — j(@ 8? — eI a,] eoi=CHAPTER 11. The Uniform Pane Wave From Euler's identity, we find that e!8 + e~8/? 2j sin 3/2. Using these relations, we obtain E,r = 2Eo(cos(6/2)a, + sin(S/2)ayje 2° (102) 20s 5/2, and e/8/ — e-i8/2 ‘We recognize (102) as the electric field of a linearly polarized wave, whose field vector is oriented at angle 5/2 from the x axis. 404 Example 11.7 shows that any linearly polarized wave can be expressed as the sum of two circularly polarized waves of opposite handedness, where the linear po- larization direction is determined by the relative phase difference between the two waves, Such a representation is convenient (and necessary) when considering, for example, the propagation of linearly polarized light through media which contain organic molecules. These often exhibit spiral structures having left- or right-handed pitch, and they will thus interact differently with left- or right-hand circular polar ization, As a result, the left circular component can propagate at a different speed than the right circular component, and so the two waves will accumulate a phase difference as they propagate, As a result, the direction of the linearly polarized field vector at the output of the material will differ from the direction that it had at the input. The extent of this rotation can be used as a measurement tool to aid in material studies. Polatization issues will become extremely important when we consider wave reflection in Chapter 12. REFERENCES 1, Balanis, C. A. Advanced Engineering Electromagnetics. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1989. 2. Intemational Telephone and Telegraph Co., Ine, Reference Data for Radio Engineers. 7th ed. Indianapolis, Ind.: Howard W. Sams & Co., 1985. This handbook has some excellent data on the properties of dielectric and insulating materials. 3. Jackson, J. D. Classical Electrodynamics. 34 ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1999. 4, Ramo, S.,J.R. Whinnery, and T. Van Duzer. Fields and Waves in Communication Electronics. 3d ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1994, CHAPTER 11 PROBLEMS 11.1] Show that £,, = Ae?*#) js a solution of the vector Helmholtz, equation, Eq. (30), for ko = w/fioe and any ¢ and A 11.2) A 10 GHz uniform plane wave propagates in a lossless medium for which €, = 8 and 1, = 2. Find (a) vp; (b) B; (©) A; (@) Ey: (€) Hes (f) (S) 11.3] An H field in frce space is given as H(x, 1) = 10 cos(108s — Bx)a, Alm. Find (a) B; (b) A; (c) E(x, 1) at P(O.1, 0.2, 0.3) at = Ins. 11.4] Small antennas have low efficiencies (as will be seen in Chapter 14), and the efficiency increases with size up to the point at which a critical dimension of402 ENGINEERING ELECTROMAGNETICS ust 1166 17h 1188 1196 1.104 ual 12h the antenna is an appreciable fraction of a wavelength, say 4/8. (a) An antenna that is 12 em long is operated in air at | MHz. What fraction of a ‘wavelength long is it? (b) The same antenna is embedded in a ferrite material for which ¢, = 20 and jz, = 2, 000, What fraction of a wavelength is it now? A150 MHz uniform plane wave in free space is described by H, = (4+ f10)Qa, + jayJe~** A/m. (a) Find numerical values for w, (b) Find 2(z, £) att = 1.5 ns, z= 20 em, (c) What is |Elmuex? and 6. A uniform plane wave has electric field E, = (Eyoay ~ E.oa,)e-* &~** V/m. The intrinsic impedance of the medium is given as» = |n|e!*, where @ is a constant phase. (a) Describe the wave polarization and state the direction of propagation. (b) Find H,. (c) Find €(r, 1) and (x, 1). (d) Find < $ > in W/m? (e) Find the time-average power in watts that is intercepted by an antenna of rectangular cross-section, having width w and height h, suspended parallel to the yz plane, and at a distance d from the wave source. ‘The phasor magnetic field intensity for a 400 MHZ uniform plane wave propagating in a certain lossless material is (2a, — jSa,Je~/°® Alm. Knowing that the maximum amplitude of E is 1500 V/m, find 8, n, &, vp, Gs Mr and Hx, y, 2,1) ‘An electric field in free space is given in spherical coordinates as E,(r) = Eo(r)e“™ ap Vim. (a) Find H,(r) assuming uniform plane wave behavior. (b) Find < $ >. (c) Express the average outward power in watts through a closed spherical shell of radius r, centered at the origin. (d) Establish the required functional form of Eo(r) that will enable the power flow in part ¢ to be independent of radius. With this condition met, the given field becomes that of an isotropic radiator in a lossless medium (radiating equal power density in all directions). A certain lossless material has jz, = 4 and ¢, = 9. A 10-MHz uniform plane wave is propagating in the a, direction with Eyo = 400 V/m and Ey = Ex = Oat P(0.6, 0.6, 0.6) at t = 60 ns. Find (a) B, A, vp, and 7; (b) E(y. 1); (© HO.) In a medium characterized by intrinsic impedance n = |n|e"*, a linearly polarized plane wave propagates, with magnetic field given as H, = (Hoyay + HorazJe“*e#**. Find (a) E,; (6) E(x, 1); (©) Hex, 1); (@) (S). A 2 GHz uniform plane wave has an amplitude Eyo = 1.4 kV/m at (0, 0, 0, 1 = 0) and is propagating in the a, direction in a medium where €” = 1.6 x 10-"" Fim, e = 3.0 x 107"! Fim, and yz = 2.5 wH/m, Find (a) Ey at P(O,0, 1.8 cm) at 0.2 ns; (b) Hy at P at 0.2 ns. Describe how the attenuation coefficient of a liquid medium, assumed to be a good conductor, could be determined through measurement of wavelength