SUCSTSCTSCTTTC SCOTT OSCOOTHOCEOSOOOOOOOOOCOCOOOSOCOEOOS TABLE 3. Chart for drawing 10 x1.0 mm tubing Area of | Coetti-] Pons] cross |eient of] No section, | elonga: Operations ‘mn tion liorioy 573-3 | 588-0 = |Pointing, pickling, phosphate coating 1 | sox1.95] 294.0 2,0 |Pointing, anneal, straighten- ing, pickling,’ phosphating a | saes.5 | 186.4 1358 |outting, pointing, drawing ‘after oiling 35x45] 135.0 1,62 | Drawing after oiling 4 | 28x0.85] 72.5 1:59 [Cutting off end, pointing, ‘anneal, straighten, pickling, ‘copper coating 5 | 19x0.92| 52.1 1:39 |cutting, cutting off ona, pointing, straighten, pickling, copper coating 6 [15.50.97] 30.2 1.36 [cutting off end, pointing, ‘anneal, straighten, pickling | copper coat ing 7 |ro.0x1.0 | 28.3 4.35 |Anneal, straighten, trim ends A chart Ss compiled on the basis of the schedule calcula tions. In addition to the calculated quantities, this chart also includes deseription of a1] the intermediate operations that the tube undergoes during drawing. Table 3 ia an example of a chart for draving 10 x 1.0 mm tubing, based on calculations of schedules, In addition to the data obtained when calculating pass schedules, the following details are also determined for com- piling the flovaheet for tube dravin pase, mumber of metres drawn per pase, pulling force (required + tube ength after each for selecting the drav bench), the number and weight of the tubes 126.‘and the total number of metre per pass, metal losses per pai dravn on the bench per 1000 @ of finished tubing. An exampln of the calculation of production charts and (26) Slowsheets for tube drawing is given in the first edition ©), Flowsheets for tube drawing are employed for determining the quantity of blanks required and the lad on the draw benches G. Selection and assembly of drawing tools Tools are selected in accordance with the drawing schedule (the production chart). Dies are dafined by the size of the cylindrical working section (the bearing), which is the minimum ho outside diameter of the tube after drawing Inside Alaneter. is determined by this dimension. Therefore the die is selected according to the outside diameter of the tube after the appro priate paws in the production chart. Tho mandrel size is determined by the inside diameter of the tube, Knoving the outside diameter of the tube and the wall thickness after each pass, the inside dianeter is found by subtraction: L.D. = 0.0. = 28, where I.D, i# the inside diameter of the tubes O.D, is the outside diameter of the tubey 4 is the wall thickness of the tube. For example, for 9 50,5 * 2.15 m tube the inside diameter T.Ds = 50.5 = (2 x 2445) » 46.2 mm This value is alse the mandrel diaueter. When drawing with = fixed m rel, correct positioning of the mandrel relative to the die is very important. Figs 554n shows incorrect positioning of the mandrel: the sandret has not entered the die bearing. with the mandrel in this position the outside diameter of the tube decreases but the wall thickness increases. The inside dlaneter of the tube -125~ SOCHOHSHSHSSHHSOHHSSSEHHHHOTEHSHHOHHOHSCHOOSOHOHOSOOEESPECCTCCTCTC CCST CETO CECE CCOCO HT HoT OT TT TTT TOT LJ a Fig. 55. Incorrect positioning of Hig. 56 Correct mandrel in die ponitioning is lees thas the mandrel diapeter, and the diwensions anti- cipated in the chart are not produced. As the tube passes through wn the die and the ond of the mandrel it tends to ‘the gap betws orip the mandrel and drag {t forward, When the manérel bar is fixed in the rear support there Le always a slight gap to allow the mandrel to be moved forward. Drawing with the mandrel in thin position i# accompanied by vibration of the supporting rod, and tube breakage may oceurs Figs 55,b chows another example of incorrect mandrel posi~ tioning; the front end projects too far beyond the die bearing. When the tube emerges from the anulus, vhere it has obtained fon inside diameter equal to the mandrel diaueter, it continues to slide alony the projecting section of the mandrel. This increases the drawing foree and makes scoring and scratching of the tubo surface more Likely. The mandrel should only be mounted in this way after the diameter of its front part has been reduced by wear. Pigs 56 shows the correct position for the mandrel: the mandrel is located inside the cylindrical working section. In this case the entire length of the cylindrical section forms an anulus with the mandrel, through which the tube passes during rging from the anulus the tube wall does not drawings On eb come into contact with the mandrel; the draving process is smooth land the tube acquires the dimensions laid down in the production schedule. n126-Besides the porition of the mandrel relative te the die, the position of the mandrel relative to the tagged end of the tube at the start of drawing is also of great importance in the draving process, since it exerts great influence on the ue to end allowance* amount of metal waste Im the first pass after pointing formation of a small allowance is due to the design of the tooling for drawing with a fixed mandrel. This is agen clearly in Fig- 57, which shows that the bolt oF nut for securing the mandrel rests in the conical transition region of the tagged end. Therefore drawing ) with a mandret (and the ansociated reduction in wall thickn can only devin some distance from the tagged part of the tub not been aubjecte ‘Thus a section of the tube remains that hi to drawings After the firmt pass thie section becomes longer, since the diamster in the die hole decreases, forming an end allowance (Fig. 58). PsaregBepart End allowance che =, Pig. 57+ Position of mandrel in Fig. 58. End allowance tube at the start of first pass formed during first pass Im the second pans care must be taken that the new mandret dows not enter the allowance, otherwise breakage of the tagged or the tube will be inevitable because of wall of increased thickness is being drawn, Therefore the mandrel should be inverted in the dfe hole ax soon as the part of the tube with the allowance las been dravn through. Allowance locaters are now employed in order to catch this moment and reduce losses of metal. * Gnd allowance is that portion of the tube (near the tagged end) where the wall thicknese i not reduced, because the mandrei doos hot enter the dia bearing at the start of the drawing process. -127- SCCOOHOHOOOOOOOSOHOODEO OOOO OTCHOOOOHOOOOEOOOOEFigs 59. Ure of « locator in the second pass + Locator Plug ‘The allowance locator is « cylindrical sleeve, which is mounted betwaen the mandrel and the nut of the supporting rod (Pig. 59). The purpose of the locator is to prevent the mandrel ction from the preceding pass. This Le antering the allowance achieved by using a locator that is slightly longer than all the previous allowances. When a locator is employed the end of the supporting rod rests in the taoged end, therefore the rod with ‘the mandrel can be inserted in the die hole in advance. Use of ‘a locator reduces the length of allowances to 10-50 mm, vith « consequent decrease in metal waste. Because of the locator, the mandrel con start operating as soon as the tube section with the end allowance has been dravn. This raises the productivity of the draw bench. 7+ Drawing tubes made of carbon and low-alloy steels Drawing with a moving mandrel For tube drawing with a woving mandrel, the mandrel is nelected in accordance with the production schedule. A set of bar mandrels is employed (3-5 bara); the difference between the bar dianetere should not excoed 0.2 mi, The front 15-20 mm of the bar should be tapered. Aefore the tube is loaded on the uandrel the latter must be carefully lubricated over its entire length. The outside surface of the tube must also be lubricated that, prior to dravings This also applies to intermediate tube: have not been heat-treated, vhich are called "oily" tubes in drawing practice. 128-‘The mandrel should be inserted in the tube until it rests ayainst the tagged end, so that there will be no waste allowance, A mandrel can be used until it has deep lengthwise scratches or hollows, of until the nose taper reaches 0.5 mu. Care must be taken during draving that the tube axis coincides with the axis of drawing. When drawing with a moving mandrel the wall-thick- nese allowance Je set at £0.15 mn. The quality of the inside aurface of the tubes {# checked by the results of inspection of the bar surface every time 100 m of tubing 1» drawn, and also by taking samples. After drawing with a moving mandrel the tubes are trans- ferred to 4 reeling machines the cylindrical sections of the rolls of thin suchine should Ife in the same vertical plane. ‘The guid of the machine in set midway between the rolls (parallel to the axis of the rolls), co that the tube axis is 3-5 mm below the horizontal line between the axes of the rolls under pressure. Final adjuatnent of the axis height should ensure that reeling takes: place over the entire width of the working mections; cor~ nce of of1 on the rect machine setting ix indicated by the ab: working sections of the rolls and a wide spiral trail on the rected tubes. If after reeling once the mandrel cannot be extracted from the tube the distance between the rolln showld be reduced, ified, During reeling the extent of reeling should be int not form on the tube care must he taken that a "serew" do: surface, i.e. dente in a spiral duo to the pressure of the rolls Aapiral trail on the tubes may arise because the cylindrical sections aro not parallel or the rolls were not grooved correctly during manufacture, After reeling, the tube with the bar inside is transferred to the mandrel. Brawing with a fixed mandré Tubes for drawing with a fixed mandrel must be lubricated. Tools are selected in accordance with the drawing schedule. Te -129- SPOOHOOOOHOHCO OOOH OLOEE OOOO OEOOEEOOCOOOOOOOOOOESUTCTCTSCTCSCTSCSOOCO SFOS SHOEOCOOOOOOCOSOOOCOOCOOOOESS Giameter of the holt (or supporting Fed) should be 2-10 mn less than the inside diameter of the tube, but not greater than 60 mm. When setting the draw bench the end of the plug or "tail" mandrel shoulé be located roughly in the middle of the die bearing. During drawing the end of the mandrel may move forward slightly as draving proceeds; its position {e adjusted according to the results obtained. When draving with @ plug, lecators should be used: 10 mm long for the second pase, 20 mm for the third and 30 am for the fourth. Locators are not employed when drawing tubes with wall thickness leas than 0.8 mm, The clearance can be increared to 50 mm for draxing broken tubes. The condition of the mandrel and the inside surface of the tubes is checked by touch after 3-5 tubes are drawn. Sinkein i Tubes must be lubricated before "sinking"; tools are jelected in accordance with the production chart. Sinking is simpler than drawing with a moving or fixed mandrel, but the method does give rise to certain difficulties in operation and tube imperfection: Hot drawing For hot drawing the outside surface of the tube is lubri- cated vith @ composition containing 95% silver graphite and 5% sodium silicate (by volume). Tre heating temperature for the 10-20 tunes depends on the steel grade: tubes made of grade: carbon steels are heated in an induction furnace to 750-800°C (dark-cherry colour), 20 that on entering the die the tube temperature is about 650-700°C (durk-red colour). The tubes should be heated uniformly, and must not have ring-shaped over heated sections, Irreyularly heated tubes aust not be subjected to araw irregular reduction of the tube wall may ng, otherwia renult. Such tubes should be re-heuted after cooling. =150-At the monent the Lube is gripped a water spray, mounted on tho other side of the die head, begins operating. ‘The tubes should be cooled uniformly. Orvanization of york at the draw bench High labour productivity and good tube quality are achieved by strict observance of manufacturing instructions, rationaliza~ tion and inproverent of equipment and tools, installation of additional devices and by other measures. Careful preparation of the bench before work begins, supply of tools in sufficient quantity at the right time and proper oroanization of the tean's work throughout the ahift ure also ef considerable importance. Consider organization of the team’s work. The drav-bonch operator arrives before the shift begins to find out how work proceeded in the preceding shift and what difficulties were encountered in oreration of the bench. This makes it possitte for hin to take the necessary measures to prevent recurrence of any trouble in the work of the new shift, On taking over, the bench operator examines the die head and work area, and checks the set of drawing tools, the set of keys for securing the wan- Grete and the tocls for dressing the dies and mandrels; all the tools are urranged on special racks near the draw bench. the operator's aasintant pays most attention to the working order of the dog, since operation of the bench throughout the shift depends on this component, In addition, he checks the Jaws, checks tho condition of the draw chain, ofls the dog and checks the operation of the loading mechanias To prevent standetilie, the next bundle of tubes is trans= ferred to the charging Facks before all the tubes in the first bundie have been dravns If @ new tube size is to be drawn the necessary tools cre got ready immediately. Bach bundle im examined on receipt, In order to renove fon onda that have been cut. defective tubes and projecting edst -13aeTools are alvays dressed during drawing; the next tube is loaded onto the bench and inserted in the die before the dog returns to the die head. During eperation of the bench certain components vear out, some more quickly than others. ‘The working order of the equip- nent must be checked frequently to prevent hold-ups. Planned preventive repair ix undertaken for this purpose. F towearing parte (grip Jaws, draw-chain links, reduction gearing ete.) are manufactured beforehand. With regular planned inspection of the equipment these parte are replaced in good time, without waiting for them to tecome unserviceable. 8. Special features of drawing tubes made of special steels Hollows made of special steels must meet special require nents regarding surface finish, dimensional accuracy and metal structure. Before raving tubes made of alloy and stainless steels they mat be heat-treated, since tho tubes are at a temperature of 750-800%C after rolling and are cooled in air, which increases their hardness. The heat treataent depends on the grade of steel. Annealing and quenching schedules are laid down in the manufactur~ ing specifications for each grade of steel. Tne surface of the hollow must be free of cuts, cracks, tears, network structure, deep scoring, seama, scabs, laps or notches, Hollews should be conditioned on grinding machine Ade Hollows for special-purpose tubing are machined on the in and outside surfaces. Burrs are carefully removed from the ends of the hollows, Hollows for tubing to be used in very special applications are pickled after turning and boring and then examined. A periscope is used for inapecting the inside surface of extra-thinwalled tubing, electropolished tubing ete. The quality of pickling, rinsing, copper cladding and dry- chable influence ing of special-steel tube blanks has an appr fon the surface finish of the finished tubing, the life of the 132arawing tools and the productivity of the draw bench. Therefore, 1 tubes, pickling and other preparatory wien drawing special~at operations are carried out in accordance with the description of these operations qiven in Chapter Ve After careful rinsing, any remaining sline is removed by wiping with rags and cleaning rods. The tools employed for drawing must be polished to a wirror fintahs As a rule, tudes made of syecial steets are special purpose, and must meot atricter specifications relating to surface finish and dimensional tolerances. Therefore, when drawing these tubes good-quality lubricants auch as castor oil should be employed, and not low-quality lubricants in the form of emulsions, peat tatiow ete. During drawing, the dimensions are checked every 100 m of tubing drawn. When drawing tubes ade of certain special steels, and stainless steels in particular, the overall reduction be~ tween intermediate annealing or quenching must not exceed 45-60% (vith reduction of about 15-20% per past). Drawing of etainlesesstecl tubing is accompanied by @ high consumption of drawing tools, especially aandrels. The reason for mandrels becoming unservicenble a frequently is the presence of detects on the inside surface of the tubes (scabs, blisters) and the high degree of cold vork of stainless steel. To prevent thin the tubes are ground ineide and outside, stronger mandrels of special steels and alloys are used, or intermediate heat treatment 1s carried out. When intermediate tube sizes are obtained during the arawing process, additional intermediate operations are carried out, such a8 plekling in hydrfluoric acid, spray pickling, -blasting of the Inside surface ete. For a stonmingy 5: selected number of tubes intended for very special applications, the inside surface of intermediate tubes is inspected with a periscope. -133- SOHO HOEOOCO HHO HEECHOOOOOEOOCOHOOOOOOOOOOOOEETTT TTT TTT TCT OT UTES TODEHSCOOOCOOOCOTOOOCOOSOCOESESS Compressed air ia always blown through the tube before the inside surface is examined. Degreasing and careful rinsing in hot circulating vater are employed to remove lubricant after drawing, following which copper reaidues are removed. ‘Special-stee! tubes must be heat~ treated in continuous furnaces. Wooden or textolite mandrels and presses are used for straightening certain intermediate and finished tube sizes. Finished tubes are rinsed in kerosene. They are conditioned using felt wheels with abrasive; rubher-covered carriages are used for tran portation. Special tubes for various ultimate uses have special featuren in manufacture by cold draving. For example, some finished tubes may be supplied to the customer in the cold worked state, f-¢. without undergoing Final heat treatment; tunes for rods of current collectors are drawn with « limit for the travel of the dog; tubes with lengthwise variation of wall thickness are draun with @ special mechanism for feeding and withdrawing the fixed mandrel, and so on. ‘This section has given a very bried account of the special features of draving special-stoel tubes. For production of these tubes the manufacturing instructions available at the plants must be followed. Drawing shaped and variable-section tube: Apart from circular tubes, the tube-draving shops alse produce tubes with square, rectangular, oval, hexagonal, octagonal and other sections (see Figs 60). The shapes of these tuber are described in GOST standards. In addition to the shaped tubing manufactured according to GOST apecificatii ei tieations tlons employed less widely are manufactured to the @ of the branch of induatry requiring the special tubing. Shaped tubes are employed in engineering for manufacturing parts used in aircraft, automobiles, agricultural machinery, n15h-Figs 60. Shaped sections bicycles and other machines. The basic purpose in using shaped tubing is to produce lighter tubular structures whilst naintaining strength. Metal ia saved as a result of employing shaped tubing in this way. Variable-section tubes are employed for the same reason. ‘The diameter and wall thickness of these tubes may vary along the length of the tube, In some cases shaped tubes also have a variable section. Seamless and electric-welded tubes can ction tuber. be used as hollova for shaped and variable~ ‘They are usually manufactured by sinking through a shaped die, ‘Tubes with @ complex profile require several passes, and frequently require drawing with @ shaped mandrel. Variable-section tubes (stepped tubes, tubes with regularly repeating profiles, tapered tubes with variable longitudinal nection ete.) are drawn on a bench with a travel limit, or on bench in which the mandrel position relative to the die is altered during the draving operation. -135- COOOCOHEEOOOOOOO HOO TEHOOOOOHOEEOOOOOCOOOOOOOOETTTTTCOCTTCTSOSSCHOOSOSSOOECHOCHOOOCHSEOOOOLO OOO COLOOS Nanufacture of shaped and variable-nection tubes is examined (a7) in detail in the bok by Shurupoy and Freibers 10. Drawing binwetal tubes Diemetal (double-layer) tubes are employed in order to economize on non-ferrous metals, alloy steels and stainless etecls, and alse because of special service conditions. Bi chemical engineering; in the machine-tool industry, in machine layer hollow, which is obtained by centrifugal casting om by *. ‘the latter case the inner section is expanded by a plug ‘on a draw bench or by a punch on @ press, so that there is « tighter [it between the two layers of metal. 5 The dovbie-layarhollow produced by ceutrifugi™ casting is of higher quality, sine the hot metal of the second layer Gisfuses (penetrates) into the first layer, which provides better adhesion. After preparation the double-layer hollow {9 heated and extruded through a circular yap to form a tubes In this process the length of the hollow inereaves and the wall thickness decrea The hollow #0 obtained is pickled, rinsed, dried and straightened; the ende are trimmed and the blank is rolled on 4 cold-rolling mill. The tube produced is about 7 m long. Dofore drawing, the cold-rolled tubes are annealed, rinsed, coppered, dried and pointed, The tubes are lubricated on the ineide and outside and then dravn witha plugs Bi-metal tube: fare drawn by the same method employed for drawing ordinary ‘steel tubing, and on the same equipment. Al1 that is required vance of the manufacturing inatruc~ 1s particularly close ob: jetal tube is composed tions, since the metals of vhich the bi -136-have different heat~treatuent temperatures and react differently with phekting solutions (28), 11, Drawing capillary tubing Acapillory tube is one with an inside diameter in the range from hundredth of a millimetre to 1-2 mm; the outside diameter ix from 0.4 mn to 2-3 um. These tubes Find wide application in various aspects of measurenent, in medicine, in the radio engineering industry and in other branches of science and technolooy aa inotrunent and machine partes Capitiary tubing is manufactured from stainless steel or from various alloys based on nickel or some other metal. ‘The hollows for capillary tubing, which ts a special-purpos product involving a very labour-consuming aanufacturing process, must most very exacting requirements, ‘The hollovs are turned and bored with careful control of surface quality in order to remove all imperfections. after this the bollow are cold-rolled on roll milis and then roller lla. In sone cases rolling on @ roller mill is alternated with inking. The production process for producing cold-formed hollows for capillary tubing is defined in the manufacturing instruc tions. cold-rolled tubes vith outeide diameter 6-8 nm are usually employed as initial hollow in the manufacture of capit= lary tubing. The wall thickness of the hollowdepends on the wall thickness of the finished tubing: 0.5 mm wall thickn iu employed for producing tubes with wall thickness of 0.2 am oF Joss, and 1.0 wm for tubes vith wall thickness above 0.2 mm, A characteristic feature of the manufacture of capillary tubing is draving with « moving mandrel followed by sinking. ‘The tubes are open-pointed, the end of the bar mandrel and the tube being gripped simultaneously. This form of arip prevents breakage of the tube nose. -137- POOSCOCOOOHHOHHOOOOH OE SEO OO EHC OOEEOOOOOOOOOOOESilver oteel is used for the moving mandrels; the dizference A diameter between the mandrels in @ get must not exceed £0.02 ma. Capillary tubes are drayn on benches with pulling power of 045 tonnes or 1 tonne, ‘The tubes are lubricated with castor oil prior to drawing, Dray dies are made of hard alloys, or of Lamond for tubes with O-D. lese than 0.5 mu. After drawing, the tube with the mandrel inside is reeled in a double-roll machine for 8-10 pauses, then the mandrel is withdrawn on the draw bench. ‘The tubes are blown with compressed air before drawing ie continued. When drawing capillary tuber ive tubing on account of localized reduction in tubs care must be taken that defect~ ection is not produced. The reason for such "pinchino" {e poor condi- tion of the reeling rolls, az a result of which dents form in the tube surface, and the presence of flat areas along the tube after reeling. Inprovenent in tool quality and increase in the, umber of reoling passes before withdrawing the mandrel make it possible to avoid scrap due to "pinching", and also increase the amount of tube Feduction during subsequent passes without a man~ are. , ¢ Ag an example, Table 4 gives = production chart for drawing 1.0 x 044 wm capillary tubing made of carbon steel. ALL intermediate operations carried out during manufacture of capillary tubing depend on the grade of steel or alloy ‘employed, in accordance with the appropriate manufacturing Fs inotructions. hen the tube diameter becones very snail, intermediate pickling ia not carried out, Intermediate and final annealing are conducted in electric furnaces with a neutral atmosphere, An order to keep the surface of capillary tubing clean during drawing. ‘The finished tubes are trimmed at both end and then compressed air ia blown through th: -138-TABLE 4. Production chart for drawing 1,0x0.1 au capillary tubing haa] Tube | Soot “ size, | cient of | Method of drawing | Heat treatment No. am | _[etongation| =| ax0.5 - | Benew - With moving mandrel, with diameter, ma: 1 |5-64x0.38 5 anneal 2 |3.9ax0.21 35 3 |3.26%0.13 3 4 |2.70%0.09 25 Jiitnout anneating 5 | 1.9x0.095) Sinking 6 | astxo.t Ditto anneal 1.0%0.1 Finished tube When manufacturing capillary tubes it is extremely difficult to check the ingide iuneter, Direct measurement at the ends of tho tubes only gives approximate values. One method of control Ls accurate weighing of the empty tube and the tube filled with mercury. The volume of mereury in the tube is found from the weight, and from thia the inaide diameter can be calculated. 42, Cold expansion of tubes ‘The cold expnneion method and the equipment for this pro- cose have already been described (p. 49, 67). Tt should be noted that during expansion in tension the inside dianeter of the supporting ring is 2-3 mm Jarger than the outside diameter of the tube after expansion. when the wall thickness is less than 2mm the end of the tube in not only expanded, but also Flanged. During expansion in compression (against a backstop) the rear end of the tube, which rests in the supporting ring, is expanded ta the size of the finished tube over a short Length. -139- PCOOOCOOEEHHOEO OOOH OOO OEOOOEOOOOOOOEOOOCOOOEOOE‘The supporting ring has a cylindrical recess in which the rear has an outside dianeter end of the tube rests. This rece 4-2 wm larger than the outside diameter of the tube. The inside Glaneter of the supporting ring is machined 0.4.0.6 mm larger than the dianeter of the cylindrical section of the expander plug. The dianeter, wall thickness and length of the tube are altered simultaneously during cold expansion. The change in wall thiekn aug (229), ia independent of the dimensions of the expander pI 13. Productivity of dray pene! The productivity of draw benches is determined by. the tine required for the tube-drawing operations. The time required for actual drawing is called the machine working time; the time expended on operations for machine maintenance, and attendance ia called the auxiliary Une. The work of the draw bench comprises a number of operations: draving, dog return, delivering tubes to the bench, leading the tubes on the mandrel bars, inserting the tube in the die, engage- ment of the dog with the chain, removing the tube from the bench, withdraving the mandre} from the die, engaging the dog-return nechanion, mundrel inspection and dressing. A certain amount of time is expended on euch of thexe operations. However, the tine required for draving one tube is uot equal to the sum of the amounts of time expended on all the operations, since certain operations proceed simultaneously, ice. overlap. Special charts are dravn up in order to get a clear picture of which operations proceed simultaneously in the draving process. Fig. 61 shows a chart for @ mechanized draw bench. Tt has boon constructed on the basis of the technical data for a 30- tonne draw bench. The draving rate has been put at 48 m/uing doy return, 100 m/min; apeed of Leading the tubes on the rods, rting @ tube into the die by pneumatic 120 m/miny the time for in: -tho-cylinder 1s taken as 1-5 5, engaging the dog with the chain 2 seconds and ejecting the tube into the container 1-5 operations duration ot — {32 [tenoving tubs from bench ‘drawing plug fFow die Figs 61. Chart for tube draving on a mechanized drav bench It can be acen from thia chart that the only manual opera tons are withdreving the mandrel from the die, mandro} dressing and aasonbly. The time T from the moment the dog engages with the draw chain wien drawing the first tube te the moment when ‘the dog engages with the chain to draw the second tube is dofined aa the time for draving one tube. The + On modern irawing time depends on the drawing rat machanized benches the drawing rates reach 48-75 m/min and even 135 m/min. The productivity of a draw bench can be calculated from h of the tubes to be drawn and the the drawing rate, the Leng! time required for auxiliary operations. It is first necessary to determine the total duration of the operations for éraving one tub ‘The tine for drawing proper in determined from the average Aength of the tubes obtained after drawing and the drawing rate: where ¢ in the drawing time, 1 ie the tube length after drawing and v is the average drawing rate. naka SOOHOHHOO OOOH OOOH OOOO OOO OCOOOOOOOCOOOOCOOOOCCEOO®For example, the time required for draving a tube 12 long on a mechanized triple-line bench at a drawing rate of 48 m/min ie 1 te + Tg = 0.85 min © 15 seconds For mechinized draw benches the time for auxiliary opera- tions is calculated from the technical specifications of the mechanisms involved in the tube-draving process. If the timo drawing one tube is known it {9 4 simple matter to determine how many tubes can be dravn in an hour, The pro= duction rate of « draw bench is usually expressed as the numbor of metres dravn per hour, calculated from the formula 60 + 60 7 Loa (22), where A is the bench output per hours . Tie the total time for drawing one tubs in seconds; 1 ie the tube Length after drawing, mi is the number of tubes drawn simultaneously; is a correction factor for the different lengths of tubes Grown in @ multiple-Line bench, For @ double-line bench Line = 0195 for triple-line and all other mult{pl benches = 0.8. When draving tubes 12 long on @ 30-tonne mechanized triple-line bench with a drawing rate of 48 u/min and a dog roturn speed of 100 m/min the productivity per hour is 60 + 60 60 hE ae 5+ 018 « 9280 ae + 5 + 068 = 580 netron drawn, 3 were T = 29 seconds. 4k, Defects in tubing: thelr causes and prevention ‘The main cause of scrap in tube drawing 1s incorrect conduct and non-observance of the requirements otha.and specisicotions in the manufacturing instructions because of carelessness or insufficient skill on the part of the workers. hollows Another possible cause of scrap 1s poor quality of th received by the tube-draving shop, caused by shortcomings in steel production of production of rolled products ‘Thus, tvo types of scrap can be distinguished according to origin and couse: scrap which arises because the cold-draving protess is not conducted properly, and scrap due to poor quality of the tube metal. ue te turghg procs Scoring and scratching (Figs 62,a,b) on the inside outside surfaces of the tube are formed as a result of adherence of metal particles on the working surface of the drawing tools or accidental entry of scale (poor pickling) between the sur of the tools and tube. Causes of scdring are irregular hardness at various points of the tool surface, unsound coating of copper on the tube surface und bad tube pointing with hanser: Yo prevent scoring, tools with a clean surface must be eaployed and high-quality of the preparatory operations (pickling, copper coating, lubricating, washing, end pointing and trimming) must he enoured. If the dies or mandrels possess great hardness and are well polished build-up of metal will be less. Dincontinuity inside the tube (Fig. 62,e) arises when insertion of the mandrel into the deformation region is delayed, so that part of the tube may be drawn with a thickened wall. Locators (see Figs 59) should be employed to prevent discontinui~ ties. Discontinuity may be caused by lack of orip or Incorrect arinding of the mandrel. Jarring occurs because of irregular feed of the tube during drawing. It given rise to ring-shaped marks on the inside and outside surfaces of the tube (Pig, 62,4). Jarring occurs for several reasons: a) poor preparation, ats COOCOOEOEOOOOOOOOCEOHDEHOOOCOOO OOOO OOO OES OOELCEparticularly with tubes that have not been properly wabsed and aried (presence of scale or loose coating of copper), which eas be explained by.a variable coofficient of friction, Such tubes should be returned for additional washing and dryingy b) the mandrel may be advanced too far or not far enough. In this case jarring is corrected by returning the mandrel to ite correct position; ¢) employing a mandrel bar which ts too thin land poor Iubrications The supporting red should be changed and a better Lubricant should be used a) mandrel dianeter larger than that apecitied in the production chart. In this case the annular gap between mandrel and die is too suall and the draft will be excessive. The draw bench must be stopped at once and the mandrel changed. Jarving damages the tubes and causes failure of drav-bench tools and equipment. Breakage of the tube end (Fig, 62,e) occurs when there are sudden large loads, arising a) whon the mandrel moves @ long way forward; b) when the die is not perpendicular to the axis of drawings ¢) when the tools are not elected correctly, i.e- if the reduction is greater than that permitted; d) if the pr paratory operations are not carried out correctly. Breakages sometimes occur when drawing thin-walled tubes if there 1s con- siderable reduction of the outside diameter (even if the com efficient of olongation {a within the permissible limite). Breakage of the enés {# caused much wore rarely becaus of bad pointing, and even more rarely because of the effect of impuri~ ties in the metal. Lengtiwise cracks (Fig. 62,f) mainly arise during sinking of tubes with wall thickness above 1.5 ma. The main causes of lengthwise cracks are: a) large reduction in respect of dia~ meter; b) unsatisfactory mechanical properties of the tub ue to poor hent treatment; ¢) flaws in the tubes, sainly rolling (attributable te Laps; 4) drawing tubes with acid brittle poor drying after pickling and copper coating). ahhFigs 62. Defsets in dravn tubes dua to disturbances in the production process 4 = scoring and scratching on outedde surface; b - scoring on inside surface; © - discontinuity; d = unevenness caused by Jarringy ¢ - end breakage; f - lengthwise cracks; 9 - length= wise lapey h - "pinching"; { ~ pitting on inside surface The main measure for preventing this defect is inmediate heat troatmant of the ubes after drawings the techniques omployed in all the process atages should also be checkeds Lape along the tube (Fig. 62, 9) form during sinking of tubes with wall thickness Less than 1am with large reduction in respect of diametor, The tube cross-nection loses its rigidity in the die because the tranavers bending strength of the tube wall in the deformation region becones less than its resistance to sagging. To prevent laps the reduction in dianctor ats PCOOOTHOE OOOO OOO HOODOO OOOO ESOOOOOOOOOOOOOOCESTIT SCT TTCTTTTSTTSCTSOTUSTSESSCOCOSSOOOOSOHOHOOHOHEHOS must be decreased; the thinner the tube wall, the less reduction in iaueter can be employed. Dents occur in thin-walled tubes during transfer, vhen, the tubes receive accidental blows, during handling with chains and when the tubes are thrown into containers that are net lined with wood or rubber, Dents can be rectified, but this requires cold expansion and re-drawing to the final size, which increases production costs, To prevent dente, thin-walled tubing must be handted with care. "Pinching" (Pigs 62)h) ie @ localized reduction section, which arises because of large reduction in diameter, poor preparation (irregular along the length of the tube), waviness of the outeide wurface and the presence of dents and lape on cold-rolled tubes. In addition, in the manufacture of capillary tabing, "pin hing" may arise because of bad reeling of the tubes on their mandrels. Qverpickting results in pits of various forme, several tenths ef a millimetre deep. These form on tubes which are held in the pickling solution for too longs Overpickling {# easily overcone by introducing @ sufficient quantity of pickling into the bat adai tive: he Pitting (Fige 62,{) 49 corrosion of metal (in the form of spots) on a section of the tube up to 1-15 a? in areas the depth of the pits may reach 0-5-0.7 mm. Pitting usually appears on stainless-steel tubes when they are picklod in a mixture of sulphuric, Lyarochlorie and nitric acid solutions when the pro= portions of acid are ineorrect, and also when the solution con- tains Large amount of salts of iron, chromium and other metals oF the solution tomperature {# raised above 50°C. Pitting ie prevented by Keeping the pickling solution at the required temp- erature and maintaining correct composition, and by chaning the solution when a large quantity of salts has accumulated, ‘A spiral track 10 formed on thin-walled tubes with diameter 146nore than 30 mm as a result of incorrect adjustment of the roll straightener, of because the rollx are worn, The track is sude by tho edges of the rolls and sometines by the guide. To pre= vent this form of scrap care muat be taken that the tube make: contact with the central hyperboleid surface of the rolls. The rolls should be replaced at once if worn. Tubes with a spiral track should be re-drawn to another size. Incorrect sdjustment of the draw bench gives rise to scrap Fig. 63. Tubing serapped by reason of incorrect dimennions (produced during drawing)! a = wall-thickness tolerance ex= ceeded; b = out-of-round; ¢ - wall-thickness variation WoLI-thickness tolerances may be exceeded (Fig. 63,0) if the die and mancre! are not assembled correctly. This form of scrap can be rectified by re-drawing to another tube size. Quiref=rourd (Pig. 63,b) may arise through draving in an oval die, Thix too can be rectified by re-drawing to another sizes (Pigs 63,0), when the wall Mal1-thiekress ditt thickness varios in the same cross-section, is most serious when it ie on ore side, Wall-thickness variation may be pro. duced during hot rolling. One-sided yall-thickness differences are not renoved during cold draving. Therefore attention must be paid to producing blanks with minimum variation in wall thickness. a1k7-VU VTC TTT TCT TT TSCOTTLTESSCCOOSCOOOHSCOCHOOODDOCOSS During araving, the finished tube may Mave variable wall thickness, even though thehollow did not, {f an oval mandre? oF die hole is employed, and also if the axis of drawing does not coincide with the axis of the die hole in the region of deformation. Thorefore special attention must be paid to the checking of tools and accurate setting. ity ef u Scabs (Fig. Ghya) show up on the outelde and, more often, on the inside surfaces of tubes during drawing. Seabe on the outside surface are formed in the tube rolling shop, when low quality hollova with eracks and gas bubbles are pierced. na Figs 64, Types of serap arising from poor quality of the hollow a = scabs om inside surfaces b ~ # © = blisters. ult from incorrect Seabe on the inside surface of tubing r adjustment of the piercing will, as @ consequence of vhich a cavity with 2 ragged surface forma in front of the mandrel nose; when rolled, scabs are formed. To prevent the appearance of scabs during drawing, the hollow should be carefully conditioned and checked with flaw detectors, which make it possible to find internal defects in the metal. Seana (Tig. 64,b) are neon as a fine Line on the tube aurface. -1hBeSeams are caused by bubbles with oxidized walls, which have not welded up during hot rolling. Seame nay be 0-1-1.0 nim door Dlanks delivered to the tubesdrawiny shop with aeams should he rejected. Blisters (Fig. 6440) are caused by zcale and refractory particles being imbedded in the etal, and by the impressions rolling rolls. Blistered parts should of metal adhering to th be oround out before the hollow {s sent for processing. =149- SOOHHSHOSHCOHOHOHOHDSHSSOOSSOHOHEEHOOOOOOOOECEguanren x INTERMEDIATES OPERATIONS IN TUBE DRAWING A. Gutting tubes into sections and triiming tagged ends Tubes are elongated in the drawing process. When their length {s nearly equal to the Jenoth of the rear frame of tho bonch thoy ure cut in two. The tubes are cut with alligator shears, friction saws, energy cutters or on cutting machines. These machines are alsa employed for eutting off the tacged ends, when their size 1s nearly equal to the diameter of the tube being dravns An unpleasant piercing sound 1s produced when tubes are cut on friction wavs. For this reason cold-cutting alligator shears are employed more often for cutting off the tagged ends. he Cutting is noiseless and the production rate is high enon A disadvantage of the method in that the ends are flattened until their walls toueh. Te obtain an even end, which is neccssary for forced insertion of the tuhe into the die ete., the ends of the tubes are cut on cutter or disk tube-cutting machines (ase Chapter X1)+ 2. Pointing and hammering down Hammering down is the process for reducing the size of the tagged ond when Lt will not pasx through the die. Reducing the size of tho point by hanmering down delays cutting off the M1 efze in the first point. If the tube end is reduced to a pointing operation breakage way occur during drawing. Vointing and hammering down of intermediate-size tubes are carried out with 75kg and 40-ko hammers or on @ radial forging machines small-diameter tubes are pointed on a rotary forging machine. =150-3. Removing lubricant from the tubes Most of the lubricants used in tube draving contain carbon. If 4 tube de sent for heat treatment with lubricant on its sur faces, carburization will occur on heating, i.e. some carbon will be transferred from the lubricant to the steel. Steele containing @ small quantity of carbon are especially Liable to carburization. Therefore, special-purpose tubes made of stain= less steol and alley steels are cleaned of lubricant, by de- greasing and washing in hot running water, prior to heat treat pent « The tubes are degreased by lowering the bundle of tubes into a vat coutaining special solutions. If the vat is net mechanized the tubes are raised and lowered several times during degreasing. Degreasing takes 1-1,5 hy the solution temperature is maintained at 80°C or above. After degreasing, the tub are washed in hot running water at 80-90°C. he Intermediate heat treatment During cold drawing the tube metal hardens. The hardening of metal under the action of plastic deformation is called cold working or cold hardening. ‘The ultimate strength of the metal increases az a result of cold working by @ factor of e.n. 1.3- 1.6, whereas the relative elongation is reduced by a factor of 3.0-3.7. Therefore cold-worked tubes resist further deformation. Heat treatnont must be carried out to nullify the effects of cold work, Tubes made of carbon and alloy steels, with tho exception of steiniess grades, are annealed. After heating to the annealing temperature and stow cooling (vith the furnace) the plasticity of the metal increases, and as a result it becones possible to employ high coefficients of elongation Guring drawing. ‘The surface of cold-dravn tuber is not oxidized after deformation, It would be advantageous, therefore, te conduct SPOOOHOHSOSHOSO HOCH OH OSE SOOCOOOOOCHOOCEOOOOOOOOOEOTTT TTT TTT TTC TCTSTTTTSOGTESTCSCOSOSOOOOOSOCOOEOSEEEE intermediate as vell as final heat treatnent of the tubes without oxidizing their surface, ainee this would reduce the time taken for pickling, and in some cages make it completely unnecessary, which would be economically advantayoous. It i possible to carry out heat treatuent without oxidizing the tubes by using heating furnaces with a protective atmosphere. Tubes are annealed in accordance with an established nehedulo, which depends on the tube dimensions and steel grade, land alno the type of furnace to be omployed for heat treatment. with external mechanization Chanbor furnace Chamber furnaces are employed for intermediate and final heat treatment of tubes of any sizes. Tubes made of carbon and furnaces, The tubes + cortain alloy steels are anucaled in th are heated to 650-680°C for 30-35 min, then the metal temperature As raised to 700-750°C for 5 min. After this the heat supply is awitehed off and the tubes are left in the furnace for 5-10 min for tenperature equalization, The tubes are then discharged onto racks for cooling. ‘The soaking time depends on the grade of steel, the tube wall thickness and the number of rows of tubes loaded into the furnace at the sane tine. Dravn tubes are leaded inte the fur When the tubes nace in bundles, assenbled in special stand are assembled in the stands, spacers are placedbetween horizontal rows go that gape are made in the tube bundle to provide better all-round heating, The tubes are loaded inte the furnace after it has been heated to the annealing temperature. Pig. 65 shows 9 cross-nectional view of a chamber furnace. The burners 1 are positioned along the longer walle of the fur~ nace at intervals of about 500 mm, The products of combustion rise to the roof, circulate round the tubes 3 placed in stands 2, then descend and escape through the collecting flue 4, located in the middle of the furnace, Extraction of the combustion pro- ducts from the roof through the flue in the middle of the hearth 152Amproves heating of the tubes and speeds up the heating process. ‘The Lenath of existing chamber furnaces varies from 6 to 42 mj the chanber of a single-chamber furnace is about 3 m wide, and the stands have an inaide width of 1700 mi. With a stand of ity Le 25-4 tonne: thie width the charge eapa: ction of chamber fur Figs 65. Croseet The furnaces are equipped with a mechanized charging ine, with two carriages which can move along the charging doors of a row of furnaces. For cooling in the stands the tubes are placed on racks, which are usually located near the furnaces are are constructed in such a way that the carriages ef the charging machine drive ‘onto them and set down the tubes. ‘The productivity of chamber furnaces depends on the type of heat treatment, the aize of the tubes, the weight of the nd other factors, charge, the nusber of rove in the bundle and varies widely. In chamber-type heat-treating furnaces heating of the metal is slew and non-uniform, Use of considerabse and rapid rise in furnace tonperature is Limited by the fact that the outer tubes SPOHOHHSOSHOEHOHOHOHOSSEOOOOOOHHOOHHOSCOOOCOOOOESTTTT SS SS SS OO SPECCCCCCR COSC CSSESS in the charge will be overheated, compared with the tubes near the middle of the charge. Long soaking times are required tor temperature equalization of the tubes, which results in eon. siderable formation of scale, nonuniform structure and pro perties of the metal, and alo distortion of the tubes. There~ fore chamber furnaces are being replaced by continuous section furnaces sid roller-hearth furnaces. pidcheating section ¢umaces Section furnaces are employed for intermediate heat treat~ ent of cold-rolled and coldedrawn tubes. The heating tenpera- ture deperds on the grade of ateel and 19 650-750%C; the heating tomparature used for stainless-steel tubes for quenching is 1000-1150°C. 19 of the metal is extrenely rapid in section furnaces (>), Nes! me heatirg tine for 10 am wall thicknese is 4 min for stainless~ stect tubes and 3 min for carbon-nteel tubes; the time the tubes remain in the furnace and the speed with which the tubes pass through the furnace depend on the length of the furnace. ‘the rapid heating rates in section furnaces are achieved .s a result of the high temperatures of the working zone (2400~ 1500°C), synmetrical and all-round heating of the tubes and considerable velocities of the combustion products flowing round the tubes, With rapid heating, metal burn-off in section fur- haces ia slight, being 0.51%. Accurate and uniform heating over the perimeter and length of the tube is achieved becaune the tube passes through the entire length of the furnace and is rotated about its oxie at the sane time, During heat treatuent of tubes the heating teuperature is regulated mainly by changing the speed at which the tubes pass through the furnace Pigs 66 ahows an overall view of a 9-section rapid-heatiny furnaces heated with natural gas. Bach section 1 of the furnace is heated by two burners 2, located on opposite sides of the aec~ tions in plan the burner axeo are net in line with each other. -15h—Fig. 66. Rapid-heating section furnace The burners are so positioned that the fame from one is located above the tube 3 being heated, and the other flame is below the tube. Coranic er steel burners are employed. The combustion apace of the chenter is circular, ax @ result of which the oases leaving the burrers awirl and flow round the tubes from all Girections, The tube is heated by the gases Towing round it, and also by radiated heat from the strongly heated walls of tho chanber. Conveyor rollers 5, mounted on water-cooled hollow shafts 6, are installed in vestibules 4 between the sections 1, The shafts fare mounted in hearings 7 and are driven by individual electric notors 8. Tho rollers are aet at an angle to the furnace axis, so that the tube revolves as it is moved forvard by the rollers. A single radiation-type recuperator is installed for all nine sectione. The furnace gases from each section pass along the furnace through the combustion space, enter the bottom of the recuperator and heat its walls, then pass along a flue to a 155- SPOHHOHHOSOHEOHHHHOHAESOSHHEHOEHOLOOH OOH LOEOEETTT VV T TTT TCC TCT STTTTSOTESSCOCOSOOEOHOOOOO CEO OCEEEO waste-heat boiler. Cold air enters the annular section of the recuperator bottom, passes frou the bottom of the recuperator to the top, flows round the heated walls of the central part of the recuperstor, where tt is heated te 400-600°C and then to the furnace burners travels along air pip ‘The furnace examined here is designed for intermediate and quenching of stainless-steel annealing of carbon-steel tub: tubes vith 0.D. of 25-83 mm, wall thickness 15-5 mm and length 4et0 m, The furnace throughput i 0.42.5 tonnes/h, reaching 4,0 tonnea/t for tube size 76 x 3.0 mae Continuous roller-hearth furnaces continvous roller-hearth furnaces are the most universal furnaces employed in tube-draving shops. They are used for Ling tubes supplied intermediate annealing of tubes, for ann with scale on the surface, for bright annealing of tubes with= out scale ard for stabilizing anneal of intermediate #izea of stainless-steel tubes. Radiant-tube heating ts employed in furnaces for bright annealing of tubes. In all other types of heat treatment the tubes may be heated directly by the furnace gases; this oives a higher furnace output, but the furnace produces tubes coated with @ certain amount of scale. the tutes are noved through the furnace by the rollers of and a roller conveyor, at a constant epeed tying between 0.5 3 m/mins the speed of the output conveyor Le higher than that of the conveyor inside the furnace. The tubos are transferred from the output conveyor {nto containers. In bright annealing the tubes in the furnace are heated by radiation from radiant tubes 1 (Pig. 67), which are positioned above and below the roller hearth 2 which feeds the tubes 3 to shoe shape and are be heateds The radiant tubes are of a hors 1 steel. A burner manufactured of chrono-titanium or chrome-nick 4, consisting of au outer tube 6 through which air ix delivered, -156-and an inner tube 5 through which natural gas is delivered, is Angerted in one end of the radiant tubes The air i pre-heated nq micro-recupsrator by the waste gases. The yas and pre heated air are mixed inside the radiant tube, vhere combustion of the yas takes place immediately. The temperature of the radiant tubes rises to 1000C, and the tubes, travelling on the water-cooled rellers of the conveyor, are heated by radiant heat. The combustion products are extracted from the other end of the radiant tebe into exhaust collectors 7 and from # into the flue by means of a flue oa fan The tuves travel from tle heating chauber to a cooling chamber, connected vith the heating chamber by a roller con= voyor. The cooling chamber has double walle, between which water cireviates. As the tubes travel through the cooling chanber their tenperature drops from 750-850°C to 15-20°C. The top of the chamber ia removable and ia ritted with valves. Bright annealing of tubes in a roller-hearth furnace is conducted in a protective atwouphere. For this purpose the entire furnace {9 air-tight; the heating chamber, cooling chan bor and transition zone are filled with protective gas Pins 67+ Cross-section through roller-hoarth furnace ‘The furnace throughput ie up to 2 tonnes/h when heat- treating tubes with 0-D. from 8 to 70 may wall thickness 1-6 nm -157- SPOCOOHHOH OOOO OHSH OHO HOOHOOOHOO OOOOH OOO OOO OEETTT VT VV VT TCT TTTTTTSETTSOSCOCOSCOOOOOOOOCOEOCEOECCEEEO ond length from 2 te 10m. Furnaces with throughput up to 6 tonnes/h are buitt. ‘Tho heating chamber Is 1045-20 = Jeng and the cooling chamber ie 21-50 m long. Continuous muffle curnaces Continuous muffle furnaces are employed for quenching and normalizing cold-rolled and cold-drawn tubes. The principle of the furnaces ia that the tubes are pusted through muffies, which are heated by burners oF electric heaters and transfer heat to the tubes by radiation and by direct contact. Piqje 6B. Continuous muffle furnace Fig. 68 {1lustrates @ five-line muffle furnace. The tubes 1 are loaded into cach muffle by # pusher 2 and move through the furnace continuouely in five parallel muffles. The ends of successive tubes are joined by hand on the leading table, using sleoven or rods. The wuffles 3 are made of refractory or ceramic tubes. The furnace is fired with natural gas. The burners 4 are positioned in the side walls of the heating chanber 5. After combustion, the flue gases travel along the heating chamber and are exhausted into the flue-one collector 6. A recuperater 7 4 Anstalled in the flue-gas collector. for pre-heating the air ‘Tubes with wall thickness from 0.5 to 5 ma and 0.D. from Jed in continuous muftie furnaces. 8 to 50 mm or more are heat tré through the furnace is regulated The rate at which the tubes pi between 1.0 to 4.8 m/min, according to wall thickness. The auffie jorature should be 20-50 degC higher than the temperature of te -158-the tune at exit. The furnace throughput is about 0.5 tonnes/k when tubes are teated to 1150°C. The merits of the continuous muffle furnace include relatively Little oxidation of the metal and fairly uniform hoating despite the fact that the tubes move continuously. Disadvantages of these furnaces are: the need to employ manual Inbour, relatively low output and low heating rate. In the latest designs of this furnace the pusher mechanisn has been replaced with wire-net conveyors, on which the tubes are trans~ ported through the muffles in the furnace, This makes it posable to mectanize charging, and also prevents scratching of the tubes, which may occur when the tubes are pushed through the muffler. Direct-heating electric furnaces Direct-neating electric furnaces are intended mainly for heating tubes of stainless and alloy steels fer quanching, and may he employed for stretch-straightening of tubes. For heat~ ings each tube is oripped separately botween contacts, to which 9 large current from the secondary winding of a transformer is supplied; the tube ends should not project beyond the contacts. As soon as the tube is heated to the required temperature the current Is switched off and the contacts release the tube, thereby allowing it to drop into the quenching bath. Depending fon stool grade, the heating temperature varie: and the heating time {9 20-30 second Z from B00 to 1150% oa eT rena Fig. 69+ Bquipment for direct-contact heating The equipment (Fig. 69) consists of a frame 1, on vhich two rails are Sixed. A front carriage 2 and rear carriage 3 2159+ SOHOHOHOS OOOH OHHH OO DOH OOOO HOOOOOOOOOOCOOEOOOOETTT TTT TTT CC TCTTTTTTSOTPCOTSSCOEOOOOOOEOCHOOOOOEOEE ove gion; he rails. The reat carriage drive 5s enclosed in a frame housing Ke Rach carriage han current-carrying contacts 5 on an exton= fon arm. A pneumatic cylinder causes the contacts to urip and release the tube, The front carriage can sove over a distance nante tube elo of 500 wm aleny the frame to comp ton during heating or for stratch-atraightening of tubes, The rear carriage moves over a wide range to acconmodate tubes from 1.5 to 8.5 = tong. ‘the adventages of heat treatment in electrical equipnent are accurate individual heating of the tubes, very slight oxidation of the metal because of rapid heating, and production of any hosting temperatures. A great disadvantage of the method ix that ahout 50 ma must be cut off each end of the tube, where At has been gripped in the contacts. Induction sumocen Induction furnaces are also employed for rapid heating of staiulens-steal and alloy-atee! tubes for quenching. In indue= tion furnaces") the tubes are heated by high-frequency currents (around 70 ke/a). [4 horizontal induction furnaces the tube moves along a roller conveyor at a speed of 3-30 n/ming an induction colt is mounted in the path of the tubes Advantages of induction furnaces are rapid tube heating, slight metal burn-off, continuous preduetion and absence of losses for firings Disadvantages are noneuniform heating of vartable-walled tubee, the impossibility of using seaking in the heat treatment, and {te high cost. For these reasons induction furnaces have not found wide application for the hent treatment of tubes. Belitype fumace ‘Three-stand electric bell-type furnaces are employed in tube-drawing shops for bright annealing of tubes requiring heat =160-treatment with souking at various temperatures. These furnaces consist of stationary stands, on which the tubes are leaded in + and 4 ronovable shett oF cover. ‘The heating olenents are located in the side walls and roof t= of the shel} and in the stand. An inner cover made of hi resisting steel is placed over the tubes in the racks, and the Protective yas is supplied shell a then levered over th aled with mands to exch stand; the inner cover and shell are After heating ard soaking the shell is transferred to another stand, and the tubes cool under the metal cover. The furnace output 1a 220 ky/h when heat-treating thin-walled tubes; the maximus temperature to which the tubes can be heated is 950°C, Refore the charged furnace is filled vith protective gas it ie blown through with 4 neutral gas (nitrogen). A fan in ‘euployed to improve cireulation and extraction of alr from the tubes; it can also be employed for forced circulation of the gases during tube heating, which reduces the heating time. Vacuum furnaces Vacuum furnaces are designed for heat treatment of tubes nade of easily-oxidizing metals, and alse for extra-thin-walled tubes made of stainless steel, ‘Treatment under vacuum improves the properties of the metal and ensures high-quality surface Finish, Vacuum pressures of 1 x 107 malty are employed for 12s 4 satisfactory surface special-purpose tubing} in many © quality can be obtained with low vacuum (1 x 107% aaniig). Vacuum furnaces can be batch-type or semi-continuous. Sem{-continuous vacuum furnaces offer greater production rates because the tubes are placed in the muffle alongside the furnace and the muffies containing the tubes are Teaded into the hot furnace; after heating and soaking the muffle containing the tubes is withdrayn from the furnace and cools outside the furnaces -161-Figs 70+ Construction of semi-continuous vacuum furnace Figs 70 illustrates the design of an electric semi-con- wnt of tubes. The muffle tinuous vacuum furnace for heat tre, ed with an end cover 2 1 is loaded with tubes on a rack and ao that a vacuum can be created inside. When the preceding nuffle has been removed from the furnace the noxt muffle is toaded by crane onto the empty carriage. The muffle is fed inte the furnace by the carriage, which has a cable drive. The murfie endzcover 2 is connected to the pipeline 4 of the vacuum pumps, and vhen the required vacuum pressure has been attained, as read fron a manometer, the shut-off valve near the muffle end-cover is closed; the electric furnace 3 is switched on and the tubes are heated, followed by soaking as appropriate. If ‘the vacuum drops, the pumps are switched on again. After heat treatuent tho end cover ix disconnected from the pipeline of ‘the vacuum pumps, and the muffle ie withdrawn from the furnace by moans of the carriage. Sone vacuum furnaces have stationary muffles, In this case the electric furnace is mounted on a carriage. After the mfrie has beon loaded with tubes the furnace travels onto the muffle land heating commences, At the same time other muffl unloaded and then loaded with more tubes. 5. Protective atmospheres for heat-treating furnaces Oxidation, decarburization or carburization of the metal take place when tubes are hauted in furnaces. To avoid these effects the furnaces are filled with am atmosphere of such -162-couposition that these processes do not occur A protective athosphere can only be created in furnaces in which the meta does not cone into direct contact with the furnace gases. Steels and alloys of different compositions react differ ently with the constituents of the furnace atmosphere. For this ronson different protective atmospheres are employed for heat treatment of different steels and alloys. Hydrogen, dissociated ammonia, exothermic o#, argon and helium are the most widely employed protective atmosphores in tube manufacture Hydrogen and dissociated apnonia are employed for protect~ ing stainless steels and alloys from oxidation, carburization asa are and decarburization, At high temperatures these reducing agents. Diseociated ammonia i# enployed most often, since it ig » little cheaper than hydrogen but for practical purposos has the sane advantages and disadvantages. Dry dis~ sociated anmonis hae a constant composition: 75% hydrogen and 25% nitrogen. Exothermic gas (from natural or other rich gas) of various a compositions in employed in the heat treatment of carbon wediun-alloy steels when a bright metal surface is not required. A typical composition of this protective gas is 1-5% carbon monoxide, 1.7% aydreyen and the remainder (96.8%) nitrogen or 5-40% hydrogen and 90-95% nitrogen (ose PSA-08)+ Argon and ielium are very good media for heating all s1 and alloys without oxidation, but their application in the heat nt by high cost. treatment of tues is restricted at pre Protective utnospheres are doseribed in greater detas! in other works (22953), 6. Furnace measuring instruments and automatic control of the conbuation processes ALL furnaces are now fitted with meaeuring instruments and + The means for automtic control of the combuntion proce number of instruments and complexity of the aystons for automatic -163- COCOCOHO OH OOOO OOOH OO DEOOOHOOOOOOOO OOO OOO OOOOEEcontrol ef the conbustion processes may vary according to the hoat-treatuent schedules, the furnace design, the nunber of zones in the furnace and other factors. However, furnaces are often equipped with identical instruments and autonation of then {a achieved by using specific systema. ‘Thermocouples or optical pyroneters, mounted inside the furnace oF at its outlet, are employed for measuring the temp- erature of the furnace or of the heated aetal. Instruments for measuring the consumption and pressure of gas and air are mounted on the connon gas-1ines and air-Jines, and also on piping conducting gas and air to separate zones of the furnace. In addition to instruments measuring various factors directly, indicators are installed so that the quantities being measured can be observed directly, for which purpose they are graduated in an appropriate way. Many of the instruments are fitted with recording mechanisns, so that the heat-treatment conditions are recorded throughout on tape. ‘The measuring instruments are located at various points in the furmice and piping at large intervals (up te 100 = or nore in modsrn furnaces). For convenience of operation all the indicators are mounted on a single panel for control and measuring instruments. 7. Intermediate straightening of tubes Interaediate straightening of tubes undergoing drawing 4: carried out on Manner, roller or roll straighteners. Small tubes are straiyhtened in a straightener with a revolving collar or with a curved tube, in vertical columns or with wooden hammers on & straightening slab. ‘The hanuer straightener (Fig. 71) has @ riveted frame 1, with an electric motor 3 mounted in the top section. The motor drives a camshaft 2 by means of belt transmiavion 5 and pulleys 7) 40 and 18 -164-Pigs 714 Hanmer straightener Curved tubes are hent ina direction opposite to the curvature, betvecn two supports, consisting of bottom blocks & f4x0ed on 9 supporting beam 9. Tube bending is effected by the top blocks 6, fitted to the hammers 11, which are driven by the cans 4, The position of the top block is adjusted by an upper lead screw, according to the curvature of the tubes. The distance hetween the botton block# is set according to the tube dimensions and the steel crade: the greater the resistance of the tube to pending, the storter the distance between the block! The straishtened tube must not have any dents or fracture 8 of the working part of the block grooves are thererore the cay chamfered. Tubes with any amount of curvature can be straight- ‘ened on harmer straighteners. The productivity of the hanaer straightener is 150-200 tubes or more yor hours The roller straightener (Pig. 72) consists of a frase with seven or nine straightening rollers mounted on one or both sides. 2165- SOOO HOS OOOH OOOH EEO SO COOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOEFins 72+ Roller straightener The rollers are positioned in a vertical plane in two staggered rows. One, two, three or four passes are muchined in the rollers, for straightening tubes of different diameters. a1 the rollers in the bottom vow are mounted in the sane horizon= tal plane; the rollers in the top row ean be adjusted vertically, thereby bending the tube to straighten it. The rollers are hounted on shafta; the other ends of the shafts are connected by spindles to reduction yearings All the rollers are driven by © singls electric motor, by means of the reduction gearing and spindles, ‘The apeed of the electric motor is regulated to suit the straightening apeed required. Roller straighteners for straightening tubes 5-60 mm and 20-124 a in dianeter are employed in tube-draving shops. The production rate of @ single-sided straightener is about 300 tubes per sour; the double-sided machine gives a production rate of 460 oF nore tubes per hour. The roll straightener, The following standard six roll straighteners are waually employed in tube-drawing shopst of 5225 mm, 19-60 ma und 20-114 mm. These are employed for straightening tubes with an initial curvature up to 40 am per running metros after straightening the curvature of the tube is loss than 9-751 mm per running metre. -166-The straiyhtoners have five, efx or seven diagonally positioned rolls, Positioning of the straightener rolls in this fashion inparts rotating and forward motion to the tube, which ensures that the tube ix straightened in all plane The cachines vary according to number of driven and idel relia, thoir dianeter and positioning. Seven-rell straighteners vith rolls of the ame diameter, and three are idle, have found widest application recently. Machines in which all the rolls are Griven are employed for straightening extra-thin-walled tubes. Mig. 73. General view of seven-roll straightenor Figs 73 stows a seven-roll straightener in which the rolls are all of the sume size. Three of the rolls are below the straightening line and four are above. The rolls are mounted in pairs one above the other, with the exception of the last top roll, whieh is positioned separately at the output side. Te first and third pairs of rolls 1 are driven. The second pair of rolls effects the straivhtening, and the lest roll is a guide. The rolls are driven by electric moter 3 through reduction yearing 4 and universul aharta 5. The deflection angle of the rolls can be altered by hund wheetx 6 mounted on the out= put side of the machine. AL the rolls can be adjusted vertically, with the exception of the two hotton drive rolls. Transverse -167-franos @ with avinging and turning mechaniams are mounted on columns 7. Tho transverse frames are fixed to the top plate 9. Vertical sdjustnent of the rolls is by a worm machanisa 10, connected to an indicator 11 showing vertical displacement of the rolls. The input side of the machine has an open receiving trough, Lined with wooden boards to reduce damage to the outside surface of the tubes during straightening. In new machines a roller conveyor { gometines mounted in the bottom of the trough and the latter {# enclosed to prevent accidents during loading and straightening of the tubes. The trough at the output side of the sachine is always enclosed, with a dropping bottom, or ejectora or pushers are built inte the trough. The straightening speed on roll straighteners varies from 15 to 150 w/ming at an average tube length of 6 m the production rate of tho machine ie usually 150-400 tubes per nour (34135) , 8, Intermediate pickling. Intermediate tube pickling enploys the same reagents and wethods as described earlier (wee Chapter IV and V). However, certain types of tubing are now being manufactured from steels and alloys which are difficult to pickle by the usual methods; such are titanium and other alloys with strong compounds of oxides of chromium, nickel, silicon, aluminium, molybdenum and tungsten. Seale fe not completely renoved from the surfaces of these tubes, particularly the ineide surface, piekling takes « very long time, and overpickling of areas from which scale ha heen rewoved results in hi of metal and high consump- vy 10! tion of chemicals. Despite ite great advantages, the alkali-acié method of pickling employed in recont times alwo has considerable draw= backs: tho bore of amall-dianeter tubing becomes filled with =168-ferrous sulphate, tubes are distorted when heated to 450-600°C and require additional straightening, which gives rise to cold work of the netal, and the electric power consumption is highs Therefore, in addition to the extended use of the alkali~ scid and hydride methods of seale renoval, acid pickling in solutions of hydrofluoric acid and the spray-circulating method have also been developed. ! Tube pickling in solutions of hydrofluoric acid. recomended pickling solutions with hydrofluoric acid contain 1s5-2 wtsli nydrofluorie acid and 7.6-0% nitric acid, with water to 100%. Thin plekiing solution does not cause overpicklina, pitting, hydrogen embeittlenent and corrosion cracking, which The have been observed during pickling of tubes made of stainless + nitric and other high-alloy steele in mixtures of sulphu and hydrochleric acta. overpickling is prevented by the protective action of insoluble conpounde between iron and fluorine, vhich are Seposited as a orey film on the tube surface during pickling. If necensary this film can easily be removed in an 8-10% solu- tion of nitric acid. Pickling time in hydrofluorie-aeid solu tions depends on the grade of steel, the tube dimensions, the yat treatment, the acidity and the temperature of the cried type of bs solution, and varies from 5 to 40 min. Miekling iw ca out at a comparatively low temperature (30-45°C), in order to prevent excessive evaporation, which raises the concentration of acid fungs above the bath. then the tubes are being removed from the bath the bundle is raised ané lovered three or four tines, The solution is discharged at an acidity of 1,5-2% free acid. The solution is first diluted to an acidity of 1h, and only then fs it dis charged into the drain system. Iunediately after pickling in the hydrofluerioacid solution the tubes ure washed, using a preesure spray with u pressure of 169. SPOOCOOE SEO HOCHHOHHOELESSOOOSHOOCOEESOOCOOOSOOCOOESSEE ETETTTECIFFSSS SCOTS OS CSSO60S 0000600000086 at Least 0-10 atm, For cloaning the inside the tubes are rinsed from both ends whilst ina slanting position. Fer cleaning the outside surface the bundle is untied and each tube is washed separately. ‘The concentration of hydrogen fluoride in the shop atmo- sphere around the vat aust not exceed 0.001 ag/1. The vat should be equipped vith fume extractors round the sides, and the room should be ventilated. The regulations for using concentrated acids must be observed vhen the solution with hydrofluoric acid ie being made ups Special clothing must be worn (cloth suit, rubber boota, loves and gougles). If concentrated acid or solution gets onto the skin the affected area miat be carefully washed in running water for 5 min, and then treated with a 5% solution of magnesium sulphates Solutions of hydrofluoric acid attack the Linings normally comployed for pickLing vate, ‘Therefore vats for hydrofluoric acid solutions are Lined with carbon blocks with arsamite cement. | Practical experience has shown that the best results are obtained vith combined pickling, fe, first in an alkaline solu- tion and then in an geid solution containing hydrofiueric acia'75), Jot pickling. Circulation pickling apparatus has been devised fer jet pickling; in this apparatus the piekting solution is delivered by @ bellows punp frow a circulation tank. ‘The tubes are placed in a trough with » hinged cover. Acid= resistant rubber hoses are secured with clamps to the ends of the tubes and the nozzles of the inlet and outlet manifolds of the bellows pump. When the pump ie switched on the pre-heated solution bovine to circulate in a elesed cycle: tank with plete Ling solution - bellows pump = tubes = tank. The advantage of jet pickling is constant action of the picking solution, vhich flows through the tube at = vet rate under pressure. Conditions for intensive solution of the metal -170-are created aa a reavit of the action of different portions of pickling solution and the mechanical action of the Liquid flow= + A layer of metal 0,1-0.3 uu thick is steel tubing In 5-15 min when pickLing ine under pressur removed from stainle is carried out using hydrofluori¢ acid solution. 9. Intermediate washing, comer coutings drying and inspection During multiple drawing the tubes pass through the entire cycle of intermediate operations several tines. In accordance with the production schedule, aftor intersediate annealing, straightening and pickling the tubes are washed in hot water then under pressure spray, copper coated, dried and inspected. ALL these operations have been examined in detail already (soe Chapters IV and V). The operations during intermediate cycles are ne different from the operations for preparing the initial tube blank, and are carried out on the sane equipment. 10. Intermediaze conditioning, grinding and polishing Finer grinding 18 employed for conditioning tubes in the intermediate manufacturing stages. Centretess grinders are eaployed for grinding the outside surface, and belt-type inside orinding machines are euployed for the inside surface; these machines were examined in un earlier chupter. In addition, machines with direct grinding by grinding wheels, and machines for grinding tubes by means of grinding belts avé employed for intermediate conditioning of the outside surface of tubes. Figs 7h illustrates @ machine with direct wheel grinding. ‘The tube 1 is ed inte the machine, which has abrasive wheels 2 driven by the drive pulley 3 and the driven pulloy 4. Rubber pressure wheels 5 are mounted opposite these wheels, heels 2 and 5 are set at an angle to the tuhe axis, in order to impart forward and rotating motion to the tube, Idle guide rollers 6 are mounted between the pairs of wheels. The tube {# acted upon -171-by three wteel# simultaneously: the first wheel 1s coars: grained, tho second iz nediumorained and the third is fine grained. Fig. 7h. Grinding machine ‘The same machines are used for polishin this the abrasive wheels are replaced by wheels covered with leather or cotton belting, which are coated with polishing paste Fig. 75 shows diagrams of machines for grinding the outside surface of tubes using belts. Figs 75+ delt=type orinding and polishing machine 17a.In the ceatrelese belt-type grinding and polishing machine (ig, 75,8) the tube ia polished by @ grinding belt 1, looped over the contact drive roller 2 and tensioning rollers 3- Bolt 1 is driven by a7 kW electric moter, at a speed up to 30 m/s. ‘The drive head has two tension rollers 4, one of which is a drive roller, and a contact roller 5 which presses the drive belt against the tube and the tude against the abrasive belt. The apeed of the drive belt is 6-60 m/min. The drive head is rotatable; the greatest angle through whdeh it can be turned in the vertical plane is # 8°, By turning the drive head the tube J to advance at « apeed of 0.85 to 8.5 m/min. In the centreless belt-type polishing machine (Fig. 7540) the tube 1 is fed along idiers 2. The tube is caused to revolve ‘and advance by diaganally positioned rollers 3, rotating in the sane direction. An endless abrasive belt 5, lubricated with solid paraffin, is looped round rollers 3 and the tensioning rollers 4; this Belt polishes the outside surface of the tube. The distance vetween the diagenally positioned rollers can be adjusted to accommodate tubes of different diamoters. ‘The contreless belt=type machine for grinding the outside surface of tubes (Migs 75,0) consists of @ rubber support roller 1 and a tensiosing roller 2, round which a grinding belt 5 passes. The roller 1 is driven by separate electric motor. The tube 4 is fed along the machine Uy an ineLined roller 54 200-250 em in Aianeter, covered with cork. The amount of grinding is deter~ mined by the yrain size of the grinding belt employed. This machine can be used for polishing by replacing the orinding belt vith a eloth belt coated with paste: SH Sandblasting of tubes Sandblasting of tubes was employed first for small-diameter spectal-steel tubes with scale that was difficult to remove by pickling, Sandblasting breake down the scale and facilitates subsequent pickling. In addition, sandblasting is «lso employed quent pi . -173- SPOOOOHHOOHOSS OOOO OHAEHEOOOOOOOHEEOOOOTOOOCOOOEEa0 an independant operation for removing scale, dust and rust , i From the inside surface of tubes. | Gandblastors currently employed conaiat of a chamber in } which the tabes are placed, a reservoir for collecting and sorting the used sand from the scale and dust, a dust catcher (cyclone) and @ powerful fan for dust extraction. The sand is delivered by compressed airs (37) pronivit the However, the Jatest standards of ary a= nd, Therefore designs are being worked out for hydraulic blasting equipment for tube cleaning -17hecuarnse xa ‘TUE FINISHING, CHECKING AND INSPECTION 1. Einal neat troataent for tubes Final heat treatment is carried out after the last drawing Js. The follwing forme of ¢ cold-rolling ps pase or the 1 beat treatsent are employed, depending on the grade of steel or alloy: annealins with short-term soaking, annealing with leng= term soaking, quenching. ith short-term tempering, quenching with longeters tempering and annealing in accordance with a couplex teaperature achedule. The purpore of Final heat treatment ia to impart to the tube metal auch ropertios as are required by the specification. Heat treatment serves primarily to relieve the effects of cold work after cold relling or cold draving and te produce a metal structure viich will ensure high plasticity snd impact strength. The heating temperature for heat treatment depends primarily on the steel grade. For example, grades 10 and 20 carbon ston} ave annealed at 4 tenparature of 940-960°C, steels Dy 35, 454 NORMA and 5KHPA at 8B0-920%C, ZOKHGSA and KhS at, 7a0~7h0°C; grade AKHISNOT stainleas steels are quenched at a temperature of 1000-1030°C, and ateet Shkhi5 is annealed at 680-700°C. ‘The schedules developed by the scientific institutes and laboratories and tented in practice should be employed an a at treatment of guide when selecting the schedule for final tubes. These schedules are defined in the manufacturing instruc tions for cold verking of tubes. On the whole the heat-treat~ ment schedule also depends on the furnace employed for heat treatment. 175+Final heat treatment of finished tubes can be carried out described in Chapter X. Choice of the im any of the furna type of furnace depends on the requirements of the specifica tion for tho finished tubes. Final heat treatwent is employed for most finished tubes delivered to the custoner, but in accordance before they ar with some srecifications the tubes are supplied without heat treatnent; this applies to tubes supplied in the cold-worked state. The specifications umually require that the curvature of the Finiahee tubes should not exceed 1 em per running metre. ‘To uchieve such results the majority of finished tubes are atraiohtenee on roll atraighteners. If the curvature of the tunen after heat treatment in more then 40 ma per running metre they are first straightened on hasmer or roller straighteners. Lisemer, roller and roll straighteners have been examined already (ace Chapter X)- Me shall examine additionally the straighten ing of snali-dianeter tubes and extra-thin-valled tubes. Smal indiane: ure straightened on machines with @ tube revolving ring, in which one of three sleeves is located eccontrically, and with @ revolving curved tube. The operating principle of these machines ia based on alternating bending of the tube beyond the elastic Limit of the metal. A votating-ring straightener is depleted in Fig. 76. The tube ia fed into the machine by t¥o pairs of rollers. The tube enters the rotating Fino, in which the outer sleeves are mounted and fixed along the tude axis, and the central sleeve is eccen= trie. After atraiyhtening, the tube is withdrawn by « further two pairs of rollers. The ring with the sleeves is driven by Yebelt tranemission from an electric actor. The sleeves are changed for tuber of different dianctors. 176+Fig. 76. Retatingering steaightenor te freide diameter of the sleeves ia 1.5 mm larger than the tun diameter up to 20 um, 2 om Larger at tube diameter from 20 to 30 mu and 3 am larger for tubes with diameter up to 60 am The straightening rate 1s 20-40 m/min. A saching with @ curved revolving tuhe is used for straight- ening tubes with €.0+ 1es9 than 6 mre Straightening oxtrasthinewalled tubes. Straighteners with the folleving features are employed fer straightening extra thin-valled tubes: s) a1] the rolls of the machine are driven, therefore there ia ne slip between tube and rolls; bv) there arene guide Lines hetween the rolls, #0 that the tube surface doe not cot acratcheds ©) the tubes are in contact with three pairs of rolls simultaneously; 4) the height and anole of the rolls is easily adjusted. These machines ensure high-quality straightening of tubes with wall thickness of 0.2 nim. If the tubes have not been Neat treated after cold draving or cold rolling they witl have traces of lubricant on their surface, which cause the tube to s1ip during straiyhteniny. This Is prevented by fitting the straightening machines with a “177 © 00000 00S OSSSSOOO HOE O0O00 0000000090000 000008TUT TT TTC SCTCSCCSCTTTSCSTCOCEHOSOCOOSOOOCOCOSOCOLOOEESE aovice for drip feed of paraffin nto the rolls (to dissolve the Lubricant). ide using a curvedmandret A mothoe of straightening from in has been proposed for straightening extra-thinewalled tubes. The working tection of the mandrel is of a spirally curved shape. During the straightening operation the mandrel revolves and the tube is gradually moved over it. An experinenta? industrial nodel of this machine hag shown that it ean be used for straight= ening thin-welled tub Betracthin-walled tubes are at present straightened by hot stretching: Direct-heating electric furnaces (see Chapter X) are employed. The tube, oripped in the contacts of the electrical equipment, is heated to a temperature of about 800°C and then gradually cocled in air. The front carriage, which ia held back by a weight, Keeps the tube in tension all the tine it is cooling. 3. Dube cutting and trimnin, Various types of equipment are employes for tube cutting land trimming; they can be divided into two groupe, vir. saws t ahears are still 0 stated eariier th and cutters. It wi tines employed for cutting off the tagged ends of tubes, Tubes of the folloving dimensions are usually cut on the various types of saws and cutters: Tube dimensions, am ‘types of sews and cutters Diameter Wall thickn Circular saa with toothed cutting disk 38-102 3-8 Friction saws withmooth disk without teeth 20-102 28 Power hack save 5-38 0.502 Circular save with pointed cutting edge 12-102 aah Saws (lathes) with abrasive disk 1 te 89 O45 cutter-type tube-trinmers 38-150 Above 2 Alligator shears 20-50 0.5+4.0 178Save with a toothed cutting disk are mainly used for cutting relatively thick-walled tubes. The edge of the disk haa inserted toothed seyuants which are easily changed. 4 yoneral view of one of the numerous dosions of this type of sav is shown in Figs 77+ The electric motor 1 drives the toothed cutting disk 2 through a gear box. The tube to be cut is held in clamps 3 by pressure applied by means of the hand wneel i. Saws are available with vertical or horizontal clawpings the Latter type are mechanineds 71. Saw with toothed cutting disk The sav produces 4 clean cut with hardly any burrs. The production rate of the machine varies widely (from 50-150 cuta/h) and depends on the wall thickness of the tubes being cut. The pover hack sav is used for cutting thin-walled enall- Aiameter tutes. Bundles of tubes with an gverall width up to 250 mn are cut, at a blade length of 450 mn. ‘There are cutting barks on the tube anda, but there are ne burrs. The production rute of the machine when cutting tubes in bundles i# vp to 200 outs per hour. The efrowlar suv with pointed cutting edge is employed for cutting tubes in half and the ends of dravn tubes when an accurate cut iz nol essential. The cutting tool is a small liameter (100-200 ma) disk 1 (Pigs 78) with bevelled sharpened edgens The angle of pointing 4s 22-23°. Ona end of the tube 2 on two idlers 3 located on the machine frames the tube 179" SOOOHSSOHOOOHHOHHOHOEHOOOOCOOOCOHOOOCEOOOOOOOCOSTUT TT STC TSC EST TSTTCTTOTESSCOOOOOOOOSOOOOEOE gs 72. Diskesaw with sharpened cutting edge of disk EB is supported on a roller conveyor, The rotating disk is browht against the tubey the freely wounted tube begins to revolve under the action of the frictional forces between the dink and the tube, end the cutting edge of the isk prosses into the metal of the tube and cuts it. Preeaure on the disk is effected by ® hand wheel. The tube ends have @ bevelled cut and are slightly crumpled. In sone dosiuns the table with the rollera ie movable, and is raised together with the tube to the rotating disk, which is fixed in the frame on a abatt. ‘The production rate depends basically on the level of mechanization of the tube feed aud withdrawal (the actual cutting process takes 3-5 seconds) and varies from 200 to 350 or more cuts per hour. Saws with an abrasive disk are mainly used for cutting off the onde of thin-walled tubes with wall thickness less than 21m, though they can be employed successfully for cutting tubes with wall thickness up to 5 mm if high production rates are not necessary. The cutting tool of this sav in 9 thin carborundus Bisk rotating at high apeeds During cutting, the disk is brought Slovly against the tube. The cutting process {s based on fusion fof the otal, resulting from friction between the dink and tube. E ‘These save are available in a great nunber of designs Pigs 79 shows a saw with a rocking disk. The disk 3 is driven by an electric motor 1 through a belt drive 2 and gearing; the tube is uripped in clamps 4. Some says have automatic tube clamping and disk approach. Production rates with abrasive-disk cutting tubos up to 60 wm in diameter with wall thickness up to ive ws vary widely. when =180-1,0 um the production rate is 9 euty yer minutes Abrasivesdisk maws are Fitted with dust extractors. For safety reasons the spray of sparks must be directed downwards into the extracter funnel « Figs 79+ General view of abranivesdiak saw Tube-cutting lathes produce a cut of the best quality, perpendicular to the tube axis, The lathes are also fitted with a deburring device. Therefore they are the most widely enployed in tube manufacture, expectally for producing finished Products. A type 9152 tuhe-cutting lathe is employed in tube= drawing practice for tubes with O.D. from 38 to 152 mm and another machine for entting tubes with disneter from 20 to aah mime -181- SOHHOHHOAEOEO OOOH OLDE HOOOOOOOOOEEOOOOOOOOOOESFig, 80 depicts the type 9152 tube-cutting lathe. The tube is gripped in spindle 4 in a pneumatic chuck, Two tool holders 2 are advanced to the gripped tube. After cutting, the tube is bevelled with the chanfering tool 3. The size of the tube end cut off is adjusted by a stop 4. The diancter | of the hole in the Jathe spindle 1s 180 may the height of the spindle shaft above the lathe base ie 1100 mm. ‘The machine has @ production rate of 40 to 200 cutsper hour. hy Tube grinding, polishing and electrolytic polishing Many branches of the national: economy (aviation, atomic power, instrument suking ete.) require a variety of tubes to be supplied in the ground or polished state. The specifica tions for supplying tubular products te these branches of | industry lay down various surface finishes, depending on the © of the tube: ultinute Methods of tube grinding and polishing, and the equipment Je Chapters V and x). euployed, have already been discussed ( Another wethod requiring attention is electrolytic polishing, with the highest class of which is used for producing tub surface finish. Blectropolishing is employed for producing tubes with a snooth surface above the 9th class of finish. The coefficient of friction between « Liquid and an electropolinhed tube is 4.6 times lover than with @ tube treated by the uaual mechani- cal methods, In electropolishing an electric current is supplied to the tube, imersed in an electrolyte. The tube acts as the anode. Blectrolytic polishing is a process of anodic solution of the projecting parts of the workpiece surface, During polishing passive filme form on the metal surface; these vary in thickness in the "valleys" and "hills" of the surface, which 182leads to higher intensity of the electric field; as a result the finer films ore disrupted by the electric current and the projections are dissolved vigorously. The presence of films fon the metal surface is an essential condition fer electrolytic polishings withovt the Films the bare etal vould undergo ordinary anodic solution over its whole surfaces A solution containing 60% phosphoric acid, 20% sulphuric cid and 20% water i used as the electrolyte. A high curretn density can ve employed with this solution, The solution tenp~ erature varies from 50 to 100%} polishing takes 0.5-10 min. Different electrolytes are employed for electropelishing certain alloys. These electrolytes should be made up and handled in accordance with the appropriate manufacturing instrue~ tions. A diagram of the apparatus for electrolytic polishing of the inside aurtace of tubes is shown in Tig, 1. Tho tube 1 for polishing is placed over the cathode 6, in the form of a Fig. 81, Layout of apparatus for electrolytic polishing of the inside surface of tubes conper pipes A cap 10 1s soldered on one ond of the cathode and is used to supply negative potential to the cathede. A brass tip 3, in the thick part of which there is @ hole to allow 183- SPOKE OE EHEC OOOLELOE CLO OOOOEthe electrolyte to escape, is soldered to the other end of the copper pipes The cathode is ineulated with rubber tubing 8 circuiting the tip and the cathode are insulated from the tube covering the whole of the copper pipe. To prevent short- by textolite insulators 2, which aleo serve to control the flow of electrolyte from the polished section of the tube, A brush holder 4 and copper contact brushes 5 for supply- ing a electric current with positive charge are mounted on the outaide of the section of the tube undergoing polishing. ‘The tube ie louded on the cathode by meana of four paira of reversing rollers 9. When reversed these rollers move the tube slowly through the polishing section. The electrolyte in delivered to the copper cathode pipe through pipeline 12. In the brace tip of the cathode the electrolyte flows out through | 2 hole and fils the inside of the tube, bounded by the inaula- tors 2, from here the electrolyte gradually flows out through gaps hetween the tube and insulators into the tube, and from | the tube into a trough 7 beneath the apparatus. The electrolyte Flows from the trough inte a tank, from which it i= pumped back to the electrepolishing apparatus for re-use. Te rate of electrolytic polishing using modern apparatus 19 Ovh-1,25 m/min when the diameter of the tudes being polished is from 4 to 70 mm. Figs 82 gives a diayram of VNITY apparatus for electrolytic polishing of the outside curface of tubes. The polishing unit of the apparatus consists of a shell 1, a copper brush 9 vhich acts as th anode, a cylindrical perforated copper cathode 13, two rubber collars 11, « nozzle 2 for delivering electrolyte te the cathode, a nozzle 10 for renoving the electrolyte, a drain pipe 5 and a vas take-off 12. Friction rollers 6 for feeding the tube during polishing are mounted on each side of the polishing unit. The electrolyte flows from tie shell 1 into @ tank 3, from which it i= pumped 184-Figs 82. Layout of apparatus for electrolytic polishing of the outside surface of tubes by pump 4 into a delivery tank & with « gauge 7+ The electro~ lyte flows under the action of gravity from the tank into the shell 1 of the pelishing unit. Refore electrolytic polishing starts the tube is pushed ‘through the collers. Successive tubes are joined by means of continuous. 4 clamp, to make the electrolytic-polishing proc ‘The current for electrolytic polishing iw not switched on wutid the poishing cylinder (shell 1) has been filled with electrolyte, which is indicated by electrolyte flowing out of an upper oversiow 10. ‘The current density depends on the dimensions and speod of the tube: Modern apparatus for polishing the inefde and outside surfaces of tubes eledtrolytically is constructed with four Lines with mechanized lowding and unloading of the tubes, and nechanized feed of the tubes du ing the polishing process. After the inside and outside surfaces of the tubes have boon electrolytically polished they are rinsed in cold running H185-TTT VT TTT TCC TT TTTTTOCTSCHSCOOOCOOO9OOCOCOOEOOEESS vater or under a high-pressure spray, passivuted in « 3-54 solution of altric acid, washed and dried. 5s Inapection of finished tubes, Nessuring and checking tools i and slaw detectors | Inepection After finishing the tubes undergo inepection. This entails checking the tube dimensions (inside diameter, outside diameter, wall thickness and length) and examining the inside and outside surfaces, Tube dimensions are ascertained using measuring tools and instrunenta, and tube quality i# determined using flaw detectors. ‘The connon measuring tools (outnide calipers, inside | calipers, rules and tape measures) are employed for measuring tubes when no great degree of accuracy is required. Sliding calipers and aieroseters are used for measuring tubes with greater accuracy. Limit gauges are used for checking the inside and outside Alameters of a large bateh of tubes. ‘The Limit gauge shown in Fig. 83 is employed for checking the outside aia neters The distance between the measur= ing surfaces 1-3 and 1-2 corresponds to the maxisum ond minimum dimensions of the tube, in accordance with the tolerances for the outeide diameter, The tube should — Piy.83. Limit pase between the surfaces 1-3 but should wause not pass between surfaces 1-2, A circular Limit gauge (Figs 84), consisting of two sections 1 and 2, is employed for checking ineide diaueter. The diameter of section 1 of the circular Limit gauge corresponds to the =186-Figs Oh. circular Limit gauge minimum permissible inside diameter of the tube, and the dianeter of section 2 corresponds to the maxinum permissible inside dia- meter of the tuhes Cheeking and measuring instruments Thickness measurera. The wall thickness at any point along the tube length can ba measured by various methods, but Lt ie much more dificult to measure tube wall thickness than the thickness of e-c+ sheet or strip, since the pickup can be nts An ultrasonic located on one side only during measure: resonance defectoscope and thickness-mesuurer, a thickness= measurer bi Jed on the mothod of eddy currents and other instru mente are employed for tube checking. jeasurer can be onic resonance thicknos: used for measuring tube wall thickness in the range 0.35-0-50 my the instrument error is not greater than t 2% of the dimension being measured. Control of tube wall thickness is accomplished by @ piezoelectric probe, to which high-frequency electric oseiilations with continuously varying frequency are supplied. As a result of these oselilations, ultrasonic elastic waves are induced in the workpiece. At cortain frequencies these waves transform into vo-called standing waves. Their appearance corresponds to the saxinum transfer of energy from the highs frequency oscillator to the workpiece with the formation of resonance, and the appearance of pulues of the oscillator tube, which are amplified and transmitted to the deflector plates of the cathode ray tube, On the CRE screen the frequencies corresponding to resonance are marked on th horizontal frequeney line by =187- e ° e e e e e e e e° ° e e e e e e e e je e e e e \e \e e le ie @eeeeeeeeevertical pulses; variation in wall thictsens (8 judged by the magnitude of these pulses. The instrument is fitted with a Uirect-reading xeale. The TV-5 thickness-neasurer, based on the method of eddy currents and employing an induction coil, permits semi-automatic measurement, in factory conditions, of the wall thickness and variation of thin-walled and extra-thin-walled tubes made of austenitic grades of steel. ‘The dimensions of the tubes may yeter and 0.2 to 0.6 ma in all vary from 8 to 60 mm in di asurenonts ie 1%. The equip~ ‘The maximum error of mont operates at 1-8 m/min. Te TV-5 thickness-measurer ie adjusted in such a way that when a standaré pipe and the tube with nominal wall thiekness are set up the noodle of the indicator points to zero on the scale Neagurenent of tube Length, Tube length is usually fed with @ meaauring tape or a rule, tubes being rolled up against the latter, An electronic instrument is employed for measuring the length of tubes in continuous production lines. The etyloscope ie employed for rapid grading of steel accord~ ing to chemical composition. The instrument consists of a long tube, at one end of which there is 9 fixed electrode (metal rod); an electric current is supplied to this electrode. The other electrode is the metal under investigation, to which an electric current in supplied by a supporting electrode located in the instrument head. During testing the inatrusent head rests againet the saterial under test. hen the electrodes are a certain distance between them. The tube metal is apart an electric are for: heated to u hiph temperature in this are and omits Light. 4 special assembly of optical glasses breaks thie Light up into simple colours, forming a spectrum, The chemical composition of the metal is determined from the nature of this spectrum -188-e Flay detectors e These instrunents reveal defects on the inside and outside ° by employing physical methods of contro2 e The periscope is an optical instrument for direct detection oe of defects and imporfections on the inside surface of tubing. Av an example we shall examine the construction of the RVP=52 periscope (Fig. U5), which in designed for checking tubes with inside diameter from 24 to 30 mm. The periscope consists of ve optical tubes. the main tube 2 is 1.5 m long; the other four are additional tubes, employed fer examining long tut ALL the tubes are exactly identical with regard to optical designs A four-tens objective 3 is attached to one end of the main tube 2- An eye piece 1 for observing the ineide surface of the pipe is fixed to the other end of the main tube. A holder G, in which carriage with a metal mirror 4 can move along a alide, ie screwed onto the objective. Scales for reading the position of any imper- fections are marked on two other slides, 4 26 V electric bulb 5 ie also mounted on thia holder, Fig. 85. Design of RVP=452 periscope The optical part of the instrument is designed in such a way that rays of light reflected from the tube surface pass through the objective and a series of lenses in the main and additional tubes and x4 .ch the eyepiece as a parallel bean. =189- 9 OCOOS OOS OOSOOOO9 HOOF OOOOOOHHHOHODTTT TTT TTT TCC TCTTTTTTTVEHOSCOCSESOOSCOCOOOHOCOSOOOOESE ‘The ain and additional instrument tubes are marked on the outside vith S-ca divisions. These show how far a defect is from the end of the tube; the exact position of the defect is shown on the scale on the slide inside the holder. Ultrasonic methods of flay detection are based on refiec- ton of ultrasonic waves when they pe ‘through ia posmexning Aitterent physical properties, Ultrasonic vibrations with a frequency of 1-2 Mc/s, corresponding to a wave length of 1-2 mm, are employed for inspecting steel tubes. Devices with this wave length make it possible to detect defects up to 1 nm in sine. Ultrasonic fav detection of tubes employs a water bath or force probes. | The equipment (Fig. 86) consiats of a tank 4 half-filled with water, through which the tube 2 passes. Felt ings are sounted at the tank inlet and outlet to remove air bubbles from the tube and prevent the water flow= Fig. 86, Ultrasonic : equipment in water bath tank i# maintained at a constant Level. i ing out of the tank. The water in the Two ultrasonic heads with quartz piezoelectric disks are mounted fon brackets inide the tank: an emitting head 3 and receiving 4. Poth heads are connected by cable to the control panel. The h ads are Located underwater and inclined at angles w and fy which can be adjusted. The beam of ultrasonic vaves from the eitter head travels through the water into the tube, passes through the tube wall, | being reflected by the outeide surface and apain enters the | water from the opposite side of the tube; part of the beam travels through the water to the receiving head. The bean of ultrasonic Waves does not leave the metal, since the "matal-air" acoustic stance 1s 1:100,000, vhereas the resistance for "Water=netal” is onty equal to a rutio of 1:50. 190If there are defects in the seam the ultrasonic vaves are scattered and the number of waves impinging on head 4 is considerably reduced. The sonic vibrations received by head 4 are converted inte electric ovcillations and fed by coaxial cable to an electronic voltmeter, which measures their amplitude, Tube inspection by ultrasonic flaw detection is carried out in special apparatus for chocking seamless tubes, in which defects may be at any point. The tube under test is placed in a water tank, vith « carriage with a seanning head travelling Along the aides, The tube is revolved throughout the test. Tuve control is carried out in a epiral. A special signalling device operates when a defect is detected. The results of the investigation are recorded on the screen of an electronic osciltescope The induetion method of flaw detection can be employed for investigating both magnetic and non-magnetic materials. Defects in the tube are detected by means of eddy currents, which are induced in the tube under teat by an altemating magnetic Feld. ‘The atersating magnetic field 1s created by a coil, through which an alteruating current is passed, Two further coils are located on either aide of the first colly an emf. is induced in their windings. These secondary coils are connected in serie: and ure opposing. If the tube passing through the coils is homo- geneous and free of defects the resultant am.f, equals zero and the inatrusent needle does not move. nen there is defective tubing beneath one of the coils the balance of electromotive fe will have a certain forces is disturbed and the resultant @ magnitude; thir is shown by the instrunent recording tube quality (arter amptitication) 78), Flaw detection using magnetic particles is based on the fact lage fluxes arine in defective regions of that Tocul magnetic 19 4 magnetized tuhey which arrest magnetic particles applied to the tube. The tube 1s magnetized by 4 yoke passed inside the tube -191- SOCOOCOHHSSOHOHHHHOHO HEH OSE HOO OOOOH HOO OHH OOOOSETTT TTT TOT CCT CTU TU TUTE TUSEESCESSSCESCOCOCOESD or by an external yoke in two halves, past which the tube in parsed. Magnetization is carried out with a direct current for detecting internal defects in the tube wall. An alternating current is employed for detecting external defects. Magnetic powder can be poured into the tube in the dry form or as a magnetic suspension, i.e. magnetic powder suspend in a Liquid. Dry magnetic powder is employed for local control, e.9+ for the tube seam during electric welding. In the "wet" method the tube is lowered into a bath of the suspension, oF the suspension is poured over the tube from a funnel or with « sprayer. Defects are revealed by the magnetic particles accumulating along cracks, seabe or other defects. White or coloured magnetic Gh) powder {8 employed for better detection The colouring mothod is employed for magnetic or non= magnetic meterials, It consists of apraying the tube with a penetrating coloured Liquid. Liquid penetrates any defects (cracks, seams, scabs ete.), but the excems Liquid is washed away. The tube 19 then coated with white chalk dust. ‘The chalk is tinged by the coloured Liquid exuding from the imperfections. In an analogous method the tube im lowered into a bath of Liquid containing fluorescent substances+ The tube is then washed, dried and examined under ultraviolet Light. Methods using coloured Liquids and fluorescent substances, without magnetic substances, are employed in some plants in England. Xcray and gamma-ray flaw detection are mainly employed for quality control of large-diameter tubing. Xcruy equipment for quality contre! conaiats of an X-ray tube, inserted in the tube, and an electronic amplifier with fluorese: nt screen and televieion screen, mounted in the operator's pulpit. The X-rays pase throw the tube wall and are projected fon the fluorescent sereen, an enlarged image being transmitted to the tolevicion screen. If u defect appears on the television n192-screen the operator can stop the tube and the defective part ‘can be marked with white paint. The tubes move along on « carriage. Viowal X-ray fav detection permits faster detection of dofects than was porsible wien the defective region was photograpted, followed by developuent of the film. G- Testing finished tubew After inspoction to check dimensions and quality, the tubes are subjected to hydraulic and technological testings the mechanical properties are also checked. lydroulic testing. Tubes which will operate under pressure are objected to hydraulic testing. The test entaite f11ing tho tube vith water ina hydraulfe press and then raising the pressure of the water to the value required by the specification. In accordance with GOST 3845-47 tho maximum test pressure for tosting the strength of tubes Is determined from a formula wore is For certain types of tubing the hydraulic test pre: laid down directly in the GOST standard, e.g+ for general~ purpose tebing the pressure is 60 atm, for bakery tubing it is 400 atm, and s0 on. ‘The press for touting tubes by hydraulic pressure (Pigs 87) consists ef front 1 and rear 3 support frames, connected by shafts 5. A curriage 2 on rollers can move along the shafts and supporting Beams. Heads 6 are mounted in the front frame Fig. 87. Press for tube testing by hydraulic prt nt03- COTCOSHE HOHE SOOO HOO LODEOOOCE eccccceceTTT TV TTT TTT TTTTTSCECSISCOTCOCOOSCHOOOHCOOOCOOOOOOEOO and in the carriage. The tube is loaded onto the preas and reste ajainst the head of the front frame, The carriave travels to the aack end of the tube and is locked in place by wedves or pine which £it inte notches in the shafts, The carriage head can be woved in the direction of the tube axis by a hand wheel 4 or by electric motor. Adjustment of the position of the head is necessary for testing tubes of aifferent lengths The tube ia filled with water through the front head by opening a special valve. During tube filling the overflow pipe fon the carriage head Ss open. Khen the tube ie full the excess water flows out of the pipe, which 1s the signal for the opera- tion to cease. The overflow pipe is then closed with « valve, and water under high pressure is pamsed Into the tube. No leaks should ve observed in the tube when it is tapped Lightly with a hammer vhile under pr Mechanical texting. The ultimate strength and relative elongation which the material of the finished tube should possess fare usually laid down in the specification, To determine these, samples are taken from each batch of tubes these are specimens in the form of barsy-which are subjected to tension testing on ting machine, The bers are tension tested without previous straightening. Tension testing of tubes is conducted in accord~ ance with GOST 1497-61. The results of the test are employed for caleulating the ultimate strength and relative elongation at rupture. The Bringll Hardness is determined by presainy a steel ball of & certain diameter into the metal. For this test a flat surface ia milled on the tube, In accordance with GOST 9012-59, ‘the tube remaine under the action of the load for a set time of 40-45 8, The test load may be 3000, 750 or 187.5 kay the dian ball fe 10, 5 or 2.5 am. ‘Tue hardness of the tube specimen {s determined by mi meter of the t Ing the diameter of the impression made by the ball (indenter), 19%joing @ measuring microscope. The harder (he metal boing tested, the emailer is the impression at the same Load and indenter diameter. Expansion testing (GOST 8694-58) 1s employed for tubes with 0.0, at least 24 and not exceeding 140 mm and vali thickness not exceeding 8 um, ‘he test {a conducted using a tapered plug, which in driven into the end of a section of the tube by means of blows from a hammer. The plug taper is 1:10 or 1:5 dopend~ ing on the specification, The tube is expanded when cold. The tube should withstand an increase in diameter laid down in the GOST standard without cracking. The flattening teat 4o employed for tubes 22 mm or nore in dianeter with wall thickness from 2.5 to 10 am. Sections of the tube are flattened with « hand hammer, « power hanaer The walls of the tube are hammered together until the dintance between them equals twice the wal} thickness for steels 10 and St. 2 and four times the wall thickness for tubes nade of steels 20 and St 4, There should not be uny cracks oF toars whore the tube is bent. The cold flarging test is employed mainly for boiler pipes with outaide dianeter at least 30 but not more than 159 nm. The wall thickness of the tubes tested depends on the outside dia neter and is specified by GOST standarde The length of the piece tested ts be 465 9 + 100 um naide surface The width of the Mange, measured on the of the tube, should be at Least 12% of the inside diameter and at least 150% of the wall thickness, The anole of the lange should be 90° for tubes aude of steel 10 and St. 2 and 60° for tubes wade of steele 20 and St. 4. Cracks or tears should not Form on the flaaye as a reault of this operation. Burrs on the tue edges should he renoved before the test. 195+ e e e e e e e e e e ° e@eecececeeeseTUT TT TCT TTTTETTTTCOTEOTCOOOOOOCOOOOOOEOROOOOOO® Special teste for certain types of tubing. Tubes and piping for single-pass boilers and collectors are checked for microstructure and macrostructure, Specifications lay down a crostructure should derinite microstructures # check of the 1 not reveal traces of pipes, cavities, cracks or slag inclusions visible to the unaided eye. Im warino-tube anufacture each tube is checked separately. ‘The deviation from the theoretical weight should not exceed 8% for bateh of tubes weighing 16 tonnes or more, and 12% tor Individual tubes. For the flattening test, which every marine tube undergoes, the tube fe sade 25 mm longer than stated in the order, A lengthwise cut is made in thie extra part of the tube, then it is flattened until the wall are twice the wall thickness apart. The Clattened part is not cut off the tube and impact Motor and tractor tubes are checked for hardn strength, in addition to undergoing a number of mechanical and technological teste, Tubes made of stainless steels are tested im addition for corrosion resistance in nitric acta. 7+ Painting, marking and packaging Tube painting. For imparting corrosion resisting propertie: tubes are painted, {.0, they are coated with # protective layer of @ non-metallic substance: spindle or machine ofl (oreasing), quick-drying transparent varnish (varnishing), enamel paint (enane11ing) and a coating of polyethylene. Painting ix employed for avintion tubing, tubing for the atomie-power industry, ship- building and certain other types. In tube-draving production tubes are unually painted by into a bath of of] or paint at a lowering a bundle of tube tonperature of 40-60°C, This method has found application because the tubes have to be coated on the inside and outeide, When only the outeide murface of the tube i# to be painted it is painted in an electric field, this being the cheapest of all the methods of painting currently employed. 7196+Marking and packaging of tubes. The factory stamp, the stamp of the tachnical control department and the steel grade are stamped at a distance of not more than 100 mm from one end of each tube more than 35 mm in diameter (at wall thickn above 3m). In addition, one ond of the tube is marked with paint of @ colour corresponding to the grade of steel. The batch number, tube number and heat number are also stamped on each tube if the specification of individual customers require: see Tubes leas t 35 am in diameter with wall thickness Less than 3am are tied in bundles. Stamps are not punched on each tube in this case; inetead, « tag with the factory stamp and the stamp of the technical control department 1s tied on the bundle; the steel grade and tube dimensions are alse marked on this tags Tubes with wall thickness up to 1 am inclusive are packed in rigid packacing, usually in wooden boxes. Some tube are wrapped in paper when they are packed in boxes. A document, or certificate, i# compiled for each bateh of This eartificate states the number of tubes, their out~ aide diameter, wall thickness, steel grade, results of testa, and the standard followed in their manufacture. The heat number 1s aluo stated for tubes supplied according to heat. Im certain cases the certifiente also states the chemical composition and number of the batch in which the tubes were charged into the furnace for heat treatment. -197- PCOOHHHOOSOOEOSOOSOHOEHOSCHOHOHEEOHOOSOOEOOOLOEcuaprer x11 PRODUCTION COSTS, ORGANIZATION OF LABOUR AND THE WoRK AREA 1. Production costs The cost of tubes is nade up of the cost of the motal, labour, tools, fuel, electric power and additional materials consused during manufactures To find the cost of the tubes, all the expenses incurred during manufacture are related to 1 tonne, To determine the cost of 1 tonne, the cum expended on manufacturing « particular bateh of tubes is divided by the number of tonnes of finished product. Notal consumption Uepends on the amount of metal wasted during production. Metal losses during cold drawing and rolling of tubes are divided into irretrievable losses (10 pickling and heat treatwent) and waste that can partly be re-used An production (tagged onda, onds through breakage during drawing, serap, test sections and specimens). ‘The total quantity of metal, ineluding losses, expended during tune manufacture is the metal consumption, The metal consumption por tonne of good tubing is called the metal con sumption factor, and is, of course, always greater than unity. Reduction of the metal consumption factor lowers the cost of the tubes. The next important item of expenditure is the cost of labour, Labour costs are characterized by the nunber of man-hours required Tor producing 1 tonne of good tubing. igh labour productivity the aunber of man-hours, thereby lowering the production =198-Tool consumption depends on tool 1ife and the number of passes the tubes undergo. Lowering the coumumptions of acid, water, steam, compressed air, electric power, fuel and other materials leads to a redue- tion of production costs. ALI manufacturing expenses are divided into direct expense and oversheads, Direct expenses include all expenses incurred directly in manufacturing the product, e.g. metal (tube banks), wages and fuel, Other expenses are termed overheads, and in turn consist of shop expenses and general factory expens Shop expenses include all expenditure required for proper and uninterrupted functioning of production, This includes expendi~ ture on electric power, steam, compressed air, water, tools, running repairs of the shop equipment and buildings, maintenance of buildings and machinery, shop heating and Lighting, technical management, office equipment ete. Genera factory expenses include that part of the expenditure in the general factory distribution allocated to the shopt expenses for maintaining the apparatus of factory administration, for keeping the general factory territory in order, for general factory transport ete. To determine the cost of the tubes a calculation of the type shown on page 200 is compiled. + Srganization of iebour and the place of work, The main task of the team vorking at a dray bench or cold- rolling will is to attain the productivity that, is technically poseibie, This can cnly be achieved if there is high labour productivity and advenced methods of work are mastered. The productivity of the draw bench or rolling mil depends on each worker carrying out his duties properly, on individual operation® being carried out quickly and redueing the intervals of time between the eperations, In addition to correct distribu tion of duties aniong the workers, fulfilment of ali thexe condi- tons requires timely and careful preparation for preduction as 199Compilation of produc tion co 1.36 138.21 1. Basic materiale: hot relied tubes, tonn IL, Production returns, tonnes teres 0630 3.03 sere 0,023 2.02 serap and sections sere seale sietee 111, Irretrievable losses during pickling and hoat treatnent, tonnes sseseeseceesees 04037 - ‘Total supplied, less vaste, tonnes 1,000 135.16 B, Expenditure on processing I. Process fuel: gas, thou. m3 9.84 II. Power: electric power, kil « seeeeneee 3.45 steam, tonnes ceeseseeeesseeeeee OMB 3.2h watery WP eeeeeeee tteeestereee 19 0.45, compressed air, > ath IIT, Additional waterials 3.45; Iv, Hag basic ++ seeteseneees - 27.93 additional «+ see dee 6.75 extra charges seeseseeeeseecerseeeee - 8.27 Vs Depreciation of basic facilities - 8.95 VI. Goneral repairs und maintenance «+ - 9.73 VIE, Labour protection sseseeersseees - 3.50 deteeesteeesteeeee 13,02 VIEL, Other expenses « ‘Total expenditure on processing - 99.ha Cy Factory overheads seeseeeeeeeereeeeseee = a3eh2 woe 248.00 Cont of 1 tom + roublya whole and proper organization of the place of work. Preparation for production consists primarily of a clearly devised producticn process. A well devised production process answers all questions connected with preparation for production: what must be prepared for draving, how this should be done, shat materials, tools and attachments should the bench be supplied with ete, Another ftem of no less importance is compilation of 4 chart of operations, Planing ensures uninterrupted production. Te third condition of praparation for production is supplying each bench and oach worker with the materials and tools necessary for the produeticn process. Accidents and standstills for rapair may arise in the & of work. Consequently, planned preventive repairs should also be carried out to eliminate standatilie. Organization of the place of work in closely connected with preparation fer productions this organization should create comfortable working conditions to ensure minimun expenditure of time and effort by the worker. 3. Technological instructions and technical instruction ‘The technological instructions contain all the data required 1 The instructions are for carrying out the production proce: hung on a board in the shop. In addition to briefing on the technological instructions, the worker in also given technical instruction (before a new production procean i# introduced) + 4, Record keepiny and documentation A record is kept of production in the tubebdrawing shop to provide econosic resulte of the work of the shop and to ntain a check of the production proce: ‘The economic results of the work of the shop are ascertained by compiling records showing the actual consumption of metal and aubsidiary materials, Labour consuaption, tool consumption ete. For control of the manufacturing process, a record is kept of the =201- SCOOOOOOOHOOHHSOHSOHOE SOSH HOLEEHOEHECOCEOOOEOEmovement of bundles of tubes of different orders and destinations throughout the stages of processing, in addition to a continuous record of production, idle periods of the equipment and scrap. The primary record, upon which the entire record is based, fa the worker's order, The order ix issued to the worker whenever he has to undertake nev work. ‘The order states the task the worker must perform, the time standard for completing the work and the rate. The quantity of product manufactured, its dimensions, and the anount of serap and waste are noted in the order at the end of the enirt, -202-CUAPTER XIII ACCIDENT PREVENTION Detailed eafe:y regulations for work,in tube-rolling, tube- drawing and tube-welding shops were published us « separate book in 1962 by Metatturgizdat?7), these regulations must be observed by everyone working in tube-drawing shops. In this chapter we shall give some extracts from these regulations. Yen working in storeroons the following repwlations must be observed: 1, Metal racks or stands which prevent rolling should be used when assembling tubes In bundlos without tying. A relling tube could injure someone. 2, There should be clear passayes for the crane loader between the stacks of tubes. If there are no passages the crane Jonder has to climb onte the stacks to load the bundles; in doing 90 he may Fa11 and sustain injury. 3+ Gauntlets should be worn when loading and transferring tubes by crane, otherwise the hands may be cut en the steel cable. hen Lowering a bundle of tubes it should be guided using @ crowbar, te prevent the fingers being pineheds + hon transferring tubes by crane the load should be escorted from behind, If the cable vere to break the bundle would fa11 forward because of inertia, and would strike the crane loader if he were walking ahead of the loads Yhen working near draw benches, cold-rolling mill + cutting machines and savs, straightening presses, grinders ete. the Following regulations must be observed? 1, Rotating and moving parts of machinery, which are the host dauuerous vith repard to accidenta, must have guards. Tt must be romoubered that the worker's clothing may eatch on any =203- COCOOSOSOSOOHOOHO OOOOH OOOCEOOOOOO HOE OOOCOEWmenclosed rotasing part of # mechanism. 2. Clothing emet be properly buttoned up when working near machinery with rotating parts. Mowen must wear scarves on their heads. b. Protective sopules aust Ne worn when working with cutters hs Machinery wust be lubricated before work hepine (only bourings are lubricated during operation). 5. After starting mills and machines, preakes and other amchinery, St 4a forbidden to touen moving parts, make adjuse~ ents or wipe them with ravs. 6. The working order of al) auxiliary tooling must be checked at the start of york. Yaulty tools may breal: when the workpiece is gripped and cause an aceident. Tools must be kept in a definite place and must be property arranged se that they can be reached easily. 7. The yortier oust not allow others in his working area while he ie workings 3. Keeping the working area clean and tidy is of great importance for sufety, Hieces of iron, old tools, unnecessary puts, bolts ete, must not clutter up the working area. Tt is easy to alip over if there is of] on the floor, Mork in the pickling department. The acids employed for (sulphurie, bydrechtoric and nitrie acids) caus tube pickiin burns if they got on the skins These acids are particularly dangerous in the form of concentrated solutions. Therefore the basic rule for working in the pickling department is to prevent concentrated acid getting on the #kin, Gloves must be worn when doing this work. nen concertrated sulphuric acid 4a dissolved in vater @ great amount of heat is evolved, If water falls on the surface of this acid it is converted into steam s0 rapidly that the Liquid splashes out, which may cause buena. Therefore when mixing =204-sulphuric acid with water the acid must be poured into the water, and not vice versa. When working at Neating furnaces burns are the main injury. Therefore the safety regulations require that special clothiny and gloves should be worn to prevent hurne from accidental con~ tact with hot metals In addition, the following regulations must be observed: 1, The furnace must be oxamined before firing, and the yas lines or oi1 Lines ust be checked. The foreman sust be informed at once if there are any faults, Special care must he taken to ensure that there are ne gas leaks, since « gas and air mixture may explode. leo roof must not 2. When the furnace is operating the turn be stepped upon, as this could result in caving ins IF examina= tion of inspection of the roof becomes necessary, strong boards with hooks are placed on the furnace reinforconent. 3. Protective gloves should be worn for furnace works he The manufacturing Instructions on tube heating must be Followed in every detail, since a tube that has not had proper heat treatment (not to mention that it will be scrapped) may break during drawing; breakages may be accompanied by accidents. Work near electric motors. In production conditions injuries due to electric shack are not frequent, but in most cases they are very serious, It is therefore particularly important to observe ail safety regulation For vorkers in s tubedrawing shop the main safety regula tions relating to electric motors and equipment ares 4. In no civeustances should bare wires be held; it aust be remembered that an electric shock can occur even through one lead if an electric current is passing. 24 Rubber gloves and a rubber mat are used when starting high-voltage motors; the rules learnt during instruction must be observed when utarting highevoltage or lev-veltaye motors =205-5. Tue electrician must be called to mend any dofective wiringe 4, Water aids conduction of an electric currant, therefore the worker must not stand on a vet floor when starting an electric Observance of the elementary rules of safety reduces the possibility of accidents considerably. 206+ | |10. ua 32 13, ake Bnei tyanenko, Pats et al+ frubeprokatnoe 5 trubosvarochnoe proizvedstve" (Tube rolling and tube welding). Metalluro= indat, 1958. hore, Vols and Vatkin, Yus Yas, Staitaye truby! (Steel tubing), Netallurgizdat, 1964. Danilov, Fels et al+ Proizvodstve atal'nykh trub goryache! proketkoi. (Manufacture of steel tubes by hot rolling) + Netalluryizdat, 1962+ Golovkin, R.V. and Lunin, I-V. Radiochastotnaya svarke pryamo~ shovnykh trub. (Radio-frequency welding of straight-seaned tubes). Metalluraizdat, 1961. Shefte', We, Use of "CHM" additive for pickling metals Bulletin TaTIN ChM, 1949, No. 6 Goncharovakii, M.S. et als Multiple cold drawing of tubes euploying phosphate coating, Stee! (Stat’), 1997 (5). Grebenshchikova, A.Zs and Stanevich, P.K. Slimeless method of phoaphate-coating tubes. Stal", 1959 (5)+ Khoroshikh, @.As The tube drawer, Metallurgizdat, 1958+ Znetviny Nets et ale Combined alkali-aeld method of pickting highealloy steels and alloys. Bulletin TaIIN ChM, 1950 (1)+ Gubkin, S.T. Plasticheskeya defornateiya motallov. (Plastic deformation of metals). Vola, I, II, I1t Metallurgizdat, 1960+ Perliny IL. Teordya volecheniya. (Theory of drawino). Metal lurgizdat, 1957+ a trub. (Drawing forces in the cold drawing of tubes). Metalluro~ snevekii, LE. Tyagovye weiliya pri kholodnom volochenit indat, 1952. Telikov, Acts and Al’shevekii, LB. ot ale Bulletin Toft chM, 1958 No. 7 (339). Kovos, AcM. Mekhanicheskoe oborudovanie volechil’nykh i lento prokatnykh teekhov. (Machinery for drawing and strip-rolling ahopa)+ Metatlurgizdat, 1957- -207-rt 8. 19. 20. a 2B. ah. 25. 26. 27 Automated tube-drawing machines. TSIIN ChM, 1961, serios 5, information sheet 2. Agre, Vole and Vatkin, Yu.¥as Improvement in the design of nachines for cold rolling and cold draving of tubes abroad. TaLIN ChM, 1964, series 5, information aneet 12. Bukiny ToB, Multiple-Line draw bench for producing small~ diameter tubing, Bulletin TeTIN ChM, 1964 No.4 (418). Katanel"son, M-E. Electrical equipment and automation of tudecrelling plants, Metallurgizdat, 1961. Snveticin, V-Ve and Gun, G.Ya. Change in wall thickness of tubing during sinking, and the optimum taper of the die hole. Investiya Wzov, Chernaya metallurgiya, 1959 (4). lytical method of determining the size AL shevelsidy Lezs An of the die bearing for cold drawing of tubes, Obrabotka (Pressure working of metals) Symposium. netalloy deviente: Metalluroizdat, 1952. Biek, Mes Rational technology for manufacturing tube-drawing tools. Metallurgiadat, 1960. bnestrovskii, N-Z. Volochil*nyi instrument. (Drawing tools). Gorenergeizdat, 1954+ Molotkov, LaF. Tapered roller dies for tube drawing, Proiz= vodstvo trub (Tube production), Metallurcizdat, 1961 No. 4. Kotononoroy, V-L. et al+ Wall deformation during colé expan- sion of tutes. Stal", 1959 (7)+ Freiberg, MeAs Plugs for cold drawing of tubes with high reductions. Stal’, 1958 (#). Rozov, NeW. Kholodnoe volochenie stal'nykh trub (Cold draving of steel tubes), Metalluraizdat, 1950 Shurupov, AcKs and Freiberg, A.T. Proizvodstve trub ekonomich nykh profiled. (Production of tubes with economical shaped sections). Metallurgizdat, 1963. Matveev, YueM. Production of bi-metal tubes by cold drawing. Bulletin TATIN ChM, 1949 Now 9 (125). 208429. Matveev, YusMs Expansion of tubing. Bulletin TeTIN Chit, 1949 Now 16 (152). 50. Grigortey, VaN. Mechanized and auto Metailurgizdat, 1960+ ted rapid-heating annular and section furnace | Acks Industrial application of high-frequency 31. Fogel koi chastoty) + currents, (Pronyablennoe prinenenie tokey ¥ys Mashoizy 1957+ 52. Shmykov, A-As and Malyshev, D.V. Controlled atmonpheres for heat treatment of tubes, Mashoizy 1952+ ‘aashchitnye atnosferys 1959+ Tube finishing. 55. Gochkiea, AD. and Yebor, KhsT. (protective atnospheres). Mashaizy Sh. Matveev, Yu.Ms and Krichevakis, MeYa> (otaetka trud). Metallurgindat, 1954+ snufacturing shops. 55. Grmolaey, N-¥. Machinery for tube Metallurpizdat, 1949. y. and Lipkin, Ya.N. Nev method of pickling 1959 (i) ube-welding shops. 36. Bogeyavienskaya, Ne tubes made of high-alloy steels. Stal'y 57. Safety regulations in tube-rolling and t Metalturgindas, 1962+ 58. Beik, S-Ds Foreign meth pulietin TaIIN chM, 1961 No.t7 (424)- oda of non-destructive testing of tubes and blanks. pu 52775/1/269 250 5/68 LAGL ~209-