Fluency

Written by Anne Bayetto, - Lecturer, Flinders University School of Education

What is fluency and why is it important?
Fluency is a key contributor toward independent
and successful reading and is comprised of
three components: accuracy, rate, and prosody
(expression). It is these capabilities that support
students comprehension of an authors
message (Hudson, 2011; Kuhn, Schwanenflugel,
& Meisinger, 2010; Rasinski, Padak, & Fawcett,
2010; Reutzel & Cooter, 2012; Walpole,
McKenna, & Philippakos, 2011). Fluent readers
read more words and because of this they have
increased opportunities to further develop their
word recognition skills, broaden their
vocabulary, increase their knowledge about the
world, and strengthen and refine their
comprehension abilities. Fluent reading is a
particularly important skill for students as they
move through the year levels as they
increasingly use longer textbooks, read lengthier
narratives and research topics in depth and are
most often working with set timelines.

Links with comprehension

Fluent reading supports students to read texts
for meaning; to understand an authors
message, and to be able to engage in
meaningful talk about texts (Serravallo, 2010).
However, some students can read accurately
and sound fluent yet when asked to retell what
has been read may not have understood an
authors message at all or perhaps only partially.
Often described as the link or bridge between
oral language, word recognition and
comprehension, fluent reading offers students
independence and satisfaction (Bashir & Hook,
2009; Pikulski & Chard, 2005; Wilson, 2012).

Factors that influence development of fluency

1. To be able to read with a smooth flowing rate
and expression, students should be able to
readily name over 90% of the words in the
text (Allington, 2012).
2. Secure letter-sound knowledge (alphabet and
phonics) supports fluency.
3. If students are unfamiliar with a particular text
type it is likely that they may read less fluently
while they orient themselves to how the text
is formatted and written.

4. Limited background knowledge about a topic

makes it harder to get into a text.
5. If students have limited fluency they may
become discouraged about their ability. This
can create a self-fulfilling prophecy where
students avoid reading and dont get the
practice they need.
6. Allocated time needs to be set for fluency
instruction.
7. Instruction should be systematic and explicit.
Demonstrations of fluent reading followed by
opportunities for guided practice should be
presented before independent practice is
undertaken. Consolidation through ongoing
review supports the gradual release of
responsibility.

Three components of fluency

1 Accuracy
Accuracy is the ability to effortlessly name words
or to draw on a mediated process when
unfamiliar words cannot be automatically
recognised (Evanchan, 2010). A secure
knowledge of phonemic awareness, letter-sound
knowledge (alphabet and phonics), sight words,
and high-frequency words supports students to
become accurate readers (Hudson, Lane, &
Pullen, 2005; Pikulski & Chard, 2005). Constant
attention to word recognition may see students
tiring and losing motivation to continue reading
(Kuhn & Rasinski, 2011). Weber (2006 in
Allington, 2009) found that high-frequency words
(such as those in the Oxford Wordlist http://www.
oxfordwordlist.com/pages/) can be quite
problematic for students to read given their
visual similarity (the/then/they/there, were/went/
with/when) so automatic and fluent naming takes
away the burden of word recognition. Another
reason given by Weber though is that these
function words are often not so easily heard in
the flow of speech yet they can significantly
influence pronunciation e.g. Jack is in the forest
may be heard as Jack isn the forest.
2. Rate
Reading rate is comprised of the speed and
fluidity a reader uses as he/she reads a text
(Evanchan, 2010, p. 12). However, fluency is not
just about reading faster because emphasising
SPELD (SA) NEWSLETTER Autumn 2013 11

Fluency cont....
speed may give students the impression that it
is the ultimate aim of reading- at the expense of
comprehension. Allington (2009, p. 17) makes
the point that glued-to-print, word-by-word
reading is an important step in becoming a
real reader and that most students appear to
move quite readily into phrase reading during
the early years of school. A comment serving
no useful purpose is when educators tell
students they should read faster.
3. Prosody
Prosody is the ability to read with expression
and with reading that sounds like speaking
(Evanchan, 2010, p. 12). Prosody is HOW words
are read and interpreted and so can have a
direct impact on whether students understand
what they are reading or have read. Kuhn &
Rasinski (2011) suggest that it is adept use of
prosody that provides the nuances and
interpretations when reading. Aspects of
prosody include the following:
Intonation: is when readers vary the pitch (rise
and fall) of their voices. Students correct use of
intonation confirms that they understand the
expressions and feelings associated with the
words.
Punctuation: supports readers to understand the
views and information conveyed in sentences.
The author indicates when to read naturally, to
pause, and to stop so their thoughts are clearly
conveyed. Punctuation helps readers to
comprehend what authors want them to
understand.
Phrasing: where a readers ability to read a
cluster of words together before pausing helps
to convey an authors meaning.
Stress: that is placed on syllables directs
pronunciation and helps to distinguish parts of
speech, for example, permit (noun), permit (verb)
and to emphasise meaning, for example, You
dropped the glass/You dropped the glass/You
dropped the glass/You dropped the glass.
Such is the importance placed on prosody that
Dudley & Mather (2005, p. 22) assert that When
readers are able to mirror the inflections of
spoken language, they are demonstrating their
abilities to comprehend the text, self-monitor,
and self-correct their reading errors. Further,
even if independent and successful readers are
asked to read accurately and at a fast rate they
may not be able to read with good prosody
because of their attention to the other two
12 SPELD (SA) NEWSLETTER Autumn 2013

elements: reading needs to be paced at a

natural rate so that readers can thoughtfully
understand an authors message (Kuhn,
Schwanenflugel, & Meisinger, 2010).
Fluency is often about getting students to read
texts again so educators need to have a range
of palatable and interesting practice activities.

Instructional approaches
1. Read with a whisper phone
A process that provides immediate feedback is to
use pieces of PVC pipe to construct a whisper
phone so a student can listen to themselves read
(Hudson, Lane, & Pullen, 2005). Alternatively,
have the student twist the pipe into an s shape
so a partner can listen to them reading. Once the
student has finished reading, their partner can
pose questions about the text to confirm their
comprehension. Students enjoy the instant
feedback of hearing their own voice and because
they need to only read using a quiet voice there
is less chance of interrupting others.

2. Read with a puppet

Ask a student to select and place a puppet on
their hand. The puppet then reads the text to a
partner using the voice of the character. When
the puppet has finished reading, the puppet
summarises what has been read and the partner
restates what the puppet summarised.

Fluency cont....
3. Read with a mask
Ask a student to select and wear a mask. The
character/animal then reads the text to a partner
using the voice of the character/animal. When
the character/animal has finished reading, the
partner asks (at least) three questions about
what was read to check for comprehension.

4. Read to a figurine or stuffed toy

Ask a student to introduce themselves to their
selected listener by telling them their name,
their interests and why they like them. The
student then reads the text to the listener using
the voice of the figurine or stuffed toy. When the
student has finished reading they state three
questions that the listener would likely ask
them about the text.

6. Read to a celebrity
Ask a student to select a photo of a well-known
personality or character. Have the student
introduce themselves to the celebrity by telling
them their name, their interests and why they
are a fan. The student then reads to the
celebrity. When they have finished reading, the
student retells what they just read to ensure the
celebrity understood the authors message.

7. Take your chance

Write names of family or personalities onto card
and put the numbers 1-6 against each name.
Have students roll a die and depending on the
number rolled, read their text using the voice of
the name against the number rolled e.g. mum,
dad, brother, sister, teacher, cartoon or media
personality.
5. Read with a microphone
Have the student practice reading their text a
few times then give them a microphone and ask
them to read their text to a partner. (Some toy
microphones have an option where different
voices allow the speaker to sound like e.g. a
robot, man, woman, or someone with a highpitched voice. These can be highly motivating for
reluctant readers). When the student has finished
reading, their partner takes the microphone and
interviews the reader by asking them at least
three questions about what was read.
SPELD (SA) NEWSLETTER Autumn 2013 13

Fluency cont....

Holding your nose is an effective way to change

your voice!
8. Readers Theatre
Use scripts as a way of having students read in
character. Re-reading supports the
development of expression and deeper
comprehension.
1. Leader reads the story aloud.
2. Everyone reads the story together.
3. Partners read the story together.
4. Everyone is assigned a part.
5. Students practice their parts on their own.
6. Students practice their parts together.
7. Students share the story with the class
(Ford & Opitz, 2002, p. 715).

9. Narrator and students

Listen to the narrator read the text and then
have students use these approaches.
1. Read WITH the narrator.
2. Read JUST BEFORE the narrator.
3. Read JUST AFTER the narrator.
14 SPELD (SA) NEWSLETTER Autumn 2013

References
Allington, R.L. (2012). What really matters for
struggling readers. Designing research-based
programs (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education.
Allington, R.L. (2009). What really matters in fluency.
Research-based practices across the curriculum.
Boston, MA: Pearson Education.
Bashir, A.S., & Hook, P.E. (2009). Fluency: A key link
between word identification and comprehension.
Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools,
40(2), 196-200.
Dudley, A.M., & Mather, N. (2005). Getting up to
speed on reading fluency. New England Reading
Association Journal, 41(1), 22-27, 65.
Evanchan, G. (2010). Fluency is a vital link in the
comprehension chain. Ohio Reading Teacher,
40(1), 11-18.
Ford, M.P., & Opitz, M.F. (2002). Using centers to
engage children during guided reading time:
Intensifying learning experiences away from the
teacher. The Reading Teacher, 55(8), 710-717.
Hudson, R. (2011). Fluency problems. In R.E.
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interventions (pp. 169-197). NY: The Guilford Press.
Hudson, R.F., Lane, H.B., & Pullen, P.C. (2005).
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why, and how? The Reading Teacher, 58(8), 702-714.
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(2010). Aligning theory and assessment of reading
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fluency. Reading Research Quarterly, 45(2), 230-251.
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Rasinski, T., Padak, N.D., & Fawcett, G. (2010).
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