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1.4 LINE DRAWING ALGORITHMS

Several line drawing algorithms are developed. Their basic objective is to
enable visually satisfactory images in least possible time. This is achieved by reducing
the calculations to a minimum. This is by using integer arithmetic rather than floating
point arithmetic. This way of minimizing even a single arithmetic operation is
important. This is because every drawing or image generated will have a large number
of line segments in it and every line segment will have many pixels. So saving of one
computation per pixel will save number of computations in generating an object. This
in turn minimizes the time required to generate the whole image on the screen.

1.4.1DDA ALGORITHM (DIGITAL DIFFERENTIAL ANALYZER)

Suppose we are given the 2 end points of a line. (xstart, ystart) and (xend,
yend).
(xend, yend)

(xstart, ystart)

(Fig: 1.34 - Line path between end point positions (xend, yend) and (xstart, ystart))

We know that the general equation of a line is y = mx + c. Where m is the

slope of the line and c is the y- intercept. (x, y) is any point on the line.
We also know that the slope of the above line can be expressed as:yend ystart
m = ---------------xend - xstart
Suppose we are given 2 points on the line as (xi, yi) and (xi+1, yi+1)then also slope,
yi+1 - yi
m = ----------xi+1 - xi
We can say that
yi+1 - yi = dy
and
xi+1 xi = dx
Then

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dy
m = ---dx
That is dy = m dx
Thus for any given x interval dx along the line, we can compute the
corresponding y interval dy.
Now suppose
xi+1 xi = 1 or dx = 1
It means
xi+1 = xi + 1
Then
dy = m which means
yi+1 yi= m
That is
1
yi+1 = yi + m
Thus a unit change in x changes y by m, which is constant for a line.
We know that if
xi+1 = xi + 1, then
yi+1 = yi +m
Initializing (xi, yi) with (xstart ,ystart), the line can be generated by incrementing the
previous x values and solving the corresponding y value at each step, till xend is
reached.at each step, we make incremental calculations based on the previous step.
This is what is defined as incremental algorithm and often referred to as the Digital
Differential Analyzer (DDA) algorithm.
We know
dy
m = ---dx
If |m| <= 1 which means |dy| <= |dx|, we sample the line at unit x intervals. But
if |m| >1, in this a unit step in x creates a step in y that is greater than 1, which is not
desirable. In this case we reverse the roles of x and y by sampling at unit y intervals
as,
dy = yi+1 yi = 1
implies yi+1 = yi + 1
dy
m = ---dx
implies
1
xi+1 xi = --m

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implies
1
xi+1 = xi +--m
yi+1 = yi + m

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2
3

These equations are based on the assumption that xstart<xend and ystart<yend.
That is slope m is positive. But if it is not the case, we have to apply negative
increment for the other possible cases.
The algorithm for rasterizing a line according to DDA logic is presented below.
DDA ALGORITHM
1. START
2. Get the values of the starting and ending co-ordinates i.e. ,(xa,ya) and (xb,yb).
3. Find the value of slope m
m=dy/dx=((yb-ya)/(xb-xa))
4. If ImI 1 then x=1,y=mx
xk+1=xk+1,yk+1=yk+m
5. If ImI 1 then y=1,x=y/m
xk+1=xk+1/m,yk+1=yk+1
6. STOP

1.4.2 BRESENHAM'S LINE ALGORITHM

An accurate and efficient raster line-generating algorithm, developed by
Bresenham, scans converts lines using only incremental integer calculations that can
be adapted to display circles and other curves. Figures 1.35 and 1.36 illustrate sections
of a display screen where straight line segments are to be drawn. The vertical axes
show-scan-line positions, and the horizontal axes identify pixel columns. Sampling at
unit x intervals in these examples, we need to decide which of two possible pixel
positions is closer to the line path at each sample step. Starting from the left endpoint
shown in Fig. 1.35, we need to determine at the next sample position whether to plot
the pixel at position (11, 11) or the one at (11, 12). Similarly, Fig. 1.36 shows-a
negative slope-line path starting from the left endpoint at pixel position (50, 50). In
this one, do we select the next pixel position as (51,50) or as (51,49)? These questions
are answered with Bresenham's line algorithm bytesting the sign of an integer
parameter, whose value is proportional to the difference between the separations of
the two pixel positions from the actual line path.
To illustrate Bresenharn's approach, we-first consider the scan-conversion
process for lines with positive slope less than 1. Pixel positions along a line path are
then determined by sampling at unit x intervals. Starting from the left endpoint (x0, y0)

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of a given line, we step to each successive column (x position) and plot the pixel
whose scan-line y value is closest to the line path. Assuming we have determined that
the pixel at (xk, yk) is to be displayed, we next need to decide which pixel to plot in
column xk+1,.Our choices are the pixels at positions (Xk+l, yk) and (xk+l, yk+l).

12

11

10
10

11

12

(Fig: 1.35 - Section of a display screen where a straight line segment is to be plotted,
starting from the pixel at column 10 on scan line 11)

50

49

48
50

51

52

53

(Fig: 1.36 - Section of a display screen where a negative slope line segment is to be
plotted, starting from the pixel at column 50 on scan line 50)

At sampling position xk+l, we label vertical pixel separations from the

mathematical line path as d1and d2 (Fig. 1.37). Theycoordinates on the mathematical
line at pixel column position xk+l is calculated as
y=m(xk+1)+b
Then
d1=y-yk
=m(xk+1)+b-yk

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and
d2=(yk+1)-y
=yk+1-m(xk+1)-b
The difference between these two separations is
d1-d2=2m(xk+1)-2yk+2b-1

yk+1

d2

d1

yk

xk+1

(Fig: 1.37 - Distance between pixel positions and the line y coordinates at sampling position xk+1)

A decision parameter pkfor the kth step in the line algorithm can be obtained
by rearranging Eq. 4 so that it involves only integer calculations. We accomplish this
by substituting m = y/x, where y and x are the vertical and horizontal
separations of the endpoint positions, and defining:
pk=x(d1-d2)
=2y.xk-2x.yk+c
5
The sign of pk,is the same as the sign of dld2, since x>0 for our example.
Parameter cis constant and has the value 2y + x(2b - l), which is independentof
pixel position and will be eliminated in the recursive calculations for pk. If the pixel at
ykis closer to the line path than the pixel at yk+1(that is, dl<d2), then decision
parameter pkis negative. In that case, we plot the lower pixel; otherwise, we plot the
upper pixel.
Coordinate changes along the line occur in unit steps in either the x or y
directions. Therefore, we can obtain the values of successive decision parameters
using incremental integer calculations. At step k + 1, the decision parameter is
evaluated from Eq. 5as
pk+1=2y.xk+1-2x.yk+1+c
Subtracting Eq. 5 from the preceding equation, we have
pk+1-pk =2y(xk+1-xk)-2x(yk+1-yk)
But xk+1, = xk+ 1, so that
pk+1=pk + 2y-2x(yk+1-yk)

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Where the term yk+1- ykis either 0 or 1, depending on the sign of parameter
pk.This recursive calculation of decision parameters is performed at each integerx
position, starting at the left coordinate endpoint of the line. The first parameter, p0, is
evaluated from Eq. 5 at the starting pixel position (xo, yo) and withm evaluated as
y/x:
We can summarize Bresenham line drawing for a line with a positive slope less
than 1 in the following listed steps. The constants 2y and 2y - 2x are calculated
once for each line to be scan converted, so the arithmetic involves only integer
addition and subtraction of these two constants.
Bresenham's Line-Drawing Algorithm for I mI<1
1. Input the twoline endpoints and store the left endpoint in (xo,yo)
2. Load (xO, yO)into the frame buffer; that is, plot the first point.
3. Calculate constants x, y, 2y, and 2y - 2x, and obtain the startingvalue for the
decision parameter as
po= 2y - x
4. At each xkalong the line, starting at k = 0, perform the following test:
If Pk< 0, the next point to plot is (xk+1,yk)and
Pk+1=P k+2y
Otherwise, the next point to plot is (xk+ 1 ,yk+ 1) and
pk+1= pk+ 2y - 2x
5. Repeat step 4 x times.

1.5 CIRCLE DRAWING

We know that the equation of a circle centered at the origin is x2 + y2 = R2,
where (0, 0) is the origin R is the radius and (x, y) is any point on the circle.
x2 + y2 = R2
y2 = R2 x2
y = + (R2 x2)
To draw a quarter circle, we can increment x from 0 to R in unit steps, solving
for +y at each step.
This method will work, but it is inefficient because of the multiply and square
root operations. Here the circle will have large gaps for values of x close to R, because
the slope of the circle becomes infinite there.

Eight-way symmetry
We can improve the process of the previous section by taking greater
advantage of the symmetry in a circle. Consider first a circle centered at the origin.

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That is (0, 0). If the point (x, y) is on the circle the new can trivially compute
seven other points on the circle as in Fig: 1.38
-y,x

y, x

-x, y
45O

x, y

x, -y

-x, -y

-y, -x

y,-x

(Fig: 1.38, Eight symmetrical points on a circle)

We need to compute only one 45-degree segment to determine the circle

completely. For a circle centered at the origin (0,0), the eight symmetrical points can
be displayed with procedure circlepoints().
Void circlepoints (int x, int y)
{
putpixel ( x, y);
putpixel ( y, x);
putpixel ( y, -x);
putpixel ( x, -y);
putpixel ( -x, -y);
putpixel ( -y, -x);
putpixel ( -y, x);
putpixel ( -x, y);
}
This procedure can be easily generalized to the case of circles with arbitrary
centers. Suppose the point (xcenter, ycenter) is the center of the circle. Then the above
function can be modified as
Void circlepoints(xcenter, ycenter, x, y)
intxcenter, ycenter, x, y;
{

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putpixel ( xcenter + x, ycenter + y);

putpixel ( xcenter + y, ycenter + x);
putpixel ( xcenter + y, ycenter - x);
putpixel ( xcenter + x, ycenter - y);
putpixel ( xcenter - x, ycenter - y);
putpixel ( xcenter - y, ycenter - x);
putpixel ( xcenter -y, ycenter + x);
putpixel ( xcenter - x, ycenter + y);
}

1.5.1 DDA ALGORITHM

To write an algorithm to generate a circle of the form (x-a)2+(y-b)2=r2 by the
help of digital differential analyzer where (a,b) is the center of the circle and r is the
radius.
1. START
2. Get the values of the center (a,b) and radius (r) of the circle.
3. Find the polar co-ordinates by
x=a+rcos
y=b+rsin
4. Plot the points(x,y) corresponding to the values of ,where lies between 0 and
360.
5.STOP

1.5.2 MIDPOINT CIRCLE ALGORITHM (Bresenham's Circle Algorithm)

As in the raster line algorithm, we sample at unit intervals and determine the
closest pixel position to the specified circle path at each step. For a given radius r and
screen center position (xc ,yc), we can first set up our algorithm to calculatepixel
positions around a circle path centered at the coordinate origin (0,0).Then each
calculated position (x, y) is moved to its proper screen position by adding xcto x and
yctoy. Along the circle section from x = 0 to x = y in the first quadrant, the slope of the
curve varies from 0 to -1. Therefore, we can take unit steps in the positive x direction
over this octant and use a decision parameter to determine which of the two possible y
positions is closer to the circle path at each step. Positions in the other seven octants
are then obtained by symmetry.
To apply the midpoint method, we define a circle function:
fcircle(x,y)=x2+y2-r2
Any point (x,y) on the boundary of the circle with radius r satisfies the equation
fcircle(x,y)= 0. If the point is in the interior of the circle, the circle function is negative.
And if the point is outside the circle, the circle function is positive. To summarize, the

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relative position of any point (x. y) can be determined by checking the sign of the
circle function:

fcircle(x,y)

<0 if(x,y) is inside the circle boundary

=0 if(x,y) is on the circle boundary
>0if(x,y) is outside the circle boundary

The circle-function tests are performed for the midpositions between pixels
near the circle path at each sampling step. Thus, the circle function is the decision
parameter in the midpoint algorithm, and we can set up incremental calculations for
this function as we did in the line algorithm.

x2+y2-r2=0
yk

yk- 1

Midpoint

xk

xk+ 1

xk+2

(Fig: 1.39, Midpoint between candidate pixels at sampling position xk+1 along a
circular path)

Fig:1.39 shows the midpoint between the two candidate pixels at sampling
position xk+ 1. Assuming we have just plotted the pixel at (xk, yk), we next need to
determine whether the pixel at position (xk+ 1, yk) or the one at position(xk+ 1, yk-1) is
closer to the circle. Our decision parameter is the circle function 3-27 evaluated at the
midpoint between these two pixels:
pk = fcircle(xk+1,yk-(1/2) )
= (xk+1)2+(yk-(1/2))2-r2
If pk<0, this midpoint is inside the circle and the pixel on scan line ykis closer
to the circle boundary. Otherwise, the midposition is outside or on the circle boundary,
and we select the pixel on scan lineyk- 1.
Successive decision parameters are obtained using incremental calculations.
We obtain a recursive expression for the next decision parameter by evaluating the
circle function at sampling position xk+1+1 = xk+ 2:
pk+1 = fcircle(xk+1+1,yk+1-(1/2) )
= [(xk+1)+1]2+(yk+1-(1/2))2-r2

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Or
pk+1=pk+2(xk+1)+(y2k+1-y2k)-(yk+1-yk)+1
Whereyk+1, is either ykor yk-1, depending on the sign of pk. increments for
obtaining pk+1, are either 2xk+1+1(if pkis negative) or 2xk+1+1-2yk+1. Evaluation of the
terms 2xk+1,n d 2yk+1,can also be done incrementallyas
2xk+1=2xk +2
2yk+1=2yk -2
At the start position (0, r), these two terms have the values 0 and 2r,
respectively. Each successive value is obtained by adding 2 to the previous value of
2xand subtracting 2 from the previous value of 2y.
The initial decision parameter is obtained by evaluating the circle function at
the start position (x0, y0) = (0, r):
p0=fcircle(1,r-(1/2) )
=1+(r-(1/2))2-r2
Or
p0=(5/4)-r
If the radius r is specified as an integer, we can simply round p0to
p0 = 1 - r(for r an integer) , since all increments are integers.
Asin Bresenham's line algorithm, the midpoint method calculates pixel
positions along the circumference of a circle using integer additions and subtractions,
assuming that the circle parameters are specified in integer screen coordinate.
We can summarize the steps in the midpoint circle algorithm as follows.

Midpoint Circle Algorithm

1. Input radius r and circle center (xc,yc), and obtain the first point onthe
circumference of a circle centered on the origin as
(x0,y0)=(0,r)
2. Calculate the initial value of the decision parameter as
p0=(5/4)-r
3. At each xk position, starting at k = 0, perform the following test: If pk<0, the next
point along the circle centered on (0,0) is (xk+1, yk) and
pk+1=pk+2(xk+1)+1
Otherwise, the next point along the circle is (xk + 1, yk - 1)and
pk+1=pk+2(xk+1)+1-2(yk+1)
Where2xk+1, = 2xk + 2and 2yk+1, = 2yk - 2.
4. Determine symmetry points in the other seven octants.
5. Move each calculated pixel position (x, y) onto the circular path centered on(xc,yc)
and plot the coordinate values:
x=x+xc, y=y+yc
6. Repeat steps 3 through 5 until x y.

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Example:
Given a circle radius r = 10, we demonstrate the midpoint circle algorithm
bydetermining positions along the circle octant in the first quadrant hum x = 0 to x =
y.
The initial value of the decision parameter is
p0=1-r=-9
For the circle centered on the coordinate origin, the initial point is (x0,y0) =(0,
l0), and initial increment terms for calculating the decision parameters are:
2x0=0,2y0=20
Successive decision parameter values and positions along the circle path are
calculated using the midpoint method as
K
0
1
2
3
4
5
6

pk
-9
-6
-1
6
-3
8
5

(xk+1,yk+1)
(1,10)
(2,10)
(3,10)
(4,9)
(5,9)
(6,8)
(7,7)

2xk+1
2
4
6
8
10
12
14

2yk+1
20
20
20
18
18
16
14

1.6 ELLIPSE-GENERATING ALGORITHMS

Loosely stated, an ellipse is an elongated circle. Therefore, elliptical curves can
be generated by modifying circle-drawing procedures to take into account the
different dimensions of an ellipse along the major and minor axes.

Properties of Ellipses
An ellipse is defined as the set of points such that the sum of the distances from
two fixed positions (foci) is the same for all points (Fig. 1.40). If the distances to the
two foci from any point P = (x, y) on the ellipse are labeled dland d2, then the general
equation of an ellipse can be stated as
d1+ d2= constant
Expressing distances d1and d2interms of the focal coordinates F1 = (x1, y1)and
F2= (x2,y2), we have
((x-x1) 2+(y-y1)2) + ((x-x2)2+(y-y2)2)=constant
A
By squaring this equation, isolating the remaining radical, and then squaring
again, we can rewrite the general ellipseequation in the form
Ax2+ By2+ Cxy+ Dx+ Ey+ F = 0
B

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y
d1
F1

p=(x,y)
d2

F2

(Fig: 1.40, Ellipse generated about foci F1 and F2)

Where the coefficients A, B, C, D, E, and F are evaluated in terms of the focal

coordinates and the dimensions of the major and minor axes of the ellipse. The major
axis is the straight line segment extending from one side of the ellipse to the other
through the foci. The minor axis spans the shorter dimension of the ellipse, bisecting
the major axis at the halfway position (ellipse center) between the two foci.
An interactive method for specifying an ellipse in an arbitrary orientation is to
input the two foci and a point on the ellipse boundary. With these three coordinate
positions, we can evaluate the constant in A. Then, the coefficients in B can be
evaluated and used to generate pixels along the elliptical path.
Ellipse equations are greatly simplified if the major and minor axes are oriented
to align with the coordinate axes. In Fig.1:41, we show an ellipse in "standard
position" with major and minor axes oriented parallel to the x and y axes. Parameter rx
for this example labels the semi major axis, and parameter ry labels the semi minor
axis. The equation of the ellipse shown in Fig.1:42 can be written in terms of the
ellipse center coordinates and parameters rx and ry as
((x-xc)/rx)2+((y-yc)/ry)2=1
C
Using polar coordinates r and ,we can also describe the ellipse in standard
position with the parametric equations:
x= xc+rxcos
y= yc+rysin
Symmetry considerations can be used to further reduce computations. An
ellipse in standard position is symmetric between quadrants, but unlike a circle, it is
not symmetric between the two octants of a quadrant. Thus, we must calculate pixel
positions along the elliptical arc throughout one quadrant, and then we obtain
positionsin the remaining three quadrants by symmetry (Fig 1.42).

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ry

yc

rx

xc

(Fig: 1:41 Ellipse centered at(xc,yc)with semimajor axis rxand semiminor axis ry)

(-x,y)

(x,y)
ry

rx
(-x,-y)

(x,-y)

(Fig: 1:42Symmetry of an ellipse)

1.6.1DDA ALGORITHM
To write an algorithm to generate an ellipse using the Digital Differential
AnalyzerAlgorithm ( DDA).
Equation to the ellipse is
((x-xc)/rx)2+((y-yc)/ry)2=1
where (xc,yc) - center of the ellipse.
rx- x radius of ellipse, ry-y radius of ellipse.

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1. START
2. Get the centre (xc,yc),x radius (rx) and y radius (ry) of the ellipse.
3. The polar co-ordinates on an ellipse are
x=xc+rxcos
y=yc+r y sin
4. Plot the point(x,y) corresponding to the values of where 0<=<=360
5. STOP

1.6.2 MIDPOINT ELLIPSE ALGORITHM (Bresenham's Circle Algorithm)

Our approach here is similar to that used in displaying araster circle. Given
parameters rx,ryand (xc,yc), we determine points (x,y) for an ellipse in standard
position centered on the origin, and then we shift the points so the ellipse is centered
at (xc,yc). Ifwe wish also to display the ellipse in nonstandard position, we could then
rotate the ellipse about its center coordinates to reorient the major and minor axes. For
the present, we consider only the display of ellipses in standard position.
The midpoint ellipse method is applied throughout the first quadrant in two
parts. Fig 1:43 shows the division of the first quadrant according to the slope of an
ellipse with rx<ry. We process this quadrant by taking unit steps in the xdirection
where the slope of the curve has a magnitude less than 1, and taking unit steps in they
direction where the slop has a magnitude greater than 1.
Region 1
y

Slope=-1
ry

Region 2
rx

(Fig: 1:43, Ellipse processing regions. Over region 1, the magnitude of the ellipse
slope is less than 1; over region 2, the magnitude of the slope is greater than 1)
Regions 1 and 2 (Fig. 1:43),can be process in various ways. We can start at
position (0,ry) and step clockwise along the elliptical path in the first quadrant, shifting
from unit steps in x to unit steps in y when the slope becomes less than -1.
Alternatively, we could start at (rx,0) and select points in a counterclockwise order,

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shifting from unit steps in y to unit steps in x when the slope becomes greater than -1.
With parallel processors, we could calculate pixel positions in the two regions
simultaneously. As an example of a sequential implementation of the midpoint
algorithm, we take the start position at (0, ry) and step along the ellipse path in
clockwise order throughout the first quadrant.
We define an ellipse function from C with (xc, yc) = (0,0) as
fellipse(x,y)=r2yx2+r2xy2-r2xr2y
This has the following properties:
<0 if(x,y) is inside the ellipse boundary
fellipse(x,y)
=0 if(x,y) is on the ellipse boundary
>0if(x,y) is outside the ellipse boundary
Thus, the ellipse function fellipse(x,y) serves as the decision parameter in the
midpoint algorithm. At each sampling position, we select the next pixel along the
ellipsepath according to the sign of the ellipse function evaluated at the midpoint
between the two candidate pixels.
Midpoint Ellipse Algorithm
1. Input rx, ryand ellipse center (xc, yc), and obtain the first point on an ellipse
centered on the origin as
(x0,y0)= (0, ry)
2. Calculate the initial value of thedecision parameter in region 1 as
p10=r2y-r2xry+(1/4)r2x
3. At each xkposition in region 1, starting at k = 0, perform the following test:
If plk< 0, the next point along the ellipse centered on (0, 0) is(xk+1, yk) and
p1k+1=p1k+2r2yxk+1+r2y
Otherwise, the next point along the circle is (xk+ 1, yk- 1) and
p1k+1=p1k+2r2yxk+1-2r2xyk+1+r2y
with
2r2yxk+1=2r2yxk +2r2y
2r2xyk+1=2r2xyk -2r2x
and continue until 2r2yx2r2x y.
4. Calculate the initial value of the decision parameter in region 2 using the last point
(x0, y0) calculated in region 1 as
p20=r2y( x0+(1/2))2+r2x(y0-1)2-r2xr2y
5. At each ykposition in region 2, starting at k = 0, perform the followingtest: If
p2k>0, the next point along the ellipse centered on (0, 0) is(xk, yk-1) and
p2k+1=p2k-2r2xyk+1+r2x
Otherwise, the next point along the circle is (xk+ 1, yk - 1) and
p2k+1=p2k+2r2yxk+1-2r2xyk+1+r2x
Using the same incremental calculations for x and y as in region 1.
6. Determine symmetry points in the other three quadrants.

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7. Move each calculated pixel position (x, y) onto theelliptical path centered on(xc, yc)
and plot the coordinate values:
x=x+xc y=y+yc
8. Repeat the steps for region 1 until 2r2yx2r2x y.
Example:
Given input ellipse parameters rx= 8 and ry= 6, we illustrate the steps in
themidpoint ellipse algorithm by determining raster positions along the ellipse path in
the first quadrant. Initial values and increments for the decision parameter calculations
are
2r2y x= 0 (with increment 2r2y= 72)
2r2x y=2r2xry(withincrement-2r2x=-128)
For region 1: The initial point for the ellipse centered on the origin is (x0, y0) =
(0,6),and the initial decision parameter value is
p10=r2y-r2xry+(1/4)r2x= -332
Successive decision parameter values and positions along the ellipse path are
calculated using the midpoint method as
k
0
1
2
3
4
5
6

p1k
-332
-224
-44
208
-108
288
244

(xk+1,y k+1)
(1,6)
(2,6)
(3,6)
(4,5)
(5,5)
(6,4)
(7,3)

2r2yxk+1
72
144
216
288
360
432
504

2r2xyk+1
768
768
768
640
640
512
384

We now move out of region 1, since 2r2yx>2r2x y

For region 2, the initial point is (x0, y0) = (7,3) and the initial decision
parameter is
p20=f(7+(1/2),2)=-151
The remaining positions along the ellipse path in the first quadrant are then
calculated as
k
0
1
2

P2k
-151
233
745

Dept. of Computer Science And Applications, SJCET, Palai

(xk+1,y k+1)
(8,2)
(8,1)
(8,0)

2r2yxk+1
576
576
-

2r2xyk+1
256
128
-

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1.7 PARALLEL LINE ALGORITHMS

With a parallel computer, we can calculate pixel positions along a line path
simultaneously by partitioning the computations among the various processors
available. One approach to the partitioning problem is to adapt an existing sequential
algorithm to take advantage of multiple processors. Alternatively, we can look for
other ways to set up the processing so that pixel positions can be calculated efficiently
in parallel. An important consideration in devising a parallel algorithm is to balance
the processing load among the available processors.
Given np processors, we can set up a parallel Bresenham line algorithm by
subdividing the line path into np partitions and simultaneously generating line
segments in each of the subintervals. For a line with slope 0 < m < 1 and left endpoint
coordinate position (x0, y0), we partition the line along the positive x direction. The
distance between beginning x positions of adjacent partitions can be calculated as
xp=(x+np-1)/np
where x is the width of the line, and the value for partition width xp is
computed using integer division. Numbering the partitions, and the processors, as
0,1,2, up to n, - 1, we calculate the starting x coordinate for the kth partition as
xk=x0+kxp
As an example, suppose x=15 and we have np=4 processors. Then the width
of the partitions is 4 and the starting x values for the partitions are x0, x0 + 4, x0 +8,
and x0 + 12. With this partitioning scheme, the width of the last (rightmost)
subinterval will be smaller than the others in some cases. In addition, if the line
endpoints are not integers, truncation errors can result in variable width partitions
along the length of the line.
To apply Bresenham's algorithm over the partitions, we need the initial value
for the y coordinate and the initial value for the decision parameter in each partition.
The change yp, in the y direction over each partition is calculated from the line slope
m and partition width xp:
yp= mxp
At the kth partition, the starting y coordinate is then
yk=y0+round(kyp)
The initial decision parameter for Bresenhams algorithm at the start of the kth
subinterval is obtained from
pk=(kxp)(2y)-round(kyp)(2x)+2y-x
Each processor then calculates pixel positions over its assigned subinterval
using the starting decision parameter value for that subinterval and the starting
coordinates (x0,y0).We can also reduce the floating-point calculations to integer

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arithmetic in the computations for starting values yk and pk by substituting m =y/x

and rearranging terms. The extension of the parallel Bresenham algorithm to a line
with slope greater than 1 is achieved by partitioning the line in the y direction and
calculating beginning x values for the partitions. For negative slopes, we increment
coordinate values in one direction and decrement in the other.
y2
y

y1
x

x1
x2
(Fig: 1:44 Bounding box for a line with coordinate extents x and y)

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