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Enclosed § ose numbers | have ciecled below and for which have enclosed the payment indicated above. 28242" Se. 168 175.589. 78. 775180 16s 17714331 49. 172 202 292" 205° 291" 287298 264 S88 196 272 472 2b6 295 202 64 204 dag 372487 194 613 329 Yee fat Zev zor abe Sta 847 72° 209 NAME cs mut 7 AoREss curr stare wes New York City residents c 1 i i 1 ' | 228 1 1 ' 1 1 I Ade 4% sales tax Money refunded if books are returned within ten days. All books will be sent postpaid 1 1 1 ' 1 ie | ' ' I !: A good paying career in Radio-TV-Electronics may be closer than you think — regardless of your age, edueation or present job experience You know about the tremendous demand for radio: TV and electronics technicians. But something pe haps you didn't know is how easy it is to get the training that will qualify you for this vital work, and how quickly you can advance. From the very beginning you will find that your LCS. course is preparing you thoroughly—at your own pace—for an exciting new career. 1.C.S. Radio: TV-Electronics courses make electronic fundamentals, clear, easy to follow. You get personalized guidance fron people who know—and can tell you—what it takes to sueceed along every The 1.C.S. method makes it possible to learn while you earn. You study at home — in your sp time. Exerything you learn is practical, usahle. You mastery of Radio-TV-Electronics assures you of top For Real Job Security—Get an I.C.S. Diploma! Box E1549F, Scranton, Penna, 18515 Without cost robin, send me “How lo Su RADIO TELEVISION ELECTRONICS C DRAFTING BUSINESS Cost Accounting General Electronics Tech, Di Industrial Electronics Practical Radio-TV Engr’ High sehoot Di actcal Telephony Bi a {5 Good English Gi Radio-TV Servicing om, {In Hawai reply .0. Box #18, Honolla 6" an the oppontunty bobket about the eld BEFORE which have marked X (plus ample less): 1 Managing a Sma Business Purenasing Agent HIGH SCHOOL Electrical Drating i ploma t Eh High Schoo! Mathematics pay and real job security in one of today’s fastest growing fields. So if you would like to break into Radio-TV- Elec your first step is to send for your FREE er Kit. There's no obligation . .. and there's ew future to gain, res a whole Send coupon below for your free 1.C.S. Career Kit! GQ) “career ats" ot ob opp Scranton 15, Penna. creed Member National Home Study Coun (Partial fit of courses) ELECTRICAL Electrica! Enaineering Elec. Engr. Technician Elec. Light and Power ( Practical Evectrician 1 Professional Engineer (Eiea.) pianeneiee H tnduatat Personnet-tabo Os ELEMENTARY ELECTRONICS«ELEMENTARY N \ ELECTRONICS i . ye P ¥ A RADIO-TV EXPERIMENTER SEMIANNUAL HANDBOOK summer, 1964 working with electronic tools and parts basic electricity introduction to vacuum tube theory dry cells and batteries basic test equipment t getting started in amateur radio s & 29 35 a 59 67 1 87 91 101 109 getting started in CB radio putting together a hi-fi system how to service home entertainment equipment construction projects SUMMER 1964Use new improved Model 163 FOR REPAIRING ALL ELECTRICAL APPLIANCES INCLUDING Toasters, Irons, Broilers, Heating Pads, Clocks, Fans, Vacuum Cleaners, Refrigerators, Switches, Thermostats, etc. CHECK ALL ELECTRIC LINES TEST ALL TV TUBES The Model 163 Measures A.C. and D.C. voltages, 0 to 300 volts: A.C. and DC. current, 0 to 15 amperes: indicates continuity to 100.000 ohms The ranges specified above are sufficient to test all Home Appliances without exception and the vast majority of Industrial Appliances and Utilities. 3 a ‘The Model 163 Meter movement Op crane Ton] eetretierscf sry | cE GOUT TCS emcioa)§ ropeetaocri ae Brsating any of the vives and wie the anit iin gaplngeenorsberSccause tne reler is ofthe AC 165, plug the ine cord of the Model 163 into thet stancated components Revd Geol Saco mney meets | SoG iee tom namperes cect on the mete Tne gafeatre "°° Moga 163 ineudes both» prod Woe Ie and $35 55 09 $100.60 st gator chp Toad llening asi MeaBay Testing TV tubes with Model 163 Operating procedure book Please note Mode! 163 will not test the quality The 36-page manual provided with Model 163 Suapth su hicdel 16) sal'est al tubes iled'in adttion fo detailed stepby-step procedure for esing aoe eat age Lee cure bes, Weronee wise Model 163. the manual cspisins mn eany founder eit) I oe The 2nd ouane vat eles seunes cen Testing electric lines and outlets voltage and wattage, end includes many, many The Stoder igs mil messy ine votage of any implied explanations “usualy Included ony electrical line, outlet or socket. Most lines vary be: ¥ fecen TO" wots and 155 wily eoending upon Guarantee rset AO cal sgh dae, 2S Cen ar Tats is quaranteed for one year Par between 208 vats ond 240ccots), Model 163 will accurately measure all such lines. A.C-0r D.C. Model 163 comes complete Motors with all test leads and The model 163 will test all motors—single operating instructional phase, multiphase, universal, squirrel cage. induc: _ manual. Ready to use, Onl... tion: in fact every type from fractional H.P. to 2 HP, SEND NO MONEY WITH ORDER. PAY POSTMAN NOTHING ON DELIVERY Try it for 10 days before you buy. = If completely satistied then send | SCCURATE INSTRUMENT CO.. INC. Dept. 0-345 911 Faile St., Bronx 59, N. Y. $3.00 and pay the balance at the Please rush me one Model 163. If satisfactory | agree to pay $3.00 rate of $3.00 per month untit | within 10 days and batonce at rate of $2.00 per month until the total price of $9.85 (plus | {ol2! price of $9.85 (olus smoll PP. and budget charge) is paid small P.P. and budget charge) | 4.6 is paid. If not completely satis- fied, return to us, no explanation necessary. Address : city Zone__State be een ! I i I [Wot satistactory. 1 may return for cancellation of account| ! 1 1 1 ELEMENTARY ELECTRONICSvo marsr wnat voun son's roar I ¥ There's BIG MONEY to be ¥ ¥ Made In COLOR TELEVISION! y ¥ DUE TO SHORTAGE OF TRAINED MEN ¥ Get into fast-zrowing field! Learn COLo1 Vis SSS y BET N Seaton ¥ a Get 20 Valuable its to Build 20" ‘SS 1V Set and Test Instruments! FA aera econ tesa: ony sar, cer yoateel Corer ‘MAIL COUPON TODAY FOR atte tt tag , : ing COLOR TV ser . wae pooaess en. ont _state. hems Accredited Member National Home Study Council oatien | Oma Tees mere a Elementary Electronics No. 697 Summer 1964 Edition JULIAN M, SIENKIEWICZ WA2CQL, 2WS115 EUGENE F, LANDING ‘ SID GREIFF * ANTHONY MACCARRONE t ALaeRT DE QUERQUIS GREGORY CHISLOVSKY Beditoriet P. D. URBAIN BETTY SCHNEIDER CAROL CRISERA STEVE WEISMAN LEONARD F. PINTO JOHN McGUIRE CARL BARTEE RENEE BENNETT oi b u STEWART S. JURIST FRANK A, TAGGART JOE DAFFRON 8. G. DAVIS JOEL DAVIS, HERB LEAVY SUMMER 1964. —— a Ho GD new, faster, easier way toward a career in electronics EXCLUSIVE WITH RCA. “AUTOTEXT", developed by RCA and introduced by RCA Institutes, Inc. is 2 system of programmed instruction, @ method of learning proved with thousands of ‘students. This beginning course in electronics is accurately planned so that a8 you read 2 series of statements, questions, ‘and answers, you learn almost without realizing it. I's fast! W's easy! 1's fun! BEGIN NOW WITH RCA “AUTOTEXT”. Now you can start your hhome training the amazing new RCA “AUTOTEXT” way. And, you get 2 complete set of theory lessons, service practice lessons, experiment lessons, and all the kits you need. Because “AUTOTEXT" has been designed to help you master the funda mentale of electronics more quickly, more easily-almost auto: ‘matically — you'll be ready to go On to advanced training in electronics sooner than you ever thought possible. STUDENT PROVED. Prove it to yourself a8 others throughout the country are now doing. An interest or inclination in elec: tronics is all you need. RCA “AUTOTEXT" helps you to do the test. The future is unlimited. The jobs are available! The im: portant thing is to get started now, FREE OFFER! Ms sed cate inmation on ann we Blone with 2 ee sample ot 8 ae traning lesson Clstrois Fundamentals to Biove lo Jou how easy it fo Term tis non Way heck Cettromes Fundamentals and formation tl Brrastes to you Classroom Training Available in New York City, ‘and Cherry Hill (near Camden) New Jersey. Check "Classroom Training” and we will rush information, RCA INSTITUTES, INC. 091 case The Most Trusted Name in Electronics ‘e ELEMENTARY ELECTRONICS Complete Selection of Home Training Courses. © Drafting © Computer Programming © Electronics Fundamentals {also available in Spanish) © TV Servicing © Color Vv © Transistors (© Automation Electronics © Industrial Electronies Automatic Controls ‘© Communications Electronics © FCC License Preparation © Mobile Communications Industrial Applications Nuclear Instrumentation Digital Techniques All RCA Institutes Home Training Courses are complete stop by step eaty-to-understand units, You get prime qualily equipment ia tha kits furnished to you to keop and use on the job. In addition, RCA's liberal tuition plan affords you the most economical pos: sible method of home study training. You pay for lessons only as you order them. tf you should wish to interrupt your training for ny reason, you do nat owe one cent, Licensed by the NY. State Department of Education. Approvad for Veterans. po----------------- RCA Institutes, Inc. Dept. EA-64 1 350 west th Si, New York, NLY. 10014 | | Please rush me FREE illustrated book with information) | checked bei No ebigation No salesman wi ay J Electronics Fundamentals. | Other Home Training (choice of courses) | 4 Classroom Training (hoe ofc) \ om "| 1 Address___ | Vy __Zone__Stat. | | 1 canaorans: tebe asvntage of eve same RCA natties Cures a Seoul es hs pagrus na dey Pl et cae sd rdLAFAYETTE 0.) ELECTRONICS Aj) ALL-TRANSISTOR WALKIE-TALKIE =A ideo! for Short Ronge Communication: © Great Fun for Kids too—At a Price Even they Can Alvord fe Complete’ with Builtin Antenna, Yeansmit Crystal, Battery, Plastic Carrying cases Imported 1095 4% na7oL FREE! NEW 1964 LAFAYETTE CATALOG NO. 640 422 Giant-Sized Pages wypen for your FREE cotolog! 1 fETTE Radio ELECTRONICS 1 fons Beet ‘to Bor te ' 1 Syosset, LL, NAY. 11791 ; 1 crush my tree 1968 Lafayette Catan ‘ TGhsend me HA70 walkieTakies, sipping charges 4 FO colet 1am eneosing $ i t ¥ name i | asaess t foi site Zeno} GET A BRITISH DEGREE! Divinity, Philosophy, Radionics, Homoeopathy, Hypnosis, Botanic Medicine, Biochemistry, Ps chotherapy, Massage, Music. 35 courses, pros pectus free. Brantridge Forest School, Balcombe, Sussex, England Hallicrafters performance standards mes $9935 CB 7 six-channel CB transceiver jew all-electronit push-to-talk circultry 1 Compact new size—just 12” x 5” x 7” nothing else to buy—110¥. AC or 12v. OC peration, cessories available. Smeter, Noise Elim or; Recelver Tuning; Encoder / Decoder. 18 100% magulation, sensitivity 1 wv. halhicratters Sth & Kostner Aves Chicago, Il. 60623 EES Weite tor complete specifications today! ask me another By Leo G. Sands Elementary Electronics brings the know-how of an electronics expert to its readers. Leo G. Sands, columnist for Radio-TV Experimenter, will be happy to answer your question. Just type ot print your unsolved problem on the back of a 4¢ postal card and send it to "Ask Me Another,” Elementary Electronics, 505 Pork Avenue, New York, New York 10022. Leo will try to answer all your ques- tions in the available space in up coming issues of Radio-TV Experimenter ot a future edition of Elementary Electronics. Sorry, Leo will be unable to answer your questions by mail. Question: T notice that most experts have a very high opinion of acoustic suspension speakers like the AR and KLH; but they sound dull and dry to me as compared with several others. I really favor another speaker but on the other hand I don’t like to go against the judgment of so many people who ought to know. What do you say? E.G., Aiken, S.C. Answer: The obvious answer is to go ahead and buy the speaker you like and the devil take the experts; after all it's you, not they, who's going to be lisiening to it On the other hand, there is this to be said for the experts—a lot of the best things in life take getting used to—like very-dry, very- pale sherry, caviar, camembert cheese, yen- idge tobacco, and black-eyed peas, not to mention snails, whether French or Chinese. and abstract ari. The tastes of experts and connoisseurs are always more highly devel- oped and sophisticated than those of the new- comer to any field. Specifically, in the case of speakers, the expert usually listens for sharp definition and the ability to reproduce the finest detail of music. The dullness and dryness you mention is evidence of a fine transient response which reveals the fine de- tail, On the other hand the brightness you like evidences some hangover which, though it may produce a liver, more reverberant and possibly even a more pleasant sound, tends to obscure the finer details of music. SUMMER 1964 xtMen 17-55 JOB OPPORTUNITIES! EXCITEMENT! MONEY! All this can be ‘Yours as a trained Electronics aie Let DeVry help you to prepare and blueprint a \\ Solid Career in this fast- Growing Field! OVER 6,000 FIRMS HAVE EMPLOYED iio DeVRY TECH GRADUATES! Thovsns of companies in the United Stats and Canad who fav ployed ety Tech men poe te most mp ats {icons ion ofthe tges atest grog fulsome aod) Bet Tesh grates a WANTS” J hon \ Whee etry Tec prepares yu in spate tne 3 ane compurins tnt cleo one oars, Yar tao sd tepetyou rey to met te eating stntres afte. Yu get \ post tn that tt So hep too far 3 ora seree\ \ = Tipo ur uments esos, fers acer that a tone poate eet ore ( You wrk over 200 lean-by ding experiment at home, sing Dey i Tech's exclusive Electr-Lab methed. You build and KEEP vatua 4 aulp ment With anather Dery Tech excusive, you have the benefit of traning microwaves movies that you can show over and over again until base pints are crystal Cheat Special texts gue you evry step of the way as wel. HOW DeVRY TECH CAN “BLUEPRINT” YOUR CAREER! Devry’ faculty not only Know how to teach Electranles, but they also under. stand men, They most Ikely know the typeof prablems you face. From this stat et Rep, 2evce and understanding. ItIs this “human” side of Devry’s tam tha has caused many of our graduates to say. "DeVry Tech not onhy ou fr 3 job, they actualy help you blueprat 2 profitable future VANCED EDUCATION NEEDED! yo write for FREE FACTS today? Learn Hew you TOO can be a reat Hateriy of Oey Tech gratuites acrass the cot q teen who were propery Wane, encourage, appreciated an tee en Couron ww! we ~~ BROADCASTING © EFFECTIVE EMPLOYMENT SERVICE vey Teen's eectve Employment Service is avaiable to all grduates, wine adational | 2 FREE BOOKLETS! | SRP ageanent ene 60641, Dept. €€-1-u | Send Coupon Today! A gemmunicaons “One of North Americ’s Foremost Elerones Training Center a 14 | @ I TECHNICAL ae | | Hsin cranes INSTITUTE —________0.____- CHICAGO @ TORONTO © Check nae it you are under 16 yeas of aca vesiaents: Wrhe Devry Tech af Canada, Uta NS 20754370 Lens vc ens Toronto 18, Ontario ELEMENTARY ELECTRONICS 7BECOME A RADIO Build 20 Radio and Electronic Circuits at Home ; on PORTIA TO He, | NOW! TRAIN AT HOME IN RADIO AND ELECTRONICS ORDER DIRECT FROM AD .... USE COUPON ON NEXT PAGE RECEIVE FREE BONUS RESISTOR AND CONDENSER KITS 8 SUMMER 1964TECHNICIAN for only *26°° THE NEW IMPROVED DELUXE Progressive | Radio “Edu-Kit” is now ready NOW INCLUDES Ban 12_ RECEIVERS Lav Noa lor Nm ¥ * 3 TRANSMITTERS 95 % So. WAVE GENERATOR MAbOMAU $ % AMPLIFIER % SIGNAL TRACER RADIO x Reg. U.S. Pat. OF. Nad RED LGEeet need FREE EXTRAS + SET OF Toots SOLDERING IRON ELECTRONICS TESTER PLIERS.CUTTERS ALIGNMENT TOOL WRENCH SET VALUABLE DISCOUNT CARD CERTIFICATE OF MERIT + TESTER INSTRUCTION MANUAL + HIGH FIOELITY GUIDE + quizzes + TELEVISION BooK + RADIO TROUBLE-SHOOTING BOOK + MEMBERSHIP IN RADIO-TV CLUB: CONSULTATION SERVICE» “Foc AMATEUR LICENSE TRAINING + PRINTED CIRCUITRY You Will Find That The Progressive Radia “Edu-Kit” 94 Perfect * FOR anyone who wishes to learn more about radio construction, theory and servicing, FOR anyone who is looking for an interesting hobby. SIGNAL INJECTOR COURSE CODE OSCILLATOR s=T*: FOR, iahoret Bho Would! TE 3 Ci Send “EduKit” postpaid. 1 enclose full payment of $26.95. lear radio but does not have OO Send “Edu-Kit” €.0.0. | will pay $26.95 plus postage. fis |G waftana) riglal wztcol Gi Rush me FREE descriptive literature concerning “Edu-Kit.” hours. a * + + FOR anyone who, wants to start studying for a high-paying radio Address job. * + + FOR anyone who wishes to start in Television, PROGRESSIVE “EDU-KITS" INC. a T186 Froodwey, Dept. £020), Hewe ¥ ELEMENTARY ELECTRONICS 910 Er. me another ‘Your choice should be based not so much on the word of experts or your owa off-the- cuff judgment or preference, but on how you want to enjoy the music or sound that comes from the hi-fi, If you want the maximum. detail, choose as the experts choose because that's their criterion: but if your interest in music is casual. or more emotional than ana- lytical, choose the speaker that sounds best and produces the highest emotional appeal to you, But remember, you too may like caviar, camembert, or black-eyed peas if you permit yourself to acquire a taste for them. Question: During a recent snow storm radio Feception was interrupted by snow on the an- tena, which caused the radio to sound like continuous bolts of lightning and it stopped when the snow stopped. Can you tell me why this occurred? JS, Albion, Mich, Answer: This phenomenon is a case of pre- cipitation static. it also occurs sometimes during a rain storm. Apparently the flakes of snow or drops of rain originate in a cloud heavily charged with static electricity and carry a considerable charge with them. When the snow flakes or rain drops reach an an- tenna system that is grounded, the charge is discharged through a short arc between flake and antenna. Thus hundreds of miniature lightning bolts occur and produce the inter- ference you noted. Question: What are the highest paid job the field of electronics? IW, Woodbury, Conn. Answer: The Chief Engineer of a sizeable electronic company can command between $15,000 and 25,000. Graduate engineers of proven ability can expect to earn $12,000 to 15,000. Technicians without engineering degrees but outstanding ability can earn as much as $10,000 to 12,000 in Question: I'm getting severe interference in my shortwave radio from fluorescent —at least, the interference stops when I put the light out, Can I do something about this? Answer: The simplest and most effective so- lution is 10 keep the fluorescent lights off when you're doing serious listening on the radio. While it is possible to “filter” out this type of interference, it can be very stubborn and may require pretty elaborate measures, and may not be fully effective even then. Question: What is a “trap antenna” and how does it work? EK, Wichita, Kansas Answer: Antennas are most efficient when they are resonant at the operating frequency. A dipole, for example, is several times more efficient at the frequency at which its length is equai to a halt-wavelength, than at other frequencies. If we want to have equal effi- ciency at several different frequencies we really need to have several dipoles of differ- ent lengths; and, in the past, it was common. to combine two dipoles of different lengths to make a “double doublet” or several dipoles to make a “multiple dipole” or “spiderweb” antenna, A few years ago a clever method was de- veloped by which a single dipole antenna could, in effect, look like two or more di- poles of diflerent length to incoming signals. For example, in Fig. | we have in a dipole about 75 feet long tuned to the 6 me. or 49- meter short-wave band. We would like to cover the 9.5 me. or 31-meter band. This would take a dipole about 48 feet long. We 27's | —a7e_4 | ( LEAD IN uy wine, ae pez pet ( can make the 75-foot dipole look like 48 feet to a 9.5 signal by cuiting it at points 24 feet on each side of center and inserting parallel tuned coil-capacitor tanks tuned to resonance at 9.5 mc. at these points, as is shown in Fig. 2. A parallel-tuned circuit pre- sents an extremely high impedance to any signal whose frequency is the same as the resonant frequency of the tuned circuit. In fact, the tuned circuit or “trap” looks very much like an insulator at 9.5 me., and hence the antenna seems only 48 ft. long and is therefore resonant at 9.5 me. The trap is virtually a short circuit at 6 me. and there- fore does not affect the performance in the 49-meter band. We can shorten the antenna SUMMER 1964 /Learn ELECTRONICS in Classrooms and Labs Now ia the time to train for a top- pay job in electronics. When you train at Coyne, you work on the same type of equipment you will work on outside in industry. You will be getting your training at one of the largest and best equipped schools in the country. During the past 65 years, we have put thousands of ambitious men on’ the road to security and personal independence in the fast- growing field of Electronics. No previous experi- ence needed. No advanced education required. ELECTRICITY-ELECTRONICS: Motors, Generators, Computer START NOW—PAY LATER. Liberal Finance and Circuitry, Appliances, Automatic Electronic Control Units, Payment Plans. Part-time employment help for Refrigeration and Ar Conditioning students. Mail coupon now for FREE copy of ee a “Your Opportunities in Electronics.” No sales: Ps man will visit. Send coupon, postcard or letter right away . . . before you forget. MAIL COUPON ‘icon COYNE ELECTRONICS INSTITUTE Boyt te 1391 W. Congress Ph Cag, 60897 a ad _ TELEVISION- ELECTRONICS: TV Receivers—Black and and Color AM. Fit and Auto Radios, Transistors, Printed Circuits Phon Test Equipment, Closed Circuit TV ‘hatred yo Econ Ito Ro Pr COYNE offers ey I A ala Ls T "Ek, ati ; vt Prat a PL rte ps 7 betes = v —PLUS Two Weeks Personal Training in our Chicago Shop-Labs—FREE of any extra Tuition! Coyne—and only Coyne—can make you Now, you can quit wishing you had a epee ay Cree eTimseestia prodable Nadi TV Service Ruanees ot Send Name for Ee of home training, but esoonasyou Yyourewn, Now, you ean quit dreaming FREE BOOK. No ean ee eee eae denatite ie cke your fveume come _ salesman will call Cae fetting personal instruction with. true. Start your basi training at home in ‘cut one ceat of extra tuition Like getting time. We train you to do the work, f\pont:graduate couree free. This offer ‘ow you how to cet the work to do | WOME TR: moay be withdrawn ot any time, but those —-even while you are learning. Nocostly | 1808 w. ‘who inquire about Coyne’s home training sr” kita to pay for. Lowest | Pie Dow will be guaranteed two weeks of shop ‘monthly payments. Free | pe frainicg at Coyme's expense for resident tuition, Send tame for FREE BOOK. Founded 1899 COYNE haa, hi 1 earoan will eall, |" ical. | ELECTRONICS Thue INSTITUTE ‘fits kind. 1501 West Congress Parkway, Dept. 84-H4 Chicago 60607 | State. ELEMENTARY ELECTRONICS uEe Fe. me another to around 31 feet to make it resonant in the 19-meter band by inserting another pair of i traps resonant at 19-meters about 15.5 ft. on each side of the dipole center; and additional ervals to cover any desired combination of bands. Because they reduce the number of an- tennas needed, trap antennas have become very popular in amateur radio, Even Yagi beam antennas have been adapted for two or three band service by the use of “traps.” Trap antennas are available also to cover the various short-wave broadcast bands. While trap antennas are not quite as good as individual antennas would be, they do pro- traps can be inserted at other ii vide high efficiency economically. Question: Are the surplus crystals that sell for 50 cents any good? JE, Perry, Okla. Answer: 1 have bought dozens and found them all active. If the frequency is useful to you, or you can grind or etch them, to a useful frequency, they are a good buy. Question: Most of the radio stati land have their trans from my home, fully tells me tl idea what I can do Answer: He's right about moving b only sure way, especially if you're determined to keep the transistor radio. Close proximity ers raises problems, with any receiver, but transistor types ustial- ly are much more troubled than old-tash- ioned tube types. On the other hand, the S-tube AC-DC type radio isn’t likely to im- prove matters much. The only hope I can offer is to try a first class general coverage communications receiver by Hammarlung, Hallicrafters or National. Some of the older models, 5, 10 or 15 years old can be bought for between 50 and 100 dollars reconditioned from distributors who specialize in selling to high powered transt amateur equipment. n is in Cleve- next to impossible to ns. My radio dealer it the only sure way of getting other stations is to move to some town farther away from the transmitters. Have you any ‘Question: How can I change a broadcast band radio so it will tune to 500 ke.? CY, Huntington, W. Va. Answer: Most BC radios can be moved down to 500 ke. by adding between 50 and 75 pf of capacitance across the RF and oscillator tuning capacitors. The inexpensive 5 to 80 pf mica compression trimmers will do the job. Of course this will mess up the tuning and calibration, and cut out some stations on the high end of the band. A neater way would be to use a simple transistor converter like the one I described in the Winter issue of Rapio-TV EXPERIMENTER on page 31 One of the very inexpensive BC604 crystals in the range between 370 and 450 ke. could be used. Pick a spot between 870 and 950 ke. where there is no broadcast station, choose a crystal whose frequency when added to 500 comes close to this. Question: Some FM stations we receive come in sharp and clear but some come i with considerable distortion. My serviceman says it is the fault of the station; but when 1 called up the statio fault of my tuner. Which is i Ido about it? L.D.M.. Chicago, I. Answer: Probably both, ‘In FM broadcast- ing the higher the modulation (or loudness) the greater the deviation and hence the greater the bandwidth of the transmitted sig- nal. If the receiver has a wide enough band- pass to accept the wide deviation, there will be no distortion; but if the receiver band- pass is narrower than the deviation of the signal, there will be distortion. ‘A deviation of 75 ke. is allowed for FM broadcasting. Theoretically, the receiver should have a bandpass of 250 ke. to receive a fully modulated monophonic signal and more for a stereo signal. Few tuners have that wide a bandpass because it is difficult to achieve it and at the same time obtain enough sensitivity and selectivity. Ordinarily a bandpass of 175 to 200 ke. is wide enough to provide an acceptably low level of distor- tion because in the case of most stations, particularly those transmitting “good music” type programs, the maximum deviation occurs only on occasional peaks and at the very highest frequencies only. However, some stations, especially those broadcasting pop type programs tend to push their modulation very close to the limit a very high percentage of the time by SUMMER 1964 =Clam (OU mae Do you WISH you uaa were EMPLOYED in F.C.C. LICENSE ELECTRONICS? QUICKLY! F.C.C. License — The Key to Better Jobs Learn by Correspondence or in Resident Classes FCC. commercial (not amateur) license is your Grantham training is offered by correspondence or ticket to higher nay and more interesting employment, resident classes, Fither way, we tyain you quiekly and This license is Federal Goveruinent evidence of you horouily teach you feal of electronics and qualifications in electronics. Employers are eager 10 prepare sou to pass the FC nnivation fora f hire licensed technicians. lass license, Get details now. Mail coupon below. Which License for Which Job? ‘The THIRD CLA! iotelephone license is of value THIS 44 PAGE primarily in that it qualifies vou to take the second BOOKLET Examination. The scape of autiority covered by a third class license ig extremely linvted. The SECOND CLASS radiotelephone license qualifies you to install, maintain and operate most all radio-tele Phone equipment except commercial brosdeast. station ‘The FIRST CLASS radio telephone license qualifies you to install, maintain andl operate every type of radio Telephone eniinment. (exeentamateu). including all radio and television stations in the United States, its territories and possessions. This is the highest class of radiotelephone license available Grantham Training Prepares You The Grantham course covers the required subje matter completely. Even thou itis planned prim fo lead sivety tou Brat lame PCG Leena, idee thi V7 at of a few of our recent graduates, the clase of I fy TEACHING you electronjes. Some of the subjects K/A\S tiney gor, and low long 1 took them covered in detail ave Electricity for Beginners, MPS ‘ Basie Mathematic nd Kitcihoi's Laws, Alte HERE'S PROOF that Grantham students prepare for PCC. examinations in a sinimum of tine. Here is a Uicense Weeks mating ¢ nd Wavelength, indgtaee ; Capaci tesonanee, Vacuum Tubes, g us FHlnsisore’ acc Principles of Suplifeation, Classes st 1 ar Anpliferr Ossilatone” Bower Suppten, 831 Trane tO Butter? and gever, Fil Tranomiiers ahd Recher van) Rater on Linen Sensing Instr ; fe cnn rr = Tee Mote ve, Bapion AY... Ist 12 etal PEA) tart). Nahones, Box 236, Newport It 12 fal Btnberon. ose 2 Rokwcod, Te wR ‘Our Warranty avid Kaus. 5218 Canterbury Way SE, Washington,DC. Ist 30 Tt you shoul fail the F.C, exam after fishing our KORA Win A Con 7.8 te course Nee give aaeional traning, at NO. ADDI Charis Di Cota Pas. the Norman Tiley, Jr, 8613 Pinty ranch, Silver Spee, Wd, Ist iY Seale Wash 408 Marion Street, Seattle wath. 98108 Kansas City, Ma iene vase Fa 13173 Gilman Rd_ Kansas City, Mo, 64109 Ce COENEN SONS re Tos fagles Cat — if | To: GRANTHAM SCHOOL OF ELECTRONICS 1 Hf woswseme eso erie f Sen Gate far = TF esas yn fi spe wit on ee | 9320 Long Beach Biv, South Gate, Cait. gozeo___ 964-2821 FHL f commeraat Fee. lense qoehy and an corinue ila sévanced i Z | i | i | ' Washington, 0.6 $1336 S21 Tat treet, nw, washington, 0.6, 20006 __ ST 3818 Taw ntteesito mm CIMOWE STUDY RESIDENT CLASSES EE-4 WAIL COUPON NOW...NO SALESMAN WILL CALL ELEMENTARY ELECTRONICS 3a a a a Mu ‘ FS me another the use of compression and limiting amplifi- ers. Hence, their average modulation level tends to approach the maximum permissible level and when the signal is received on the typical tuner the result is distortion. Instead of occurring merely on occasional momen- tary peaks, distortion now occurs a very con- siderable percentage of the time and is, of course, very noticeable. There are tuners capable of handling this extreme type of modulation with a minimum Of distortion—notably the Dynatuner, the Knight and Sherwood tuners with “dynamic sideband regulation.” Actually, however, it is very probable that even with these tuners the reception will be distorted because many of the pop records played by these stations have inherently high distortion, and com- pression and limiting are accompanied by a Certain amount of distortion. The best solu- tion to the problem, then, is simply to tune right past such stations and listen only to those adhering to some approximation of high fidelity standards. Question: I am not happy with the reception we are getting of multiplex stereo programs. T notice that when the station plays the same stereo records that I have in my collection, the separation and quality are much inferior than what I get when I play it on my hi-fi system. I have tried several tuners but none of them solves the problem. What can I do? CR., Toledo, Ohio Answer: Wait patiently and when you want the best stereo, use your own records Your experience is being duplicated all over the country. The trouble is that many stations have not yet solved all the problems of stereo transmission, The MX system of stereo depends vitally on maintaining the original phase relationships between the two channels of a stereo program. Unfortunately, until MX arrived nobody paid any particular attention to the phase characteristics of audio equipment. Hence, some of the audio equip- ment used by broadcast stations, which was perfectly satisfactory for monophonic pro- grams, presents problems in stereo programs. Also, until MX arrived recordings were cut and edited without considering phase rela- tionships and hence possess phase differences which seriously degrade separation when they are broadcast even by a perfectly adjusted transmitter and received on a perfect tuner. These things are being corrected and, as you have no doubt noted, some broadcast Stereo programs are very good indeed and the general run of them is improving Nevertheless, it will probably remain true that you can get better stereo reproduction ‘on your own hi-fi system than over the radio. First, few stations use record play-back equip- ment as good as that used in good hi-fi in- stallations, largely because it is too delicate and critical, Secondly, when you play rec- ords directly you eliminate the distortion, however slight it may be, which occurs in the extra steps involved in passing the pro- gram through the transmitier, over the air, and through your tuner. Question: I have just bought an expensive new pick-up that is supposed to operate at %4 of a gram; but it just don’t do it. It keeps skipping and jumping, and on most records the distortion is high. Have I bought a dud? LN.F, Dallas, Texas Answer: There are pickups, including the ‘one you bought, which are capable of oper- ating satisfactorily at % gram of pressure ont some records and when installed in certain, properly adjusted arms on turntables immune to external shock. The fact that yours is skipping indicates that the tone arm you are using is either not suitable or not properly adjusted; or that the turntable is sensitive to external shock. It doesn’t take much of a shock to lift a stylus with 4 ounce of pressure right out of the groove. In fact, a footstep can do it at 1 gram stylus pressure. Most turntables were designed for pressures of 2 grams or more. There are a few new ones, among them the AR and the new Empire with floating sus- pension, that will permit stable operation with very low pressures, because they are quite immune to external shock or vibra- tion. Similarly, only the latest type of elab- orately balanced, low-friction arms will permit operation at pressures less than 1 gram. It looks like you're not giving the Pickup a square deal in these respects. Question: 1 want to listen to a 1500 ke., 300 miles away; but a local st on 1520 ke., causes too much interference, What can I do to eliminate the interference? GAS, Cranford, » Answer: The simplest and least expensive SUMMER 1964master higher mathematics at home RROGRANIMED EARNING exclusive with Britannica &Y Schools BASIC MATHEMATICS « WHOLE NUMBERS AND NUMERALS « ALGEBRA |» ALGEBRA Ii « PLANE GEOMETRY + SOLID GEOMETRY » THE LANGU: TRIGONOMETRY « INTRODUCTORY CALCULUS | |AGE OF ALGEBRA + TRIGONOMETRY + ANALYTIC & Il » MANAGEMENT DECISION MAKING « VERBAL PROBLEMS « INTRODUCTION TO SETS, INEQUALITIES AND FUNCTIONS « DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS These 14 courses—developed by a group of skilled, carefully trained specialists in the fields of home study and mathematics— are offered by Britannica Schools in Pro- grammed Learning format together with in- dividualized, home-study guidance What is Programmed Learning? Considered by many educators as the finest way toteach mathematics that has been discovered, Programmed Learning is the technique used in teaching machines. Programmed Learning course material is presented in small, sequential segments, or ‘frames,’ each containing 1) a single piece of infor mation closely related to the information preceding it; 2) a question to test your understanding of the information; and 3) a masked, correct answer. When you are ready to check your response to a frame, ce For full, FREE details on any Ba: 1 | 1 Britannica Schools Algebra | 1 Algebra I! D Plane Geometry — | 5 Solid Geometry ) The Language ot Algebra | course in mathematics, © Analytic Trigonometry 2 Introductory Calculus | & 1! I fill out and send us Trigonometry Management Becison Waking B Verbal Problems _ 0 Introduction to Sets, inequalities the coupon today. and Functions © Descriptive Statistics 1 no obligation, i SOLD ONLY Name. == — I ‘THROUGH THE MAIL. ‘Occupation. _ — | a———— | City — Zone. State____ I Z| ELEMENTARY ELECTRONICS Britannica & Schools Le Ess sacs Sovovra Piease send me full details on the course(s) | have checked. [understand there is no obligation, and no salesman will cal. you simply move the mask. Thus, you pro- ceed systematically through the course, frame by frame, at the pace best suited to yourself. What is Britannica Schools? A division of world-famous Encyclopaedia Britannica family, Britannica Schools is the first new approach to learning at home in 50 years, because it is the first, and, to date, the only home study institution that offers courses utilizing Programmed Learning techniques. As a Britannica Schools enrollee, you also have your own, individual instructor who— through phased examinations and corre: spondence—reviews your progress, checks your grasp and retention of sections of the course material, and insures your complete mastery of the subject. Poca Ps rg lingis ‘sie Mathematics __C) Whole Numbers and Numerals18 Et. me another Way to handle this problem is to obtain a transmitting type crystal cut for 1520 ke., and connect it as indicated below, with a switch so you can cut it out of the circuit when you want to listen to the local station. Suitable crystals can be bought surplus tor as little as one dollar, or for between $3.00 and $5.00 from ‘Texas Crystal Co. and other crystal manufacturers. A tolerance of .05 percent is good enough. If you still have interference from the sidebands, iry resistors across the crystal from 50 ohms up; use the highest value that will do the job. I note that the transmission of music by amateurs is banned. Why? ADC, Los Angeles, Calif. Answer: Once upon a time amateurs were permitted to test with music; but as so often happens the privilege was abused and tests became broadcasts. The FCC then banned musical transmission It makes sense. No really useful purpose is served in amateur service by transmitting music and unless the bandwidth of the trans- miter is carefully limited to 3 ke., music can produce sidebands 10 ke. or more from the carrier and thus cause a great deal of inter- ference. On the other hand if the bandwidth is limited to 3 ke. music is scarcely worth listening to. ‘Question: Can you give me the titles of some books on fundamentals of radio and elec- tronics that are really simple to understand? LJ, Bryan, Ohio Answer: We think one of the best is our own ELEMENTARY ELECTRONICS. The 1964 edi- tion should be obtainable on your newsstand for only 75¢. We can also recommend the following: Getting Started in Electronics Allied Radio Corp. #37K705 50¢ Understanding Amateur Radio American Radio Relay League 2.00 ABC's of Electronics Howard W. Sams Co. 1.95 After a few bites of the above you should be able to make sense out of. Radio Amateur’s Handbook American Radio Relay League 3.00 In each and every issue of Rabio-TV EXPERIMENTER there is an interesting col- umn called Bookshelf that highlights the best in hard and soft cover books. The column's author, Bookworm, reviews both new and old texts that are rated the best in their areas. Your local library undoubtedly has others that will serve the need. Why not visit it and look over the shelf on radio and electronics and pick one that seems right for you. Question: I read somewhere that experiments wave shown that the average person can't hear distortion of less than 1%. If that is so why do we have to have distortion as low as -1% in hi-ti amplifiers? A.D.C., Passaic. NJ Answer: Research also shows that the av- erage American male wears a size 40 suit and the average American female a size 14 dress. Buta size 40 suits fits me like a circus tent fits a Philadeiphia lot and a size 14 dress fits my wife—well, let’s not get into that. How would this average size fit you and your wife? The “average persons” in statistics are al- ways a minority. Anytime you have an aver- age figure, it must be true by statistical math- ematics that there are as many people above the average as there are below the average So the experiment you cite also proves that a lot of people hear distortion a good deal less than 1 % in fact, it probably proves that there are just as many people who can hear distortion smaller than 1% as there are peo- ple who can discern distortion only if it is more than 1% High fidelity is not designed for the average person or the average ear. The finest ampli- fiers are designed to have distortion so low that it will be below the hearing ability of even the most acute ear. The high fidelity industry leaves the satisfaction of that very tolerant average person to the package in- dustry which apparently has never heard of SUMMER 1964yone Can Build These High Quality acne S&M Kits NS MN LAt 9 ate bets Ter Pocket-Size DSUs Shop Tachometer Hearing Aid Designed sotheelectronicex- [| This tachometer is guaran. Jf New hearing aid design pro- * 7 teed to outperform any $50 [i vides a minimum of 42 deci- Perimenter can get any value HH tach available today or your of resistance at 1% accuracy. [| money will be refunded. This ie i. vr es Rsctrainy iesainian Conical tach belongs in the tool chest for 75% Of all cones of Pate tc'eh a | Pe Le of every machinist, electri tial deafness. 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And ordinary hand chine tools, such as lathe power off when not in use tools are all that’s needed to ff cutting speeds, motor rpm, and a control that lets you drilling speeds and other mo: assemble it in less than 2 tor driven tools where rpm is adjust the volume to a com- hours an important factor. fortable sound level SCIENCE & MECHANICS, KIT DIVISION von 505 Park Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10022 Please send the S&M hits that have complete asssembly plans, or the assembled and fully tested electronic aids ecked below. | understand that if | am not completely satistied | may return the kits within 10 days for a complete refund of the purchase price Hearing Aid 1 $26.95 Kit 0 $34.95 Assembla Tachometer 0 $1695 Kit $21.95 Assembieg Decade Box 0 $26.95 Kit © $29.95 Atsemblea Add 10% for Canadian ang Foreign orders. New York City residents ad 4% for N.Y.C. sales tax. NAME as is Wieate Print) pores = SS uP. a STATE Fae Sooe__ 1D Cheek or money order enclosed, ship post pald. () Enclosed $3.00 deposit, ship balance C.0.0,, plus postage and C.O.D. charges. ELEMENTARY ELECTRONICS WwEE. me another the research you mention because it still permits an amplifier with 5 per cent distortion to be called “undistorted.” Question: Exactly what causes an FM tuner to distort the signal of some stations. None of the books I consulted could specifically answer the question SRW, Los Gatos, Calif. Answer: In FM transmission the higher the modulation level the wider the bandwidth of the transmitted signal. If the tuner has a wide enough bandpass to accept the wide deviation there is no distortion; but if the tuner bandpass is narrower than the devia- tion of the signal, there will be distortion A deviation of 75 ke. is allowed for FM broadcasting. Theoretically, a receiver needs a bandpass of around 240 ke. to pass a fully modulated signal without distortion. Very few tuners do; most have a bandpass be- tween 150 and 200 ke. This is usually suffi- cient because the maximum deviation occurs usually on occasional peaks and at the very highest frequencies only. But some stations use a lot of compression or limiting, so that their average modulation tends to approach the maximum permissible level. The result is that the distortion occurs a considerable percentage of time, instead of only occasionally, and is of course very noticeable. Question: I notice that most experts have a very high opinion of acoustic suspension speakers like the AR and KLH; but they sound dull and dry to me as compared with several others. I really favor another speak- er but on the other hand I don't like to go against the judgment of so many people who ought to know. What do you say? EG., Aiken, S.C, Answer: The obvious answer is to go ahead and buy the speaker you like and the devil take the experts; after all it's you, not they, who's going to be listening to it. On the other hand, there is this to be said for the experts—a lot of the best things in life take getting used to—like very-dry, very- pale sherry, caviar, camembert cheese, yen- idge tobacco, and black-eyed peas, not to mention snails, whether French or Chinese, and abstract art. The tastes of experts and connoisseurs are always more highly devel- ‘oped and sophisticated than those of the new- comer to any field. Specifically, in the case of speakers, the expert usually listens for sharp definition and the ability to reproduce the finest detail of music. The dullness and dryness you mention ‘s evidence of a fine transient response which reveals the fine de- tail. On the other hand the brightness you like evidences some hangover which, though it may produce a liver, more reverberant and possibly even a more pleasant sound, tends to obscure the finer details of music and sound. Your choice should be based not so much on the word of experts or your own off-the- cuff judgment or preference, but on how you want to enjoy the music or sound that comes from the hi-fi. If you want the maximum detail, choose as the experts choose because that’s their criterion; but if your interest in music is casual, or more gmotional than ana- lytical, choose the speaker that sounds best and produces the highest emotional appeal to you. But remember, you too may like caviar, camembert, or black-eyed peas if you permit yourself to acquire a taste for them. Question: I have my FM tuner and TV con- nected to the same ant with a two-set coupler. This works fine except that when I tune the FM to a station on 94,9 me, I get serious interference on TV channel 13. What causes this and what can I do about it? EP, Winslow, Maine Answer: When your FM jis tuned to 94.9 me, the local oscillator is operating at 105.6. The second harmonic, 211.2 is smack in Channel 13. Hence, the interference You could make a harmonic filter and install it between tuner and coupler but actually the sensible solution is not to use the FM when you're looking at Channel 13, Or else, listen to FM stations above about 100 me so the second harmonic falls outside channel 13. Question: What's the difference between IHFM Music Power and sine-wave power and how are they related? L-P., Brooklyn, N.Y. Answer: It is often the difference between good and superb amplifiers but the relation- ship is usually purely coincidental. ‘The IHFM Music Power rating is one of the most remarkable measurements of any- thing that human ingenuity has involved and SUMMER 1964one of the most meaningless. Its principal purpose is to make the lowest category of amplifiers look more respectable to the un- informed purchaser. It is supposed to be the power output an amplifier will deliver on musical waveforms; and if there were some really valid way of measuring this it would he a good idea. But the means of measuring it are just about as indirect as making love by mail and just about as good a substitute for the genuine article, To measure an amplifier's music pow- er they replace the power supply you get when you buy the amplifier, with an “ideal” power supply and then measure the power output with sine waves. This curious meas- urement is justified by the assumption first that hi-fi amplifiers are called upon to deliver maximum power only during peaks of very short duration; and secondly, that a practical, imperfect power supply can deliver the same power for a short peak as the same amplifier will deliver continuously with a perfect power supply. ‘The assumptions are by no means com pletely valid; but even if they were the re- sulting rating doesn’t offer much guidance and can be quite deceiving because it makes a poor amplifier look much better than it is and a good amplifier little of any better than it is Itis almost as if we measured the power of automobiles hy replacing the motor that we are going to buy, with another more ideal motor. With this procedure the Falcon would enjoy a much greater improvement in rating than a Jaguar or Ferrari which already have nearly ideal motors. The music power out- put of a poor amplifier may be twice as high as its continuous sine wave power output; on the other hand in the case of the superb amplifier there may be little if any difference. Hence, two amplifiers with the same music power output may have a difference as great as 50 per cent in their continuous sine-wave power output The music power measurement actually measures the quality of the power supply in an amplifier, rather than the performance of the amplifier itself. Jt is really significant only if the music power output is compared with the continuous sine-wave power output —the smaller the diflerence the better the power supply and the better the power sup- ply, in most cases, the better the amplifier it powers. Actually the best measure of amplifier performance is the sine wave power output ELEMENTARY ELECTRONICS a ee now there are) time & tool-saving double duty sets... New PS88 all-screwdriver set rounds out Xcelite’s popular. compact convertible tool set line Handy midgets do double duty when slipped into. remarkable ¢ hollow “piggyback” torque aml fier handle which provides the rip, reach and power of standard drivers, Each set in a slim, trim, see-thru plastic pocket case, also usable as bench stand. ps7 i 3 Phils serendtivers 2 slot ti, 2 Prine ferendrver, Zoutdrvers Psi20 10 color coded nutanvers XCELITE INC, + 80 BANK ST., ORCHARD PARK, N.Y. Please send free literature NS63 sddvess ity state 8 zone = 1 1 1 ' ! t 1 I li20 i cea EE. me another over the entire audio range from 20 to 20,000 cycles. Since the manufacturer of fine amplifiers gains little or nothing from the use of "music power output” ratings he usually rates his amplifier in terms of power ouiput over the entire audio range; or at least gives both the music power and sine wave power output. The only thing safe to assume in this curious business is that the amplifier that is rated only in terms of music power output has nothing to brag about in terms of sine- wave power output. Question: I plan to take two Edu-Kit courses. Both of these include a broadcast receiver and transmitter. | wonder if the transmitters would be of good enough quality to use in Novice amateur operation? After I get my General license 1 would naturally go to het- ter equipment. TB, Evansville, Ind. Answer: The courses are excellent ways to learn about radio. However, the trans- mitters would not be suitable for amateur operation although they will teach you a good deal about transmitters. By all means take the courses, but figure on buying more suitable equipment for actual use on the ham bands. Question: When I inerease the volume of my hi-fi system after a certain point the sound is all cut-up and the loudspeakers kind of burble. What's wrong? T.C.K., Clearwater, Fla. Answer: Almost certainly your system is suf- fering from acoustic feedback. The bass out- put of the speakers—probably the rumble of your changer—is vibrating the changer which in turn is feeding the vibration into the amplifiers through the pick-up and as a result the system is oscillating at a very low frequency, The probability is that you're trying to get too much bass boost. If you have the Joudness contro! or switch in the ON posi- tion, turn it to the OFF position. If you have the bass control in the boost position, turn it to the neutral position. You can minimize the occurrence of acoustic feedback by putting a foam rubber pad under the turntable or changer. The type you buy to put under a typewriter is usually just the right size, You can also put foam rubber pads under the speakers. The self-adhering foam rubber weathersiripping you can buy at auto supply stores is ideal Cut strips of it and attach to the speakers so the foam rubber is between speaker and floor or shelf. Another solution would be to get rid of your present changer or turntable and re- Place it with an AR which is virtually im- mune to acoustic feedback. ‘Of course, if you have a one-package deal in which the speakers and changer are mounted in the same cabinet there is nothing much you can do except keep the volume low and the bass down. Question: Is it possible to obtain a schemati diagram of electronic equipment by sending a patent number to the patent office? If this is not a practical way of obtaining schemat- ics is there a way of getting them other than waiting for a magazine to publish them RJH, Lincoln, Nebr Answer: Electronic patents do inciude sche- matics of the specific circuit patented. How ever, this is not a practical way of obtaining schematics for a specific radio, TV, or other gadget. First, the schematics are usually very generalized and sometimes in block form and would require considerable engi- neering knowledge to adapt to useful form. Secondly, the patent is always for one spe- cific portion of piece of equipment, and even if you got all of the dozen or more patents covering a piece of gear, you wouldn't have anything useful ‘The manufacturer of a radio, TV or test instruments will usually supply a schematic or service manual for a smal! charge or none at all. Service manuals of TVs, radios, phonographs, hi-fi amplifiers, etc., can also be obtained from Howard W. Sams & Co. Inc, 4300 W. 62nd St., Indianapolis, Ind. for $2.25 a set, Schematics of older radios can be obtained from Rider Manuals and most city libraries have complete sets of these which you can consult. Question: Something is wrong with my transistorized amplifier; but my serviceman won't touch And he says he wouldn't let any other serviceman touch it and I should send it back to the factory. I'm doing that but I don’t understand why I have to. It might be something simple. SUMMER 1964—_—_ ~~ P.U.M., Des Moines, Iowa Answer: Yes, and it might be very simple for a serviceman to compound your troubles by blowing out several transistors in the course of trying to find out what the trouble is. Transistors cannot be serviced or tested safely with the ordinary type of equipment used for tube amplifiers, TV’s and radios. Putting the probe of an ohmmeter on a VTVM at the wrong spot could destroy a transistor or two. There are special instru- ments for safely trouble shooting transistor gadgets such as computers: but these run into hundreds of dollars and it is doubtful that one serviceman in a million owns one. This 1s one disadvantage of transistorized hi-fi units at present. As they come into greater use manufacturers undoubtedly will develop methods and instruments for trou- ble shooting and adjustment that are rela- tively fool-proof, But as things stand only the manufacturer of the specific devise is certain to have the knowledge and the facil- ities for servicing the thing with minimum risk. Our condolences on your troubles; but congratulations on having a wise and honest serviceman Learn FAST — Earn FAST MIt"s Unique, Exclusive SELECT-A-SKILL Training Helps You PICK YOUR 108, STARTS YOU EARNING RIGHT OFF Want to take advantage of Today's Bitsest Opporwnities? Reidy to Sten into 2 well-paid Job man can men trom 25 {0:07 MORE PAY" inictested in. being” YOUR OWN Boss ino pronade smagetine. oF fulltime Business? All thine WAITING Pos VOU" in” ELECTRONICS he World’ moet exciting and fastest moving undustey Why You Can GET READY $0 MUCH FASTER ‘eth MET Trains Win MTs unique “Exctanre: SELECT: A-SKILL, methods ihe ftd you, cant OUST RIAL ELECTRONICS SBRRONIES HONS ELECTRONICS’ 9: RABIO snd TY SERVICING! MII fives you the spceiRe ‘atmine tn that Special field right at home orm Jacksonfier under he Pononal Suretsion of for-rankinw ¢xnerts” Besi ol al. you PERRY BYSOGING® Gy acta working oucegmetiments and buiiaing clecironig equipment with MUIs SEVEN BIG Sores and “RIES nar DON'T Cost YOU ONE SINGLE CENT EXTRA’ ‘An Accredited Member of the NHSC MII nas auready proved the outstanding value of its SELECT:A'SKILE howe study wainine throush the success ‘of thousands of ren ol al ages. Most of them ad to Pre Slows experience. 'Few had more than a hish school education MSmany hadn't gone that far MAIL COUPON TODAY for FREE BOOK ond SELECT-A-SKILL OPPORTUNITY FINDE! ne coupon, brings you NUTT bit. fpcnaing book, Pick Dut New World che Homie hs the Unique Select: IN Eine that takes the aves Sroout of yout rare aes a te face about the ing ‘open, silaaiey and what 40u need 19 sich into YOUR Big AOPPORTUNIVY "Wo “Sovole-adi’ tie’ "Nat? coun MASSEY TECHNICAL INSTITUTE (An Accredited Member, National Home Study Council) Aight Where Everything Thos Naw in Electronics Happening ELEMENTARY ELECTRONICS Meeps Tt Question: I added the converter you deserib- ed some time ago to my broadeast receiver and it works fine. Can you give me the cir- cuit for an FM detector I can add to it now? FF, Ontario, Canada Answer: The simple circuit diagrammed below will operate with LF. between 125 and 500 ke, It should be switched into the circuit in place of the present diode detector. However, assuming you use it with a broad- cast or communications receiver, it will only detect narrow-band FM such as is permis- sible but seldom used on the ham bands; and possibly that used in the 30-40 me emer- Q tome teaiine — C Reuktent Trine D treater i coch fr sont bo AA special subscription to RADIO-TV EXPERIMENTER brings you more make-it-yourself projects 1 Year Subscription—$4.50 (6 Big Issues) EACH ISSUE INCLUDES LATEST EDITION ‘OF WHITE'S RADIO LOG 93 SCIENCE & MECHANICS/Handbook Division 505 PARK AVENUE, NEW YORK, N.Y. 10022 Please enter_my special 6 issue subscription to RADIO.TV EXPERIMENTER Ot enclose $4.50 Bill me tater NAME, Lt - ‘Piease pr ADDRESS. : — cry stare 21° cone EARN eerivcerne DEGREE 2 autouaan. comic clean American Institute of Engineering & Technoloxy How to Write a Classified Ad That Pulls Deluxe 48 page booklet—only $1 per copy. And. with the booklet, you get a $2 credit towards your Payment of your classified ad in Science & Me. Chanics. Send $1 now to Science & Mechanics, 505 Park Avenue, New York, New York 10022 Oe te ee Ar ee en ey ea) Solve the most complex math problems cube roots-logarithms quickly, easily. ‘The pertect answer for the electronic hobbyist, designer, engineer. Not a toy Dut a truly professional tool. Work like the pros with the Alsyneo Rule. technology reeulariy sa u0% With'Sige fle ‘onl? S49 god, No COD. ‘Send pose card for free iterature Alsynee EE- 174 5. Main St., Natick, Mass. 22 ask me another gency services band. It will not provide re- ception of stations on the FM broadcast band which require a bandpass at least 150 ke. wide. But it is a very convenient, simple and inexpensive way to add capability of receiving FM to an amateur receiver. For FM reception disable the AVC and run the R.F. gain up as high as possible Question: Some of my older records have got a lot of static on them and w with a “jocky cloth” doesn't seem to do much good. What can I do to get rid of the pops and crackles. —_D.B.. Rye, N.Y. Answer: Take your discs into the kitchen. Dissolve a couple of pinches of detergent in a clean basin full of tap water. Immerse the record in this and if it is dirty and has fingerprints on it, wipg genily in a rotary motion along the grooves with a soft cloth. Rinse the record with a gentle stream of clean water trom the faucet: dry it with a very soft cloth or a chamois: totich the rec- ord to the faucet to remove any static charge buildup; and then try it. This will often do the trick when nothing else will. Question: If one does not understand the lan- guage spoken by a foreign station, what data should one take down to prove reception when sending for a QSL card? ESR, Philadelphia, Pa. Answer: Note the exact time in Greenwich Mean Time. State whether voice or music, and if voice, whether male or female; if mu- sic, give general description—like brass band, symphony, guitar, etc. . . . Give the station frequency as near as you can and the qual- ity of reception. Add any other information that you may understand or deduce. 6.3-volt center tap into ng my transistor Question: How can T turn a filament transformer with 1 a filtered 6 volts for opera radio? RK, Montreal, Canada Answer: Try the circuit below. Since your ra- dio draws only a fraction of an amp., the in- expensive top-hat rectifiers will do, Lafayette offers four 750 mil., 100 PIV diodes for 89c (Lafayette Part No. SP-276). You can use the miniature electrolytic condensers rate at SUMMER 1964160 mfd; 15 WVDC, or for better filtering a 2000 mfd., 15 WDC, following the re- sistor. The output voltage will depend on the resistor. It will run about 9 volts without a resistor; this would replace the typical 9 volt battery. If you need 6 volts try resistors in the 5 to 50 ohm range. The resistance will depend on the current drawn by the radio. Question: How can I convert 2 Knight-Kit transistor to the broadcast band for use in a “earrier-curret radio station, would I couple it to the power BG, Cincinnati, Ohio | Answer: It can be done but first, it would take a pretty long article to tell you how and second, unless precautions are observed you might easily run afoul of the Federal Com- munications Commission and become a can- didate for one of those nice stiff fines they are imposing. My suggestion is that you go to your library and obtain a copy of the Radio Amateur’s Handbook for 1944—the 2ist edition, This has an entire chapter on this subject of carrier current communica- | | tion. And if you enjoy assembling kits, many of the major kit manufacturers carry power line intercoms in their kit line, Question: I overheard someone say that a simple revi talkie.” How can I do AWB, Providence, R. Answer: Get hold of the guy and ask him to give you the secret; and if he'll write it up the chances are the Rapio-TV ExrERi- MENTER would be interested in publishing it and paying him for it. ‘Yes, this could be done but the only way I can think of it would require quite a bit of rewiring and reconnecting which is far from simple, especially considering the miniature size of a transistor pocket radio. Keep in mind that there are some FCC regulations on radio equipment of this type. Best thing to do is check into Part 15 of the FCC regulations before any soldering is started. ‘Question: How long should a short-wave an- tenna be? How long should an antenna be | ELEMENTARY ELECTRONICS —_— atest SAMS BOOKS ror EVERYONE IN ELECTRONICS HCD Science Projects in Electonics. Learn basic electronics principles by actually building fascinating pro: Jects: You begin with @ demonatration of how te tise the ‘VOR, and. progress to more advanced Projects, 40 you" eain an easy understanding of lerneleetzonicn syatera, Order $0-1,on1y 38.95 Hi-Fi Projects for the Hobbyist. improve your present Ii-f or stereo system at minimum coat. Kas Duild projects include: Rumble filter, noise Alter, hi-gain antenna; transistorized microphone pre: ‘amp; record Player; Lupe recorder: FM tuner. ete Order HFF-1, only : $250 {6B Radio Construction Projets. Complete detain for building valuable CB devices, such as Smeter, Portable antenna, pocket monitor receiver, selec: tive call agate add renath meter, modulation monitor, SWHt meter, remote listening unit, ete Order €86-1, only % (Cy Science Projects in Etectrity. Uniquely planned acience projects eusily teach the facts about electric Current flow: electrieal nits, terms, and clreul ‘ingnetism; DC & AC; inductors fe eanaforme capacitors, ete, Order P61, only 32 ‘Transistor lnitin Systems Handbook. Cieacty expiains the principles, installation and tuning up of these how transistor are revolu nly $2.30 ‘Amateur Radio Construction Projects. Shows how to build 49-80 meter band novice transmitter, 30-watt 15, 40, 80 meter transmitter, balun antenna, matching ryatel-controlled converters, ete. Full builds ing instructions: Order ARP-1, only $2.50 Science Projects in Electricity /Electronies. Demonstrates ‘ant prineples of lectrcty and electronics through the construction of fascinating projects that are not only instructive but useful. Ideal for self-learning oF 85 science clans project guide. Order SPN-1, on'y$2.95 Computer Circuit Projets You Can Build. starting with simple fip Hopetreut, eh ok details the coast tion of 1f bone analog and digital computer-crcuit Brnisets Yea. bat ony learn computer civeuitry but wild useful devices as well Order BOC-1, only $2.95 Oo Tra Famous ABC's Books CO Eletoner Orting DRA 190 Tra G Electone Test Eeumert S181 19 BB Eieconcs tt B She ive Cate Swi === HOWARD W. SAMS & CO., INC. — Qrder from any Electronic Parts Diatributor oF Howard W. Sains & Co., Inc's Dept. EES i 4300 W. 62nd St., Indiabapolis 6, Ind. Send books checked above. §, enclosed, (Send FREE Booklist. (Send Photofact Index. J Nene E B paaress__ Voy Zone_—_State ‘eka IN CANADA: AC Simmonds & Sons Lt. Trot 7 sae 23__.. ask me another for DX on broadcast band? What commer- jal wire is best and most economical for this purpose? FIC, San Francisco, C: Answer: It isn't that simple but we'll try to give a simple answer. The modern receiver is so sensitive that it does not need an elab- orate antenna. Much more important is fa- voring the pick-up of signal over the pick-up ‘of noise, especially man-made electrical noise. A simple antenna that will give good Fesults consists of two pieces of 30-foot wire fed at the center with twisted pair wire, as diagrammed below. The antenna should be located where noise pick-up would be low— away from power and telephone lines, trans- formers, and house wiring. It is best not to put it over the roof of a house because usually there is a lot of electric wiring in the ceiling of a home which can transfer noise to antenna. Stretching from your house to @ garage, tree. or pole is better, You can MAKE, || MORE | MONEY Dozens of suc cessful ways to be your own boss or to con duct a small business profit. ably on a full or part-time basis. Reveals how many franchise and mail order op. erations work—detailing the pros and cons of these ventures INCOME OPPORTUNITIES 50S Park Avenue™—New York, N. Y. 10022 [Ly Enclosed is Si. Please send me a copy of No. 688 TeaiHEBHE! oPeORTUNTTES eontinculee postage and Better than that: Here's $2—enter my special 4 issue bseription Name Address city State 4 buy kits for this kind of antenna for between $2 and $5. To give more uniform results over entire short-wave spectrum there are antennas which have two or three or more dipoles like the above—or a single long dipole with tuned traps which is equivalent to several dipoles. Hy-Gain and Mosley offer multiple trap an- tennas for about $15 The simplest antenna for broadcast band reception is simply a 50-foot piece of wire run from the receiver, out a window, to any convenient tall support. It will not have the interference rejection of the di-poles fed with the twisted pair line, but in a quiet location it will do a good job with a good receiver. And if you are on a budget, this long-wire antenna can also serve for short-wave recep- tion As for wire, insulated hook-up wire will do for the last type of antenna, No. 7x24 BOAT PLANS CATALOG| This heavily illustrated catalog of boat plans is made to order for every man interested in build ing his own boat. It gives full de- scription of plans for building a wide variety of boats, Boat build- ers will be especially interested in the selection of full-size pat- terns now available on some of the most popular boats. IH you ever thought of building your own boat—you can't afford to be without this catalog. Order yours today. SCIENCE & MECHANICS — Craft Print Division 505 Park Avenue—New York, N.Y. 10022 Enclosed is my 25¢, Please send me a copy of the new Boat Plans Catalog No. 5. Name. Please printy Address. zip City, State eee. SUMMER 1964braided copper wire has been the standard antenna wire for generations and runs about a penny a foot. Question: I have a 10-watt Sergent-Rayment amplifier and I wonder if it would do any good to hook it up to my AM-FM-SW radio, and if so how can I do it? FIC, San Francisco, Cal Question: I have a Hallicrafter short-wave radio and I would like to feed it into my hi- system. How can I do this without modify ing the receiver? IKK, Little Rock, Ark. Answer: Both you gentlemen will probably get a decided improvement in tone quality in this way: connect an 8-ohm resistor from 1 to 4 watts across the speaker terminals of the radio and disconnect the speaker. Now run a shielded lead from the same speaker terminals to the input jack on the amplifier or to the accessory input jack on the hi-fi preamplifier. Question: I cannot find the GE 1493 lamp for the Microscope Illuminator described in ELECTRICAL HanpBoox, Volume 3. Is there a substitute? RR, Reading, Pa. Answer: You can buy the GE 1943 from Allied Radio (Catalog No. 52 E 656) or Lafayette Radio (Catalog No. PL-86). It is best to use this lamp. However, it may be that you can find something that will do the job for you at your automobile dealer. It should be rated at 6 volts, have a single- contact bayonet base, and put out at least 50 candlepower. Question: We are interested in installing a city wide community antenna TV distribu- tion system. Can we have information on what is needed, and the name and address of some firms which make the equipment needed? J. T. Camden, Ark. Answer: There are two ways of serving a ‘community with TV signals from stations too remote to be receivable with good quality with ordinary TVs and antennas. The oldest is the community antenna system. In this system a high gain antenna is located in a g00d location; it picks up the signals which are amplified in amplifiers and then dis- tributed through coaxial cables to the indi- vidual homes. This is a pretty expensive proposition because of the amount of cable required. A more recent system uses “trans- ELEMENTARY ELECTRONICS Fill 19 coupon for a FREE One Year Subscription 10 OLSON ELECTRONICS: Fantastic Bargain Packed Caulog—Unhed of LOW. LOW, WHOLESALE PRICES on Brand Name Speakers. Changers. Tubes. Tools, Sierdo Amps, Tuners, CB, and other Bargains NAME ADDRESS. cry Wf you have 2 frend interested in electronics send his name and address for'3 FREE subscription als. fo] Stel min sa fo) te} Ostet ae) 1007'S. Forge Street Akror CAREER BOOKLET Cort RTE) Beers Ercan) Saunt) Semeur Write for your copy! ‘MILWAUKEE SCHOOL: OF ENGINEERING Dept. EE-664, #1025 N. Milwaukee St., Milwaukee, Wis 1 Tell me about an engineering career through § residence study in i QElectricat C Mechanical f Name. Age i 1 Address. ‘ t t a City. State. 1 i ‘ L SSS sSsS aaa 2sBEHIND -THE-SCENES SUN au b Get a revealing eyeful of what goes on in the workshop of America’s largest and most elaborate wax museum in the July S&M. See how the amazingly life-like fig- ures are Created and the preparations being made for the new $2,000,000 ex- hibit at the New York World's Fair. Plus, S&M's exclusive comparison road test of two hot 1964 cars; an exciting feature that offers new hope for balding men; and the usual complete S&M how-to projects... All in the July issue of SCIENCE & MECHANICS on sale June 1 26 (peer coe ask me another lators.” This, too, starts with an antenna in a very good location. However, after being amplified the signal or signals are fed into a small transmitter and re-broadcast through an antenna array covering the community. No complex cable system is necessary. Each customer picks up the signal with his own regular type TV antenna. The total cost is lower and maintenance is simpler. Transla- tors, however, are regulated by the Federal Communications Commission and a license is required to install and operate one. It is suggested that you write the commission (Washington 25, D. C.) requesting a copy of the regulations applicable to community TV distribution systems and a list of manu- facturers supplying approved equipment for this service. Jerrold Electronics Corp., 15th and Lehigh St., Philadelphia, Penna., is one of the largest manufacturers, and operators, ‘of community TV systems Question: In my area and on my receiver I hear station WKBW on 1520 ke and also on 610 ke. Can you tell me the reason for this? RAS, New York, N. Y. Answer: Your receiver is undoubtedly a su- perheterodyne in which the local oscillator frequency is equal to the station frequency plus the intermediate frequency, which typi- cally is in the region of 45Skc. When you have your receiver tuned to 1620, the local oscillator is at 1975 and the difference beat note is 455 which goes through the IF ampli- fier, is detected and becomes audible. When you tune to 610, the local oscillator is at 1075. The difference between 1520 and 610 is also 455 and goes through the IF ampli- fier to become audible though probably at reduced volume. This unwanted signal at 610 on the dial is called an “image.” Question: Which is more harmful to people, to get shocked by a 6-volt 10-ampere source or by a 500-volt 10-milliampere source? CG, Lincolnwood, I. Answer: Ohm's Law also applies to people when they become part of an electric circuit. You will recall that Ohm's Law says that the current (1) flowing through a circuit, or (Continued on page 50) SUMMER 1964SCIENCE & MECHANICS HANDBOOK DEPT., 505 Pork Ave, New York, Fer information on Classified ads—to be included in our next ELEMENTARY ELECTRONICS HANDBOOK. ond oth Advertising, Wilson, Mgr, Classi yey. 10022 ‘ADDITIONAL INCOME "YOU can, seceive 20, letters gully each containing” 3.00, For 4 unusual, coimplete flans "Han 32.00 fo rR. Grimes Box ‘MAKE Mall Order pay. Get “How to wie st Clisited Ad that Pulls this Bundtoois tells hee’ with examples. ine hides Certfieate worth 2.09 towacdelus- ined’ ad ta Ste ‘Mf Send $1.00 to, ¢, D. Wien Selence & Mechanics, 905 Park Ree New York. 8. Yoon ‘AUTHOR'S SERVICE FUBLISH your book] Join our sucess Bentin Bos, Autsusiects Invited Send for free. manuieript report and. detalieg Eeokiet Gurlton ‘Press Dept “SM. st Fifth Avenue, New York 11 AUTO TRAILERS & SUI BUILD Expanding cient foot Trajer ‘Accommodates Ave Literature. 106. 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L 4 SUMMER 1964 -A you progress further into electronics, there will be many instances when you will want to “roll your own," designing and building up projects from scratch. Quite often, the only way to obtain a piece of electronics gear specifically tailored to your needs is by conjuring it up yoursel{—this entailing perhaps the punching and drilling of a metal chassis, mounting of compo- nents, ete. In order to do a creditable job of elec- tronic assembly, it is most important that you become familiar with the various elec: tronic “tools of the trade” and how to use them properly. The success or failure of many an clectronic project depend upon the care taken in its assembly. In the following pages, we'll take a look at the various topls you'll be using, their proper use, and general “good practice” assembly and soldering techniques. Required Tools. The question that gen- erally first enters the mind of the electronics neophyte is... . what tools should | purchase to get started? There are actually two sets of answers to this question; do you plan to just build electronics kits, or do you plan to working with electronic tools and parts By John Potter Shields In what better way can you learn all about electronics than by actually building and assembling electronic projects? But before you go any further, you should know how to work with electronic tools and parts . 1. It takes a good man with good tools to do a topnotch job in constructing CoCr Cree eo eee CC een ed Mi aOR CaO CeCe eet eet arty OS a CeO LO ae Ral eer ee ees 28tools & parts g0 all out and assemble the projects from scratch . . . punching out all the chassis your- self. If you intend to concentrate on kit as- sembly, your choice of tools is quite simple . .. the following tools should put you in business, Screwdriver—4 to 6 inch, '2 inch blade Screwdriver—4 to 6 inch, "4 inch blade Long-nose pliers—4 to 6 inch Diagonal cutters—6 inch Wire strippers Low wattage (30-50 watts) soldering eoecce iron © Soldering iron In addition 10 these basic tools. you will probably want to acquire a set of “spintites,”” (nut drivers), a plastic nut starter and per- haps a screw holding screwdriver. While not essential, these extra tools often make assembly a lot easier. The choice of a solder- ing iron or gun is a matter of personal pref- erence and working habits. On the other hand, if you prefer to build up your projects trom scratch, you'll want the following tools in addition to those men- tioned above. © Tube socket hole punches (%”, 34”, 1m", 1%") NS ee eee @ Hack saw, 12 inch blade Hammer © Center Punch ©@ Steel straight edge or tape rule @ Hand or electric drill © Twist drill set, including No. 18, 28, 33, 42 and SO drill sizes, plus % inch © Phillips screwdriver, 6 to 8 inch @ Set of Allen wrenches © Set of small metal files: round, flat, triangle © 100 to 200 watt soldering iron or gun © Slip-joint pliers @ Nibbling too! . These additional tools are just about all that will be required to consiruct even the most elaborate piece of gear. A few of these tools are pictured in Figure 1 In addition to the tools outlined above, it is a good idea to maintain a small stock of “electronic hardware” including @ Machine screws, round and flat head, with nuts to fit, Most useful sizes include: 4-40, 4-36, 6-32, and 8-32. Lengths should range from Yiw” to I” @ Rubber grommets in assorted sizes @ Rosin solder core © Terminal tie point strips Most of these items are available in small quantities, usually being packaged in handy, reusable, plastic boxes. Laying Out A Chassis. Assuming that you are going to “roll your own” project, the first step is to lay out the chassis, decid- 4 5 Fig. 2. Unless you are a design engineer with years of experience in electronics, it would be wise to place . ports on a chassis to see if there will be ample room. jg. 4. After some coreful planning a novice can punch and drill a chassis that an old pro would admire. » SUMMER 1964DRIVE BOLT CHASSIS ing where the various components such as tubes, transformers, etc. are to be placed. For example, as shown in Figure 2, the chassis is laid out in “sections,” the power transformer and filter capacitor in one corner of the chassis, output transformer and output tubes in the other corner, and the rest of the circuit along the front portion of the chassis. Aside from a neat, symmetrical layout, this, component allows the most direct. lead placement between the various components. After deciding the best component loca- tion, the next step is to mark the paper clad chassis with the various part locations in preparation for drilling and punching. The easiest way of doing this is to use the component mounting holes as guides, plac- ing a pencil mark at cach mounting hole. ELEMENTARY ELECTRONICS Fig. 3. If you don't have a complete set of Green- lee round and square punches, it's time you start buying. Start off with a %", %", and 1%" round punch and a 1" square punch. Parts stores stock these and other sizes and shapes. ‘The components may then be removed, and the pencil markings “trued up” with a T- square or triangle as a guide. The next step is to lightly center punch the locations where the various holes are to be drilled. A block of wood or metal should be placed directly under the point being center punched to avoid denting the chassis. Placing the chassis over a closed vise is a good way to work this. Drilling and punching of the chassis comes next. In the case of drilling, it’s a good idea to drill ail the punch marks with a small drill to provide “pilot holes.” This neatly solves the problem of a large drill “skitter- ing” out of a punch mark and marring the chassis surface. Holes much larger than about 14” are best made with a hole punch. In operation, a hole aed AC heater leads reduce hum. Fig. 5. 1 (diameter depending upon size of punch) is drilled in the chassis. Next, the die is placed on top of the chassis and the punch under the chassis as pictured in Figure 3 The drive bolt is drawn up with a wrench. Figure 4 illustrates a slick method for cutting various odd-sized holes in chassis. A “nibbling tool” is used which “nibbles” out small sections at a time until the de- Fig. 6. Mechonically secure leads to lugs. sired size hole is obtained. Using this ap- proach it’s a fairly easy matter to cut out large openings for transformers, etc. Mounting of Electronic Parts. Mounting the various components is next after all chassis drilling and punching has been com- pleted. Such items as standard tube sockets and tie-point strips are conveniently mounted with "4p x 14” round head machine screws, Fig. 7. How good you are ot soldering often determines if your project will operate or not. A clean soldreing iron tip important. Coat it with sol and press it against the terminal to be soldered. At the point where the iron tip touches the terminal apply solder. Do not use too much solderso it will not bead or run off and cause shorts. Use enough heat to obtain a “good” solder connection (see far right). Drawing courtesy The Heath Company 32 SUMMER 1964a lockwashers, and %2 hex nuts. Miniature tube sockets are best mounted with %o x 4" machine screws. Such items as tie-point strips, mounting brackets, small transformers and chokes are mounted with Se x %" or 36" hardware. Larger components, such as power transformers, output transformers, etc, are provided with usually either %: or %q studs which may be used for mounting the component Panel mounted components, such as po- tentiometers, rotary and toggle switches, and pilot light assemblies are mounted by means of threaded bushings which are passed through the single mounting hole and se- cured with a lockwasher and nut. Standard potentiometer (pots) require a %4” mounting hole, while most toggle switches mount through a 14" hole. Rotary selector switches, as in the case of pots, generally take a 46” mounting hole. Wiring Procedure. Next in line comes wiring of the various components. Here again, the proper technique will more often than not spell the difference between a suc- cessful project and one that provides only mediocre results. This is especially true with circuits designed to operate at high frequen- cies where careful attention must be given {0 proper wiring procedure. Assuming that you are putting together a “conventional” project, such as an amplificr, receiver, etc., the accepted, and by the way, the most convenient wiring sequence is as follows. 1. Power supply 2. Heater (or filament circuits) 3. Ground (or common) circuits ELEMENTARY ELECTRONICS 8. Wiring up transistor cuits calls for different wiring techniques. Parts cre smaller and can be placed on a phenolic board stamped with many evenly spaced mounting hole: Fig. 9. Transistors and solid state diodes can be damaged by excessive heat. When soldering place a heat sink between the semi- conductor and the point be- ing soldered. A plier with @ rubber band clamping it shut holds on to o wire and will draw away the heat. 4. Leads from major components such as output transformers, pots, switches, etc. 5. Resistors 6. Capacitors The virtue of this wiring procedure is that the wiring ends up in “layers”... you don't suddenly find that a ground connection for example has to be made under a layer of previously installed capacitors and resistors. Next, we come to the matter of lead length between components. Aside from appear- ance sake, it is highly desirable to maintain as short as possible connecting leads. There are several reasons for this. First, excessive lead length can cause hum and noise pickup in the case of signal carrying leads. Second, AC power leads, such as from the 115 volt AC line and 6.3 volt heater leads may radiate hum into low-level portions of the circuit if excessively long. Third, excessive lead length can cause excessive circuit losses due to their inductance which becomes appre- ciable at high frequencies. This is why you'll find VHF (very high frequency) and UHFFoc & parts (ultra-high frequency) circuits constructed with their components very closely spaced. When a long lead run cannot be avoided, as in the case of tube heater leads, AC field radiation from them can be minimized by twisting the leads as pictured in Figure 5. There have been a number of suggested methods of attaching component leads to tube socket lugs, tie-point strips, ete. You have your choice all the way from the “ tary style” of passing the lead through the lug, wrapping it around the lug a number of times, and then crimping it, to simply tacking the lead to the lug with a drop of solder. Actually, these two cases are ex- treme . . . the former is too involved while the latter is not considered mechanically ac- ceptable, except for perhaps an experimental circuit where the lead will be connected and disconnected a number of times Figure 6 shows the generally accepted method of attaching a lead to a terminal or tie-point lug. As you can sce, the lead is passed through the hole in the lug, bent back upon itself, and crimped. This provides a connection that can be fairly easily “de- tached” and yet provides a good mechanical joint. Soldering. Here's a subject which per- haps causes the most difficulty to the be- ginner, and yet it is not a difficult art to master. There are three basic steps to a good soldered connection. They are: 1. plenty of heat 2. clean point 3. proper iron The correct procedure for soldering a joint is illustrated in Figure 7. First, coat the tip of the iron with solder. Next, firmly press the flat side of the tip against the parts to be soldered together. After allowing a sec- ond or two for the iron to heat the work, apply solder between the parts to be soldered and the iron. Use only enough solder to flow over the surface of the connection. Remove the iron and do not move any of the soldered parts until the solder has cooled. One very important point ... always use only rosin-core solder as acid core solder will corrode the soldered connections, thus resulting in increased connection resistance and attendant improper circuit operation 34 While soldering guns have become popular due to their “instant heat" characteristics, a good 30 to 50 watt soldering “pencil” is excellent for most electronic work, and has the advantage that it will not overheat the work... a common problem with a large wattage soldering gun. And Now Transistors. This section would not be complete without touching on the proper “mechanics” of transistor con- struction. As you might well imagine, as- sembly techniques differ considerably with transistor -. . one major reason being the much smaller physical size of the associated components, Figure 8 shows the typical construction technique of a simple transistor circuit. As you can see by the photo, the “chassis” is a piece of perforated phenolic board. Instead of conventional tie-point strips, small brass eyelets are used, these being inserted through the holes in the perforated board. Com- ponent leads are simply pushed into the cye- lets and soldered. The small transformers are mounted to the board by means of their lugs which are simply passed through en- larged holes in the board. Incidentally, this perforated board can be easily cut to the desired size by the use of a “nibbling” tool. In mounting transistors and diodes, it’s a wise idea to leave the leads at least one inch Jong when possible to minimize the chance of transistor or diode damage when solder- ing into place. Along these same lines, grip- ping the transistor or diode leads with a pair of long-nose pliers as pictured in Figure 9 will minimize heat damage during soldering. When working with transistor circuits, it is highly recommended that the use of a soldering gun be avoided. The reason for this is that the intense magnetic field de- veloped around the gun while it is in oper- ation can induce currents in nearby coils and transformers . . . these currents often being sufficient to damage transistors or diodes connected into the same circuit. Also, the more controlled heat of a low wattage soldering pencil will prevent possible dam- age of excess heat to the rather delicate leads of some of the associated components. Well, that's pretty much the story on work- ing with electronic tools and parts. While space did not permit us to give a really de- tailed coverage of the subject . . . many, many more words could be said, we have tried to cover the high spots, and hope that you have found this section both interesting and informative. . SUMMER 1964basic electricity The study of complex electronic circuits is based upon an easy-to- understand electron theory and how electrons flow through cir- Cuits. A good ground floor knowl- edge of electricity is mandatory prior to probing into electronics. ELEMENTARY ELECTRONICS N ORDER to gain a clear understanding of basic electricity, let's take a close look at the structure of the atom. All matter can be broken down into basic chemical elements. These basic elements in turn can be sub- divided into minute particles, called atoms; the smallest state in which chemical elements can exist without losing their identity. Early in the 19th century it was revealed that the atom, which up uatil this time had been considered the fundamental particle of matter, could be subdivided still further into even smaller particles. These smaller par- ticles—electrons, protons and neutrons, are present in all atoms . . . their number deter- mining the particular type of atom, carbon, hydrogen, ete. For example, the element hy-36 Fig. 1. Diagram of the beryllium atom. drogen has one electron and one proton, while the sodium atom has I! electrons, 11 protons, and 12 neutrons. The structure of the atom is somwhat like our own solar system. Figure | is an atomic diagram of the beryllium atom. The atom’s central nucleus consists of protons which carry what is known as a positive electrical charge and neutrons which possess a zero electrical charge. Around this positively charged nucleus, orbit negatively charged electrons. In a normal atom, the number of electrons in the orbits exactly equal the num- ber of protons in its central nucleus. Thus, the negative charged orbiting clectrons neu- tralize the positive protons and the atom has a zero net electrical charge. Atomic weight. Almost the entire weight of any atom is concentrated in its nucleus. Both the electrically positive proton and clec- trically neutral neutron are about 1800 times heavier than the orbiting electrons. Actually, “weight” is a rather poor term to use here as the weight of even the heavier protons and neutrons is infinitesimal compared to objects we see and handle every day. The approxi- mate weight of one electron is expressed by a very small number, .000,000,000,000,000,- 000,000,000,000,9 gram (9 x 10°) A moment ago, we said that all atoms are composed of three basic types of particles, electrons, protons, and neutrons, and that the different elements are determined by the number and arrangement of these particles. The atomic number of an element's atom is equal to the number of electrons orbiting about its nucleus. Thus, the hydrogen atom, with its single electron is given the atomic number of one. On the other hand, the element fluorine has nine electrons and is thus given the atomic number of nine. ‘An atom’s atomic weight is determined by the number of protons and neutrons in its nucleus. Atomic weights are relative and are useful in comparing the weight of one atom against that of another. Since the atomic weight of hydrogen is one, and the atomic weight of neon is 10, the neon atom is 10 times heavier than the hydrogen atom. Fig- ure 2 is a table of the atomic weights and numbers for the first eleven elements. Going back to our atom’s orbiting elec- trons for a moment, these electrons are ar- ranged in rings or shells around the central nucleus—each ring having a definite maxi- mum capacity of electrons which it can retain. For example, in the copper atom shown in Figure 3 the maximum number of electrons that can exist in the first ring (the Ting nearest the nucleus) is two. The next ing can have a maximum of eight, the third ring a maximum of 18, and the fourth ring a maximum of 32. However, the outer ring or shell of electrons for any atom cannot exceed eight clectrons when the shell may have more than eight in heavier atoms. ‘Sym bel Elemont hyde helium tithivm berylivn boron nitrogen oxygen ‘usring 2. Atomic table for the first 11 atoms. SUMMER 1964~~ @ —— VALENCE RING Fig. 3. Flat diagram of the copper atom. Valance. The ring of electrons furthest from the atom’s nucleus is known as the valance ring and the clectrons orbiting in this ring are known as valance electrons. These valance electrons, being further from the nucleus, are not held as tightly in their orbits as electrons in the inner rings and can therefore be fairly casily dislodged by an external force such as heat, light, friction, and electrical potential. The fewer electrons in the valance ring of an atom, the less these electrons are bound to the central nucleus. As an example, the copper atom has only one electron in its valance ring. Consequent- ly, it can be easily removed by the applica- tion of only the slightest amount of external energy. Ordinary room temperature is suf- ficient to dislodge large numbers of electrons from copper atoms; these electrons circulat- ing about as free electrons. It is because of these large numbers of free electrons that copper is such a good electrical conductor as you shall shortly see. There could be no electrical or electronics industry as we know it today if it were not for the fact that elec- trons can fairly easily escape, or be stripped from the valance ring of certain elements. Electronic charges. If an electron is stripped from an atom, the atom will assume a positive charge because the number of positively charged protons in its nucleus now exceed the number of negatively charged orbiting electrons. If on the other hand, the atom should gain an electron, it will become negatively charged as the number of elec- ELEMENTARY ELECTRONICS = ° < trons now exceed the protons in its nucleus. ‘The atom with the deficiency of electrons is known as a positive ion, while an atom with a surplus of electrons is known as a negative ion, You are probably familiar with the “elec- tricity” produced when you comb your hair with a hard rubber or plastic comb. What happens here is that the friction of passing the comb through your hair strips electrons from the atoms of the material from which the comb is made, leaving the comb nega- tively charged. This is the earliest form of electricity known to man and is known as static electricity as it simply accumulates on a surface rather than flowing continuously an electrical circuit as does electricity pro- duced from a battery, generator, etc. So far, we've talked only about static electrical charges which accumulate either by a deficiency or surplus of electrons. Let's go a bit further and see what constitutes a continuous flow of electric current. Figure 4 shows two oppositely charged bodies. The negative charge of the right hand body is due to there being a greater number of electrons than protons in this body, while the left hand body is positively charged due to its having fewer electrons than protons. When an electrical conductor is placed between these two oppositely charged bodies as shown in figure 5 the negatively charged free electrons will be repelled into the connecting wire by the negative charge of the right hand body. At the same time, these free electrons are at- tracted by the positive charge of the left hand body—free electrons moving through the wire from the right hand body to the left hand body. This movement of free elec- trons will continue only until the excess of electrons are equally divided between the LACK OF ELECTRONS (POSITIVE CHARGE ) SURPLUS OF ELECTRONS (NEGATIVE CHARGE) Fig. 4. Two bodies with opposite charges. ee 37E basic electricity DIRECTION OF ELECTRON FLOW Fig. 5. Electron flow reduces charges. two bodies. Under these conditions, the charges on the left and right hand bodies will be equal and the electron flow will end Electric charges produce current. While figures 4 and 5 serve to illustrate the basic flow of an electric current by means of elec- tric charges, you can sce that the flow of current will stop as soon as the charges are neutralized—this taking but a fraction of a second. What we need is some method of continuously maintaining a charge or poten- tial difference between the two ends of the electrical conductor. In effect, what we are looking for is an “electric charge pump.” Let's look at figure 6A. Here we sce a water wheel and water pump connected by a length of pipe. Mechanical energy applied to the shaft of the pump causes the water to flow through the pipe and turn the water wheel due to the difference in water pressure at the two ends of the pump. The pump, water wheel, and connecting pipe form a cir- cuit through which the water can flow. Now, look at figure 6B. Here is a battery, lamp, and connecting leads between the battery and lamp. In this instance, the battery serves as the electric charge pump—free electrons continually developed at its negative termi- nal by chemical action flowing through the connecting leads and lamp back to its posi- tive terminal of the battery by the attraction of oppositely charged bodies. The baitery, connecting leads, and lamp form an elec- trical circuit which must be complete before the free electrons can flow from the bat- tery’s negative terminal to its positive termi- nal via the lamp. Thus, the battery serves as a source of potential difference or voliage by continually supplying a surplus of elec- trons at its positive terminal. Summing this whole thing up, we can say, a flow of elec- tric current consists of the movement of electric charges (electrons in most cases) between two oppositely charged bodies. ‘Now that we have seen just what makes up a flow of clectric current, in which direc- tion does the current flow . . . from positive to negative or from negative to positive? Actually, there are two schools of thought ‘on this . . . the so-called conventional direc- tion and the direction of electron flow. The (B) BATTERY Fig. 6. The action of a water pump (A) compared to the electrical battery (B). SUMMER 1964a COMPASS DIRECTION | #/—~—' oF \% ~°) conouctor ELECTRON ") FLOW on Fig. 7. Using the left hand rule to find the direction of electron flow in a conducting wire. conventional direction is the earliest, and assumes that an electric current flows from Positive to negative. The more modern theory states that current flow is the same as electron flow (from negative to positive) since most current flow consists of the move- ment of free electrons. The direction of current flow through a conductor can be determined with the aid of @ compass as shown in figure 7. When the fingers of the left hand are wrapped around the conductor in such a manner that they point in the same direction as the north pole ‘of the compass, the left thumb points to the direction of current flow Electrical quantities. We cannot progress very far into the study of electricity without first becoming familiar with the basic prop- erties of electrical circuits. Just as we define distance in feet and inches, so do we define electrical properties in specific terms and units. Potential. Earlier, we saw that an elec- tric charge difference has to exist between the ends of an electrical conductor in order to cause a flow of free electrons through the conductor . . . this flow of electrons con- stituting an electric current. This electric charge difference, or potential difference exerts a force on the flow of free electrons, forcing them through the conductor. This electric force or pressure is referred to as electromotive force, abbreviated EMF. The greater the charge or potential differ- ence, the greater will be the movement of free electrons (current) through the conduc tor as there will be more “push and pull” on the free electrons. The symbol used to designate electrical potential is the letter E which stands for electromotive force. The quantity of EMF is measured by a unit called ELEMENTARY ELECTRONICS — the volt. Hence, the common name most often used in place of EMF is voliage. Current intensity. We have learned that an eleciric current consists of a flow of charge carriers (most generally free elec- trons) between two points of different elec- trical potential. The rate of flow of these charges determines the intensity or strength of this current flow. Let's take a look at Fig. 8 which shows a wite connected between the positive and negative terminals of a battery. Since the battery serves as a source of potential differ- ence, free electrons will be repelled out of the negative terminal, through the wire, and back into the positive terminal which has a deficiency of electrons. The number of these free electrons flowing in the conductor deter- mine the current strength. This current strength is expressed in units known as the ampere... \ ampere of current flowing in the circuit when 6,240,000,000 electrons flow out of the battery's negative terminal, through the conductor, and back into the battery's positive terminal in, one second The symbol for the ampere is the letter J which stands for intensity. Resistance. The flow of electric current through a conductor is caused by the move- ment of free electrons present in the atoms of the conductor. A bit of thought then indi- cates that the greater the number of free elec- eo ELECTRON FLOW oR CURRENT FLOW BATTERY Fig. 8. Electron flow caused by a dry cell.40 —— basic electricity trons present in the atoms of a particular conductor, the greater will be its electrical conductivity. Gold, silver, and copper rank as excellent electrical conductors as their atoms readily release of free electrons. On the other hand, the atoms of such elements as sulphur have almost no free electrons available and they are thus very poor elec- trical conductors such materials are known as electrical insulators. Between these extremes, lie elements such as carbon whose atoms have a moderate number of free elec tons available and thus are relatively good electrical conductors. Even the best electrical conductors offer some opposition to the passage of free elec- trons . . . this opposition is called resistance. You might consider electrical resistance simi- lar to mechanical friction. As in the case of mechanical friction, electrical resistance gen- erates heat. When current flows through a resistance, heat is generated; the greater the current flow, the greater the heat. Also, for a given current flow, the greater the resist- ance, the greater the heat produced Electrical resistance can be both beneficial and undesirable. Toasters, electric irons, etc. all make use of the heat generated by current flowing through wire coils, Resistance is also often intentionally added to an electrical circuit to limit the flow of current. This type ‘of resistance is generally lumped together in a single unit known as a resistor. There are also instances where resistance is undesirable. Excessive resistance in the con- necting leads of an electrical circuit can cause both heating and electrical loss. The heating, if sufficient can cause a fire hazard, particularly in house wiring, and the circuit losses are a waste of electrical power. Electrical resistance is expressed by a unit known as the olm, indicated by the letter R which stands for resistance as you might guess. An electrical conductor has a resist- ance of one ohm when an applied EMF of one volt causes a current of one ampere to flow through it. ‘There are other factors heside the composi- tion of the material that determine its resist- ance, For example, temperature has an effect ‘on the resistance of a conductor. As the temperature of copper increases for example, SS its resistance decreases. A little thought will ” show why this is so. You remember that heat is one of the external forces which will strip electrons from the valance ring of atoms comprising an electrical conductor. These electrons then circulate as current carrying free electrons. As the amount of heat is in- creased, the number of these free electrons increase, and the resistance of the conductor (a) AMMETER BATTERY 4voc RESISTOR in (B) AMMETER —— BATTERY 4voc RESISTOR $n AMMETER RESISTOR 20. —— BATTERY =. 4voc Fig. 9. Simple demonstration showing that current in a circuit is directly proportional to the voltage impressed across the circuit. SUMMER 19drops. This drop in resistance with an in- crease in temperature is known as a positive temperature coefficient. Not all conductors show this decrease in resistance with an in- crease in temperature . .. their resistance in- creasing with an’ increase in temperature Such materials are said to have a negative temperature coefficient. Certain metallic al- loys have been developed which exhibit a AMMETER BATTERY 4 voc RESISTOR 1n (8) AMMETER RESISTOR in BATTERY 8 VDC BATTERY 2v0c RESISTOR im |. 10. Simple demonstration showing that current in a circuit is inversely proportional {1 over R) to the resistance in the closed circuit ELEMENTARY ELECTRONICS zero temperature coefficient . . . their resist- ance does not change with changes in tem- perature. As you might suspect, the length of a con- ductor has an effect upon its resistance. Doubling the length of a conductor will double its resistance as the current carrying free electrons have twice as far to travel and thus twice the resistance. By the same token, having the length of a conductor will cut its resistance in half. Just remember that the re- sistance of a conductor is directly proportion- al 10 its length ‘The cross-sectional area of a conductor also determines its resistance, As you double the cross-section of a conductor, you halve its resistance halving its cross-section doubles its resistance. Here again, the “why” of this is pretty easy to see . . . there are more current carrying electrons available in a large cross-section conductor than in a small cross-section conductor of the same length. Therefore, the resistance of a con- ductor is inversely proportional (0 its cross- sectional area. Relationship—voltage, current, resist- ance. Now that we have a basic under- standing of voltage, current, and resistance, let’s take a look at just how they interact Figure 9A shows a battery, ammeter (a device to indicate current strength), and re- sistor connected in series. Notice that the ammeter indicates that 4 amperes are flowing in the circuit Figure 9B shows the identical setup with the exception that the battery voltage has now been doubled. The ammeter now shows that twice the original current, or 8 amperes, are now flowing in the circuit. Therefore, we can see that doubling the voltage applied to the circuit will double the current flowing in the circuit In Figure 9C the same circuit appears again, this time however, the battery voltage is one-half its original value. The ammeter shows that one-half of the original current, or 2 amperes, are now flowing in the circuit This shows us that halving the voltage ap- plied to the circuit will halve the current flowing through the circuit lll this boils down to the fact that assum- ing the same circuit resistance in all cases, ihe current flowing in a circuit will be direct ly proportional to the applied voltage . . . in- creasing as the voltage is increased, and de- creasing as the applied voltage is decreased In Figure 10A we again see the circuit con- sisting of the battery, ammeter. and resist- abasic electricity ance. Notice that the ammeter indicates that 4 amperes are flowing through the circuit. In Figure 10B we see that the value of re~ sistance has been cut in half and as a result, the ammeter indicates that twice the original current, or 8 amperes, is now flowing in the circuit. This leads us to the correct assump- tion that for a given supply voltage, halving the circuit resistance will double the current flowing in the circu Figure 10C again shows our basie circuit, but with the resistance now doubled from its original value. The ammeter indicates that the current in the circuit is now one-half of its original value. Summing things up . . . for a given supply voltage. rhe current flowing in a circuit will be inversely proportional to the resistance in the circuit. Ohm's law. From what you have seen so far, you are probably getting the idea that you can determine the current flowing in a circuit if you know the voltage and resistance present in the circuit the voltage if you know the current and resistance, or the re- sistance if the voltage and current are known. All this is quite correct, and is formally stated by Ohm's Law as foliows: Where: E = voltage 1 current R = resistance Now, let’s take a look at how this formula is used: Fig. 11 To find voltage: E(voltage) =I (current) times R (resistance) To find current . E (voltage) I (current) = —— R (resistance) To find resistance: E (voltage) 1 (current) R (resistance) = A handy way to remember Ohm's Law is by means of the “wheel” shown in figure 11. Simply cover the quantity, voltage, current, ‘or resistance, that you want to determine, a and read the correct relationship of the re- maining two quantities from the wheel. For example, if you want to know the correct E current (I), put your finger over I and read—. R Similarly, covering E or R will yield 1 x R or E —— respectively. 1 Ohm's law to determine voltage. Let’s delve a bit more deeply into Ohm's law by applying it to a few cases where we want to determine the unknown voltage in an elec- trical circuit, For a beginning, take a look at figure 12, which shows a simple series circuit consist- ing of a battery and resistor. The value of this resistor is given as 200 ohms, and 0.5 ampere of current is flowing through the circuit. We want to find the value of battery voltage. This is easily done by applying Ohm's law for voltage as follows: E=IXR x E (unknown voltage) = 0.5 (current in am- peres) X 200 (resistance in ohms) = 100 V. The Ohm's law memory wheel—cover one value with your finger and the equation is given by the remaining two values. a SUMMER 1964VOLTAGE UNKNOWN ~+— 0.5 AMPERE Fig. 12. Using Ohm's law to determine volt- age from values of current and resistance. Fi 2 400 | { UNKNOWN } 0.3 AMPERE VOLTAGE Fig. 13. Find the unknown voltage impressed across this series Christmas lamp circuit, 5 OHMS: UNKNOWN CURRENT. Fig. 14. Use Ohm's law to determine the un- known current in this simple series circui IS AMP LECTRIC O- {HEATER 20 OHM! vout| 1 (20 OHMS) Fig. 15. Here, Ohm's law helps you deter- mine whether the fuse size is satisfactory. ELEMENTARY ELECTRONICS — UNKNOWN RESISTANCE o= VOC — 0.5 AMPERE Fig. 16. Knowing the dry cell voltage and cirevit current, the unknown R can be found. Let's go through this again, this time using a more “true to life” illustration. Figure 12 shows a string of light bulbs, the total re- sistance of which, is 400 ohms. You find that the bulbs draw 0.3 amperes when fully lit, Let’s say you would like to operate this string of bulbs from the standard 120-volt house current, but you don’t know the volt- age rating of the individual bulbs. By using Ohm's law for voltage, you can easily deter- mine the voltage to light the bulbs as follows: E (unknown voltage) = 0.3 (amperes) x 400 (bulb resistance) = 120 volts ‘Ohm's law to determine current. Now, let's take a look at a few examples of how to determine the value of unknown current in a circuit in which both the voltage and resistance are known. Figure 14 shows a series circuit with a bat- tery and resistor. The battery voltage is 20 volts DC and the value of resistance is 5 ohms. How much current is flowing through the circuit? E Ohm's law for current. I= —— R 20 (battery voltage) I (unknown current) = ———___—— 5 (resistance in ohms) 1 = 4 amperes Again to get a bit more practical, let's take a look at figure 15, Here we see an electric heater element connected to the 120-volt house line. We know that this particular heater element has a resistance of 20 ohms. The house current line is fused with a 15- ampere fuse. We want to know whether the heater will draw sufficient current to blow the fuse. Here’s how to find this out by use of Ohm’s law for current a“4 DROPPING RESISTANCE UNKNOWN 0.2 AMPERE Fig. 17. Series dropping resistors can be calculated by Ohm's law and some reasoning. 120 (line voltage) 1 (unknown current) = —_____— 20 (Heater resist- ance in ohms) I= 6 amperes We find from the above use of Ohm’s law for current that the heater draws 6 amperes, so it can be safely used on the line fused with the 15 ampere fuse. In fact, a 10 ampere fused line can also do the job. Ohm's law to determine resistance. ‘Ohm's law for resistance enables us to deter- mine the unknown value of resistance in a circuit. Here's how it's done. Figure 16 again shows a simple series circuit with the battery voltage given as 20 volts and the current flowing through the circuit as 0.5 ampere. The unknown resistance value in this cireuil found as follows: E ‘Ohm's law for resistance R = —— 1 20 (battery voltage) R (unknown resistance) = ——— 0.5 (current in amperes) 40 OHMS 6 OHMS R= 40 ohms Figure 17 is a practical example of how to determine unknown resistance. Here, we want to operate a 6-volt light bulb from the 120 volt house line. What value of series dropping resistor do we need to drop the 120 volt house current down to 6 volts? The bulb draws 0.2 ampere. We must first determine the voltage which must be dropped across the series dropping resistor. This is done by subtracting the line voltage (120) from the bulb’s voltage (6) This gives us a value of 114 volts which we use in conjunction with Ohm's law for re- sistance as follows 114 (voltage dropped by resistor) R (unknown resistance) = 0.2 (bulb current in amperes) R = 570 ohms Resistance in series. Many practical electrical and electronic circuits use two or more resistances connected in series. The point to remember in this case is that the total resistance is the sum of the individual resistances. This is expressed by the simple formula: R (total resistance) = R1 + R2 + R3 + ete. where RI, R2, R3, ete. are the individual resistances (the dashed line indicates any ad- ditional resistances). Thus, in figure 18 the total of the individual resistances is R (total) = 40 +6+ 10+ 5=61 ohms. Resistances may also be connected in par- allel in a circuit as in figure 19. In this case the current flowing in the circuit will divide between the resistances; the greater current flowing through the lowest resistance, Also, the total resistance in the circuit will always be less than any of the individual resistances as the total current is greater than the current in any of the individual resistors, The formula for determining the combined resistance of the two resistors is: 10 OHMS 5 OHMS AWA Fig. 18. The resistance of a series cireui is equal to the sum of all resistances. SUMMER 1964= RIX R2 R (total) = ———. RI+R2 Thus, in figure 19 the combined resistance of RI and R2 is: 2x4 8 = —or 1.33 ohms. 244 6 R (total) It is generally not necessary to carry the decimal point beyond two places. In a circuit containing more than two parallel resistors as in figure 20 the easiest way to determine the total circuit resistance is as follows: first, assume that a six volt battery is connected across the resistor net- work. Pick a value that will make your computations simple. Then determine the current flowing through each of the resistors using Ohm's law. 6 1=—=3 amperes 2 6 1 = — = 2 amperes 3 6 1=—= 1 ampere 6 Next, add the individual currents flowing through the circuit: 2 amperes + 3 amperes + 1 ampere = © amperes Substituting this 6 amperes in Ohm's law, the total circuit resistance is found to be: 6 R=—=1 ohm 6 Quite often an electronic circuit will con- tain a combination of series and parallel re- sistances as in figure 21. To solve this type of problem, first determine the combined resistance of R2 and R3: 6X12 R (total) = - 6+12 Rd — = 4 ohms 18 This total value of R2 and R3 may be con- ELEMENTARY ELECTRONICS 2 OHMS 4 OHMS: ig. 19. Poralllel resistance can be computed by the simple “product over the sum” rule. 20OHMS Fig. 20. Three resistors in parallel can be solved by calling on Ohm's law to help. 6 OHMS: RL } R2 6 OHMS: Fig. 21 resistors, Series-parallel require some combinations of thinking to solve. sidered a single resistance which is in series with RI, and forms a simple series circuit. This simple series circuit is solved as follows: R (total) = 6 + 4 or a total of 10 ohms. Power: The amount of work done by elec- 45—— = 46 f - _ basic electricity tricity is termed the watt and one watt is equal t0 one volt multiplied by one am- pere. This may be expressed as: P = E x I where E = Voltage in volts, I= the current in amperes. Also: E —and P= R PR As an example, assume that a toaster draws 5 amperes at an applied voitage of 115 volts. Its wattage would then be: P ~ 115 x 5 or 757 watts, Basic magnetism. Before we go any fur- ther with our investigation of basic electrici- ty, it might be well to become familiar with the basic principle of magnetism due to the very close relationship between electricity and magnetism. Some of the basic principles and effects of magnetism have been known for centuries The Greeks are credited as the ones who first discovered magnetism . . . they having noted that a certain type of rock had the ability of attracting iron. Later, the Chinese noted that an elongated piece of this rock had the useful property of always pointing in a North-South direction when suspended by a string as shown in figure 22. This was the beginning of our compass. This strange stone which intrigued people over the centuries is actually a form of iron ore known as magnetite. Not all magnetite shows magnetic properties. Another name for the magnetic variety of magnetite is lode- stone . . . the term lodestone being derived from two separate words, lode and stone. The term lode stands for guide, hence lode- stone means “guide stone.” All magnets, whether natural or man made, possess magnetic poles, which are commonly known as the magnet’s north and south poles. As is the case of the electrical charges which we studied earlier between unlike magnetic poles and repulsion between like poles. It has been found that this magnetic attraction and repulsion force varies inversely as the square of the distance from the magnetic poles. The magnetic field. We all know how a magnet exerts a force of attraction on a piece of magnetic material such as iron or a — a steel. Also, when the north poles of two magnets are brought close together, they will try to repel each other, while there will be attraction between the north and south poles of two magnets. Although it is not clearly understood just what this force of magnetic attraction and repulsion is, it is convenient to visualize magnetic lines of force which extend outward from one magnetic pole to the other as illustrated in figure 23. Permeability. Magnetic lines of force can pass through various materials with vary ing ease. Iron and steel for example, offer little resistance to magnetic lines of force. It is because of this that these materials are so readily attracted by magnets. On the other hand, materials such as wood, alu- minum and brass offer great resistance to the cH Fig. 22. The lode stone is a ferrous rock that was the first useful magnetic compass. SUMMER 1964Fig. 23. Place a bar magnet under a piece of paper and sprinkle iron filings on top. Filing will trace out the magnetic field's force lines when the magnet aligns them. passage of magnetic lines of force, and as a consequence are not attracted by magnets. The amount of resistance a material offers to magnetic lines of force is known as its permeability. fron and steel for example are said to possess high permeability as they CIRCUIT 1 eh PRIMARY Fig. 25. ELEMENTARY ELECTRONICS — |. 24. The magnetic lines of force around a conducting wire is illustrated above. offer little resistance to magnetic lines of force. Non-magnetie materials have low per- meability. For practical purposes, we can say that permeability is to magnetic lines of force as resistance is to an electrical circuit. Electromagnetism. Any electrical con- tor through which flows an electrical current will generate a magnetic field about it which is perpendicular to its axis as shown in figure 24. The direction of this field is depend- ent upon the direction of current flow, and the magnetic field strength proportional to the current strength. If this: current carrying conductor is wrapped into a coil, forming a solenoid, magnetic field will be increased each individual turn is added to the field due to the fact that the field generated by generated by the other turns in the coil. if an iron core is inserted in this current carry- ing coil the generated field will be increased still further, This is because the lines of CIRCUIT 2 A simple demonstration that illustrates how currents are induced.re F = Basic electricity force are concentrated within the iron core which has considerably less reluctance than the surrounding air. The magnetizing power of a multi-turn current carrying coil through which a core is inserted is proportional to the current flowing through the coil as well as the num- ber of turns in the coil. The current through the coil is termed ampere turns. As an example; if a coil consisting of 200 turns is carrying 2 amperes, its ampere turns equal: Ampere turns = 200 turns x 2 amperes or 400 ampere turns On the other hand, a coil of 100 turns through which a current of four amperes flows also has 400 ampere turns. Ampere turns = 100 turns x 4 amperes ‘or 400 ampere turns. Electromagnetic induction. We saw earlier how a current carrying conductor will gen- erate a magnetic field which is perpendicular to the conductor's axis. Conversely, a cur- ent will be induced in a conductor when the conductor is passed through a magnetic field. The strength of this induced current is pro- portional to both the speed at which it passes through the field and the strength of the field. One of the basic laws pertaining to electromagnetic induction is Lenz's Law which states: “The magnetic action of an in- duced current is of such a direction as to resist the motion by which it is produced.” Figure 25 illustrates two coils, A and B, PRIMARY which are placed in close proximity of each other. Coil A is connected in series with a switch and battery so that a current may be sent through it when the switch is closed, and coil B is connected to a current indicating meter. When the switch is closed, current will flow through coil A, causing a magnetic field to be built up around it. In the brief instant that the field is building up to maxi- mum, it will “cut” the turns of Coil B; in- ducing a current in it, as indicated by a momentary flick of the indicating meter. When the switch is opened; breaking the current flow through coil A, the field around coil A will collapse, and in so doing, will again induce a current in coil B. This time however, the flow of current will be in the opposite direction. The meter will now flick in an opposite direction than it did when the switch was closed. The important thing to temember is that the conductor must be in motion with respect to the magnetic field or vice versa in order to induce a current flow. You can perform this simple experiment using two coils made of bell wire wrapped around large nails, a few dry cells in series, and a DC center scale meter. Self induction. As mentioned a short while ago, a magnetic field is built up around a coil at the application of current through the coil. As this field is building up, its mov- ing lines of flux will cut the turns of the coil; inducing a counter electromotive force or counter EMF which opposes the current flowing into the coil The amount of counter EMF generated depends upon the rate of change in am- plitude of the applied current as well as the Fig. 26. A simplified drow- ing of @ two win former on an primary winding circuit. Schematic diagram (upper right) is typical for @ ferrous-core transformer. SECONDARY 48 SUMMER 1964inductance of the coil. This value of indui ance is dependent upon the number of turns in the coil; a coil with many turns will have greater inductance than a coil with few turns. ‘Also, if an iron core is inserted into the coil, the inductance of the coil will increase sharp- ly. The unit of inductance is known as the Henry, The transformer. One of the most im- portant and widely used application of mag- netic induction is the transformer. Trans- formers find the major application in step- ping up or down voltage and current in countless applications. Figure 26 shows the basic construction of a typical transformer. While two separate winding core shown here, some transform- ers such as those used in radio and receivers, can have as many as five or six individual windings. A transformer consists of two or more sep- arate windings, electrically insulated from each other. One winding which is known as the primary winding, is led from a source of alternating current. The alternating current flowing through the primary induces a current in the second- ary winding by virtue of magnetic induction. The transformer core is constructed from a relatively high permeability material such as iron which readily conducts magnetic flux between the primary winding and secondary winding, The alternating current flowing in the pri- mary of the transformer produces variation in the magnetic flux circulation in the trans- former core which tends to oppose the cur- rent flowing in the primary winding by vir- tue of self-induction, This counter EMF is just about equal to the voltage applied to the primary winding when no load is connected to the transformer's secondary winding. This accounts for the fact that very little current flows through the primary winding when no load is connected to the secondary. The negli- gible current that does flow under this no- Toad condition is known as the transformer magnetizing current. As the current drawn from the secondary winding increases, the primary current will increase proportionately due to the reduction in the counter EMF developed in the primary winding of the transformer. In any transformer the ratio of the primary to secondary voltage is equal to the ratio of the number of turns in the primary and sec- ondary windings, This is expressed mathe- matically as follows: ELEMENTARY ELECTRONICS Ep Np Ns Es where Ep = primary supply voltage Es = voltage developed across secondary Np = number of primary turns Ns = number of secondary turns The above formula assumes that there are no losses in the transformer. Actually, all transformers possess some loss which must be taken into account. Transformer losses. No transtormer can be 100 per cent efficient due to losses in the magnetic flux coupling the primary and secondary windings, eddy current losses in the transformer core, and copper losses due to the resistance of the windings. Loss of magnetic flux leakage occurs when not all the flux generated by current flowing in the primary reaches the secondary wind- ing. The proper choice of core material and physical core design can reduce flux leakage to a negligible value. Practical transformers have a certain amount of power loss which is due to power being absorbed in the resistance of the pri- mary and secondary windings. This power oss, known as the gopper loss appears as heating of the primary and secondary wind- ings. There are several forms of core loss— hysteresis and eddy current losses. Hysteresis losses are the result of the energy required to continually realign the magnetic domain of the core material. Eddy current loss results from circulating currents induced in the transformer core by current flowing in the primary winding. These eddy currents cause heating of the core. Eddy current loss can be greatly reduced by forming the core from a stack of indi- vidual sheets, known as laminations, rather than from a single solid piece of steel. Since eddy current losses are proportional to the square of core thickness, it is easy to see that the individual thin laminations will have much less eddy current loss as compared with a single thick core. Another factor which effects eddy current loss is the operating frequency for which the transformer is designed to operate. As the operating frequency is increased, the eddy current losses increase. It is for this reason that transformers designed to operate at radio frequencies have air cores and are void of ferrous metals. . 43- 50 - . me another (Continued from page 26) branch of a circuit will depend on the volt- age (E) across the circuit and the resistance (R) of the circuit. Your body resistance is very high, usually well over 10,000 ohms. If you insert it across an electric cireuit, your body will be the added resistance in that circuit. Assuming your body resistance is quite tow, say 60,000 ohms, in the case of the 6- volt source the current flowing through your body would be 6/60,000 or 100 microam- peres, the total power would be .0006 watt. In the case of the 500-volt supply the cur- rent would be 500/60,000 or 8.3 milliamps and you would be called to dissipate 500 x 0083 or 4.15 watts. Clearly the latter is more dangerous. There are no hard and fast rules, however, ‘on how much voltage and current a body can stand without damage. Anything above 10 milliamps can be dangerous and anything above 50 milliamps can be fatal. In view of high body resistance it usually takes a high voltage to draw that much current. But if the body resistance is.low, as for instance if it is moist, a relatively high current may flow with even a relatively low-voltage source. The only way to outwit Ohm's Law is by keeping your body out of electric cir- cuits. Incidentally, in about 90 per cent of the cases of electric shock where breathing has ceased, a fatality can be avoided if “mouth- to-mouth” artificial respiration is applied to the shocked individual within about 4 min- utes. Everybody who has occasion 10 work with dangerous electrical currents, and his associates and family, should learn the tech- nique. Consult your local Red Cross Chap- ter or family doctor. Question: Many times I have heard the term “WPE Short-Wave Monitor.” How can 1 become one? RF, Birmingham, Ala. Answer: The WPE program is sponsored by one of our competitors, Popular Electronics, One Park Ave., New York, N. Y. 10016. Write them and ask for an application form, enclosing a dime, Question: When the power supply trans- former of an AC superhet shorts or burns EE out, is it feasible to convert the power supply to AC-DC without altering any other section of the set? WW, Greensboro, N.C, Answer: It would be possible but not very feasible in terms of the cost and labor in- volved. Trouble is that transformer type sets have the filaments of the tubes wired in parallel and supplied from the 6.3-volt (or 2.5-volt) winding of the transformer. To apt to AC-DC it would be necessary 'et to rewire the filaments in series, pos- sibly changing tube types, and/or add a series resistor or ballast tube to bring the line voltage down to the proper value. You will find it much simpler, cheaper and more satisfactory to get another transformer. You can find suitable ones in other old radios, or pick one up from a surplus dealer. McGee Radio, 1901 McGee Si., Kansas City 8, Mo. is the best source 1 know of for replacement transformers suitable for such an applica- tion. You can get one that will do the job for between $3 and $6, from them; and believe me this will save you money and bushels of trouble, Question: What's the best product for clean- ing records and keeping them free of pops and crackles? INB, Dallas, Texas, Answer: It is called water, produced by your cily, county or sanitary district, and comes out of the faucets in your kitchen or bath- room. Let a gentle stream of it flow over the surfaces of the record, then wipe in a circular direction following the grooves, with a very soft, very fine piece of chamois. If you touch the record to the faucet while washing or, preferably, after chamoising, the static charge will be discharged. If the rec- ord is very dirty, or has fingerprints or signs of any kind of film or grease, or is heavily charged with static put just a little household detergent into a pan of water, and wash record with this, rinsing with flow of clean water and chamoising as above. Incidentally, here is a very simple test to check whether any record has a static charge: tear a small piece of newspaper into small bits, like con- fetti, and place on any surface. Bring record near bits of paper. If paper is attracted and jumps to record, it is charged. If record does not attract bits of paper it is neutral. Aside from the fact that it is cheap, the big virtue of WATER is that (if it is fit to drink) it will leave no grease, silicone, or any other kind of film to bind dust to record. . SUMMER 1964Ce Cee ore Le eed PR eg OM CL eC RC ne OMe ene ee aac) ere ee PUT ts Se cme Pee ger eee CC newcomers to the field of elec- tronics should learn to master. TA Oe rat an introduction to vacuuln tube theory Your first big step into electronics is made by learning and understanding the design and operation of the vacuum tube HE electronics industry as we know it to day owes its birth and growth to the vac- uum tube. It was, however, a slow start. The first vacuum tube ever built and operated remained unknown and unappreciated for many years. Thomas A. Edison discovered the basic principle of the vacuum tube, later Known as the Edison effect back in 1883, but ignored it in favor of our electric lamp research. In 1906, Lee de Forest added empitus to this slow start when he designed and operated the first triode vacuum tube, In the 58 years that followed the vacuum tube triode, and its subsequent multiple-element kin folk, begot the enormous electronics in- dustry that provides the comforts and science developments we now enjoy. Inside the glass bulb. Since all tubes in- volve electron flow. a source of electrons must be included in the envelope. This is sl82 vacuum tubes Fig. 1. The schemati¢ diagram shown in (A) is typical for a setup to determine the charact istic cuive of a diode. The curve in (B) shows how the diode's current varies with voltage. SATURATION POINT CURRENT $s VOLTAGE usually a heating element in the tube, since metals such as tungsten and thorium, and compounds such as barium oxide, give off large quantities of electrons when heated. In some tubes, the electrons are taken directly from the heated wire, or filament. This is suitable when direct current from a source such as batteries can be used to heat the wire. If a low frequency alternating current is used, the flow of electrons varies at the AC frequency, creating an undesirable hum in the tube output. To provide electrons from tubes powered by AC, a cathode is used. This is a metal sleeve, made of tungsten (or other metal coated with barium oxide) which is heated by a filament (or heater) located inside of it. Since the amount of metal in the sleeve is sufficient to hold heat better than the wire filament, it cannot appreciably change tem- perature with the variation in AC frequency on the filament. Since electron emission is based on temperature, the cathode's emission of electrons is not affected by the AC fre- quency of the voltage applied to the filament, and it does not introduce a hum in the tube's The diode. Since the electrons emitted by the cathode have a negative charge, they will be attracted to any element in the tube that has a positive charge, since unlike charges attract. By placing a_positively- charged element, called the plate, in the tube, the flow of electrons between the cathode and plate would then create a current flow, if proper external connections were made. Figure 1A shows the connections for this type of simple, two-element tube, called a diode. The plate (P) is connected (through a meter) to the positive side of a battery, and the cathode to the negative side. Electrons being emitted by the cathode (heated by a filament not shown) are attracted to the plate, through the meter and battery, and back to the cathode. As the graph shows in Fig. 2. The schematic dia- gram shown in (A) above © typical test setup circuit for determining @ triode’s characteristic curves. One such curve of a family of curves is shown below (8) when the voltage is fixed. PLATE CURRENT (MA.) + GRID VOLTAGE (NEGATIVE) SUMMER 1964 _= GRID VOLTS {| i {INPUT SIGNAL! PLATE CURRENT © 814s————>" figure 1B, the current increases as the voltage increases, up toa point. The leveling off point is where the plate is attracting all of the elec: trons that the cathode can emit, and further increase in voltage can no Jonger increase current flow. This is known as the saluration point for diodes, which are primarily used for rectification and detection. The triode. in 1906, a man named Lee de Forest added a third clement, making lubes useful for more than just rectification and detection. Signal amplification was now possible. This added element was a series of fine wires, placed between the cathode and plate. Since the electron flow, consisting of negative charges, had to flow between these grid wires, the electrostatic charge on the Brid could control the flow of electrons. This new tube with the element of fine wires, called the control grid, was named a triode, because it had three elements; cathode, grid and plate. Suppose we connect a triode tube as shown in figure 2A. When the arms of poten- tiometer R is at the bottom, control grid G will have the same potential as cathode K, and the triode will conduct like a diode. The amount of plate current (shown on M2) will depend on battery B2 voltage and tube design If we move the wiper arm of potentiom- eter R up, however, the grid becomes nega- tive with respect to the cathode (due to the polarity of battery BL) as indicated on MI ‘As this occurs, the plate current will decrease, since some of the negative electrons moving from the cathode toward the plate ELEMENTARY ELECTRONICS OUTPUT SIGNAL Fig. changes in grid voltage causes changes in the plate output voltage. The input signal is usually in the order ‘output signal may have swings in voltage between peak and valley of 300 volts with gains in the 1000's. 3. This simple diagram shows how small sf one volt or less in audio amplifiers. The will be repelled by the negative electrostatic charge on the control grid. Plotted on a graph, the effect of grid voltage on plate cur- rent is shown in figure 2B. Notice that, the more negative the grid (with respect to the cathode), the less plate current that flows. ‘Amplification, The amount of current change per grid voltage change depends on tube design and plate voltage. A 6AB4 triode with 300 volts on the plate will have an in- crease of 11 milliamperes plate current with a 2-volt change on the control grid. On the other hand, a 6I5 triode with 300 volts on the plate will only have a 2 milliamperes change in plate current with a 2-volt change ‘on the control grid. These figures indicate how a triode amplifies. Suppose, in the two examples above, there is a 10,000 ohm resistor in the plate lead of each tube. In the 6AB4, the 11 milliamperes change in plate current would result in a change in voltage drop across this resistor of 110 volts; in the 635, the 2 milliampere plate current change would only change the voltage drop across the resistor by 20 volts. In one case, the grid voltage change of 2 volts was amplified 55 times (to 110 volts), and in the other case only 10 times (to 20 volts). The difference is due to tube design, the 6AB4 being a high ‘mu (high amplification factor) triode, and the 635 being a low mu (low amplification factor) triode. Amplification can also be seen graphically in figure 3. The small change input signal on the control (vertical signal on the graph) produces a change in plate current (horizon- tal signal) that is identical in form. This plate $3current change (output signal) going through the plate load resistor produces a larger volt- age change than appeared on the control grid, but having the same pattern as the grid voltage changes. Notice, that, to faithfully reproduce the grid wave pattern in the plate current, there ‘must be limits as to how much voltage can be placed on the grid. If we allow the ‘swing too far negative from its starting point, the operating curve flattens out, and there is less change in plate current per volt change on the grid. If the signal swings the grid too far positive from its starting point, it may even became positive. When this happens, it then attracts electrons, reducing the number going to the plate, and again the current change per grid-volt change will be reduced. Excessive signal inputs to grids cause this distortion, where the pattern of plate current change does not match the pattern of grid voltage changes. Bias. Notice that we related these changes to a “starting point.” This is the voltage (usually negative) on the control grid with- out any signal, and is called bias. See figure 3. The signal then swings the grid voltage (more or less negative) on either side of this point. Even if our signal was not too large, distortion could occur if the bias was not set at the proper point. For example, if the bias is set at -1 volt, and a 2-volt signal is ap- plied, there will be distortion, since the grid will go positive. Bias can be obtained from a battery (as in AVERAGE PLATE CHARACTERISTICS PLATE Load RESISTOR B- B+ Fig. 4. Control grid bias can be obtained from the voltage drop across plate load resistor R2. figure 2A) or from a negative power supply, but the most common method is by cathode dias, illustrated in figure 4. In this case, with no signal input and no current, the grid is the same potential as the cathode. As soon as the filament heats up and current starts to flow, it flows through R2, causing a voltage drop across it. This voltage is positive at the top of the resistor and negative at the bottom, due to the direction of the electron flow. Since the grid is connected to the bottom of R2 (through R1) and the cathode to the top of R2, the cathode is then positive with respect to the grid. By the same token, the arid is then negative to the cathode, with a bias equal to the voltage drop across R2 An alternating input signal appearing across RI then changes the grid voltage in relation to the cathode. This causes changes in plate current, but the DC voltage across R2 remains fixed, since the signal-induced changes in the plate current are bypassed by condenser C. Fig. 5. The average plate char- acteristics for a triode tube. Note that curve is drawn for several control grid voltage potentials. This tube is best op- erated at a bias of —1 volt at @ plate voltage of about 135. SUMMER 1964 iaFig. 6. Left-to-right: filament, cathode, grid, screen gr Each element fits inside the element to its right. receiving tube shown life si In diodes, increasing the plate voltage in- creaseil the plate current. The same is true for triodes, and various changes in grid volt- age will give different changes in plate cur- rent at different plate voltages. Tube speci- fications are usually shown in the form of “Average Plate Characteristics,” similar to figure 5. The tetrode. One of the limitations to the amplification of triodes was feedback, due to the capacitance between the plate and grid. This was overcome by inserting another Fig. 7. The average character- s for a typical tetrode. In this case it is the 6CY5 vacuum tube. Note how the curve dips as the plate voltage is in- creased from zero to 40 volts when the control grid bias is =3 volts. The solid lines indi- cate plate current and the dashed lines indicate screen grid current. Curve was drawn with 80 volts on screen grid ELEMENTARY ELECTRONICS and plate of a small grid between the original grid and plate to act as an electrostatic shield and reduce the capacitance. This new grid was called a screen grid, and since it was the fourth cle- ment in the tube, tubes with just two grids are called tetrodes. Since it cannot be permitted to slow the flow of electrons to the plate, the screen grid carries a positive voltage only slightly lower than the plate. It attracts electrons too, but being a mesh, most pass through it to the plate. See figure 6. 5836 = vacuum tubes While the tetrode overcame the feedback problem, permitting higher amplification, it had a serious drawback. With certain combi- nations of grid and plate voltages, there was a serious “Jip” in plate current, as seen in figure 7. This was due to the fact that, un- der these certain conditions, some electrons “bounced” off the plate (secondary emis- sion) and were attracted to the positive screen grid. Since this meant that fewer elec trons flowed in the plate circuit, current was reduced at this point, resulting in non-linear operation. ‘The pentode. Ultimately. two develop- ments overcome this problem, The beam power tube, though a later development, should be covered first, since it is still the tetrode tube. Here the problem was solved by the physical construction shown in figure 8. Two shaped metal plates were placed at the sides of the grid-cathode structure, and connected to the cathode. The main plate re- ceives the beam of electrons, and is curved, The focussing effect of this curvature, and the constricting effect of the beam plates cause the secondary emission (“bouncing electrons”) to form a “cloud” between the ends of the beam-forming plates. Once this “cloud” is formed, any more electrons “bouncing” off the plate are repelled by the like charges of the electrons in the “cloud” and return to the plate. This virtually elimi- nates the “dip” in the curves in figure 7. The original solution to the secondary emission problem was to add a third grid - ee acters ee BEAM CONFINING ELECTRODE ~ Fig. 8. electron cloud and aims it at the plate. The beam power tube focuses the between the screen and plate. This is known as the suppressor grid, and made the fifth element in tubes called pentodes. The sup- pressor grid is connected to the cathode (either internally or externally) and, being negative with respect to the plate, repels any electrons that “bounce™ off the plate. Figure 9 shows the characteristic curves for a typical pentode. Notice that the “dip” evident in the tetrode curves (figure 7) has been eliminated, Also note that the addition of tube elements between the cathode and grid has minimized the effect that plate voltage has on current, as compared to the diode and triode. Due to the increased iso- lation of the input and output in the pentode, very high amplification factors (as high as 2000) can be secured. Multielement vacuum tubes. While the eee Fig. 9. Characteristic curves for a typical pentode (6AU6), Note that the dip in the curves common to the tetrode does not appear here. Also, plate current reaches a peak at a very low plate voltage and Rare veut creases after that are small. SUMMER 1964Fig. 10. This machine, which installs the electron gun, removes the air and then seals the television picture tube, is typical of automatic equipment in modern vacuum tube plants. diode, triode, tetrode and pentode cover most tube designs, some have even more elements. The pentagrid and heptode tubes have addi- tional grids which allow two signals to be fed into the same tube and appear “mixed” in the output from the plate. They also include a grid which acts as a plate. It attracts elec- trons from the cathode after they have passed the first input grid, but being mesh construction, permits the electrons (carry- ing the first signal) to pass through, by the HORIZONTAL FOCUSSING ANODE DEFLECTION 7 ZL 45 44 oh, Z OEFLECTION: PLATES ELEMENTARY ELECTRONICS COATED SCREEN, second signal grid, and on to the plate. Today most tubes are multi-purpose tubes that have two or more sets of tube elements in one envelope. These are often twin units (twin diode, twin triode, etc.) or are com- bination units, such as diode-triode, triode- pentode, etc. Compactrons pioneered by Genera! Electric have three or more vacuum tube sections in each glass bulb. They save space and permit one heater (or filament) to operate two or more tube sections. Fig. 11. A cathode ray tube of the type used in small TV sets and oscilloscopes. The electron stream from the cathode is shaped into a pencil beam by the anodes and positioned up and down, left and right by the deflection plates. Where the beam strikes the coated screen light rays are generated. 37