SW318

Social Work
Statistics
Slide 1

Chi-square Test of Independence

Reviewing the Concept of Independence

Steps in Testing Chi-square Test of
Independence Hypotheses
Chi-square Test of Independence
in SPSS

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Slide
2

Chi-square Test of Independence

The chi-square test of independence is probably the

most frequently used hypothesis test in the social
sciences.

In this exercise, we will use the chi-square test of

independence to evaluate group differences when
the test variable is nominal, dichotomous, ordinal, or
grouped interval.

The chi-square test of independence can be used for

any variable; the group (independent) and the test
variable (dependent) can be nominal, dichotomous,
ordinal, or grouped interval.

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Slide
3

Independence Defined

Two variables are independent if, for all cases, the

classification of a case into a particular category of
one variable (the group variable) has no effect on the
probability that the case will fall into any particular
category of the second variable (the test variable).

When two variables are independent, there is no

relationship between them. We would expect that
the frequency breakdowns of the test variable to be
similar for all groups.

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Slide
4

Independence Demonstrated

Suppose we are interested in the relationship

between gender and attending college.

If there is no relationship between gender and

attending college and 40% of our total sample attend
college, we would expect 40% of the males in our
sample to attend college and 40% of the females to
attend college.

If there is a relationship between gender and

attending college, we would expect a higher
proportion of one group to attend college than the
other group, e.g. 60% to 20%.

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Slide
5

Displaying Independent and Dependent

Relationships
When group membership makes
a difference, the dependent
relationship is indicated by one
group having a higher
proportion than the proportion
for the total sample.

When the variables are

independent, the proportion
in both groups is close to the
same size as the proportion
for the total sample.

100%
80%
60%

40%

40%

40%

40%
20%
0%
Males

Females

Total

Dependent Relationship
betw een Gender and College
Poportion Attending College

Poportion Attending College

Independent Relationship
betw een Gender and College

100%
80%

60%

60%

40%

40%

20%

20%
0%
Males

Females

Total

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Slide
6

Expected Frequencies

Expected frequencies are computed as if there is no

difference between the groups, i.e. both groups have
the same proportion as the total sample in each
category of the test variable.

Since the proportion of subjects in each category of

the group variable can differ, we take group category
into account in computing expected frequencies as
well.

To summarize, the expected frequencies for each cell

are computed to be proportional to both the
breakdown for the test variable and the breakdown
for the group variable.

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Slide
7

Expected Frequency Calculation

The data from Observed Frequencies for Sample Data is
the source for information to compute the expected
frequencies. Percentages are computed for the column of
all students and for the row of all GPAs. These
percentages are then multiplied by the total number of
students in the sample (453) to compute the expected
frequency for each cell in the table.

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Slide
8

Expected Frequencies versus Observed

Frequencies

The chi-square test of independence plugs the

observed frequencies and expected frequencies into
a formula which computes how the pattern of
observed frequencies differs from the pattern of
expected frequencies.

Probabilities for the test statistic can be obtained

from the chi-square probability distribution so that
we can test hypotheses.

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Slide
9

Independent and Dependent Variables

The two variables in a chi-square test of

independence each play a specific role.

The group variable is also known as the independent

variable because it has an influence on the test variable.

The test variable is also known as the dependent variable

because its value is believed to be dependent on the value
of the group variable.

The chi-square test of independence is a test of the

influence or impact that a subjects value on one
variable has on the same subjects value for a second
variable.

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Slide
10

Step 1. Assumptions for the Chi-square Test

The chi-square Test of Independence can be used for

any level variable, including interval level variables
grouped in a frequency distribution. It is most useful
for nominal variables for which we do not another
option.

Assumptions: No cell has an expected frequency less

than 5.

If these assumptions are violated, the chi-square

distribution will give us misleading probabilities.

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Slide
11

Step 2. Hypotheses and alpha

The research hypothesis states that the two variables

are dependent or related. This will be true if the
observed counts for the categories of the variables in
the sample are different from the expected counts.

The null hypothesis is that the two variables are

independent. This will be true if the observed counts
in the sample are similar to the expected counts.

The amount of difference needed to make a decision

about difference or similarity is the amount
corresponding to the alpha level of significance,
which will be either 0.05 or 0.01. The value to use
will be stated in the problem.

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Slide
12

Step 3. Sampling distribution and test statistic

To test the relationship, we use the chisquare test statistic, which follows the chisquare distribution.

If we were calculating the statistic by hand,

we would have to compute the degrees of
freedom to identify the probability of the
test statistic. SPSS will print out the degrees
of freedom and the probability of the test
statistics for us.

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Slide
13

Step 4. Computing the Test Statistic

Conceptually, the chi-square test of independence

statistic is computed by summing the difference
between the expected and observed frequencies for
each cell in the table divided by the expected
frequencies for the cell.

We identify the value and probability for this test

statistic from the SPSS statistical output.

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Slide
14

Step 5. Decision and Interpretation

If the probability of the test statistic is less than or

equal to the probability of the alpha error rate, we
reject the null hypothesis and conclude that our data
supports the research hypothesis. We conclude that
there is a relationship between the variables.

If the probability of the test statistic is greater than

the probability of the alpha error rate, we fail to
reject the null hypothesis. We conclude that there is
no relationship between the variables, i.e. they are
independent.

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Slide
15

Which Cell or Cells Caused the Difference

We are only concerned with this procedure if the

result of the chi-square test was statistically
significant.

One of the problems in interpreting chi-square tests

is the determination of which cell or cells produced
the statistically significant difference. Examination
of percentages in the contingency table and
expected frequency table can be misleading.

The residual, or the difference, between the

observed frequency and the expected frequency is a
more reliable indicator, especially if the residual is
converted to a z-score and compared to a critical
value equivalent to the alpha for the problem.

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Slide
16

Standardized Residuals

SPSS prints out the standardized residual (converted

to a z-score) computed for each cell. It does not
produce the probability or significance.

Without a probability, we will compare the size of

the standardized residuals to the critical values that
correspond to an alpha of 0.05 (+/-1.96) or an alpha
of 0.01 (+/-2.58). The problems will tell you which
value to use. This is equivalent to testing the null
hypothesis that the actual frequency equals the
expected frequency for a specific cell versus the
research hypothesis of a difference greater than
zero.

There can be 0, 1, 2, or more cells with statistically

significant standardized residuals to be interpreted.

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Slide
17

Interpreting Standardized Residuals

Standardized residuals that have a positive value

mean that the cell was over-represented in the
actual sample, compared to the expected frequency,
i.e. there were more subjects in this category than
we expected.

Standardized residuals that have a negative value

mean that the cell was under-represented in the
actual sample, compared to the expected frequency,
i.e. there were fewer subjects in this category than
we expected.

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Slide
18

Interpreting Cell Differences in

a Chi-square Test - 1

A chi-square test of
independence of the
relationship between
sex and marital status
finds a statistically
significant relationship
between the variables.

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Slide
19

Interpreting Cell Differences in

a Chi-square Test - 2

Researcher often try to identify try to identify which cell or

cells are the major contributors to the significant chi-square
test by examining the pattern of column percentages.
Based on the column percentages, we would identify cells
on the married row and the widowed row as the ones
producing the significant result because they show the
largest differences: 8.2% on the married row (50.9%-42.7%)
and 9.0% on the widowed row (13.1%-4.1%)

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Slide
20

Interpreting Cell Differences in

a Chi-square Test - 3

Using a level of significance of 0.05, the critical value

for a standardized residual would be -1.96 and +1.96.
Using standardized residuals, we would find that only
the cells on the widowed row are the significant
contributors to the chi-square relationship between sex
and marital status.
If we interpreted the contribution of the married marital
status, we would be mistaken. Basing the
interpretation on column percentages can be
misleading.

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Slide
21

Chi-Square Test of Independence: post hoc

practice problem 1

This question asks you to use a chi-square test of

independence and, if significant, to do a post hoc test using
1.96 of the critical value.
First of all, the level of measurement for the independent
and the dependent variable can be any level that defines
groups (dichotomous, nominal, ordinal, or grouped interval).
degree of religious fundamentalism" [fund] is ordinal and
"sex" [sex] is dichotomous, so the level of measurement
requirements are satisfied.

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Slide
22

Chi-Square Test of Independence: post hoc

test in SPSS (1)

You can conduct a chi-square

test of independence in
crosstabulation of SPSS by
selecting:
Analyze > Descriptive
Statistics > Crosstabs

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Slide
23

Chi-Square Test of Independence: post hoc

test in SPSS (2)
First, select and move the
variables for the question
to Row(s): and
Column(s): list boxes.
The variable mentioned
first in the problem, sex,
is used as the
independent variable and
is moved to the
Column(s): list box.
Second, click on
Statistics
button to request
the test statistic.

The variable mentioned

second in the problem,
[fund], is used as the
dependent variable and
is moved to the Row(s)
list box.

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Slide
24

Chi-Square Test of Independence: post hoc

test in SPSS (3)

First, click on Chi-square

to request the chi-square
test of independence.

Second, click on
Continue button to
close the Statistics
dialog box.

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Slide
25

Chi-Square Test of Independence: post hoc

test in SPSS (4)

Now click on
Cells button to
specify the
contents in the
cells of the
crosstabs table.

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Slide
26

Chi-Square Test of Independence: post hoc

test in SPSS (5)

First, make sure both

Observed and
Expected in the
Counts section in
Crosstabs: Cell Display
dialog box are checked.

In the Residuals
section, select
Unstandardized and
Standardized
residuals and click on
Continue and OK
buttons.

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Slide
27

Chi-Square Test of Independence: post hoc

test in SPSS (6)

In the table Chi-Square Tests

result, SPSS also tells us that 0
cells have expected count less
than 5 and the minimum
expected count is 70.63.
The sample size requirement
for the chi-square test of
independence is satisfied.

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Slide
28

Chi-Square Test of Independence: post hoc

test in SPSS (7)
The probability of the chi-square
test statistic (chi-square=2.821)
was p=0.244, greater than the
alpha level of significance of 0.05.
The null hypothesis that
differences in "degree of religious
fundamentalism" are independent
of differences in "sex" is not
rejected.
The research hypothesis that
differences in "degree of religious
fundamentalism" are related to
differences in "sex" is not
supported by this analysis.
Thus, the answer for this question
is False. We do not interpret cell
differences unless the chi-square
test statistic supports the research
hypothesis.

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Slide
29

Chi-Square Test of Independence: post hoc

practice problem 2

This question asks you to use a chi-square test of

independence and, if significant, to do a post hoc test using
-1.96 of the critical value.
First of all, the level of measurement for the independent
and the dependent variable can be any level that defines
groups (dichotomous, nominal, ordinal, or grouped interval).
[empathy3] is ordinal and [sex] is dichotomous, so the level
of measurement requirements are satisfied.

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Slide
30

Chi-Square Test of Independence: post hoc

test in SPSS (8)

You can conduct a chi-square

test of independence in
crosstabulation of SPSS by
selecting:
Analyze > Descriptive
Statistics > Crosstabs

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Slide
31

Chi-Square Test of Independence: post hoc

test in SPSS (9)
First, select and move the
variables for the question
to Row(s): and
Column(s): list boxes.
The variable mentioned
first in the problem, [sex],
is used as the
independent variable and
is moved to the
Column(s): list box.
Second, click on
Statistics
button to request
the test statistic.

The variable mentioned

second in the problem,
[empathy3], is used as
the dependent variable
and is moved to the
Row(s) list box.

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Slide
32

Chi-Square Test of Independence: post hoc

test in SPSS (10)

First, click on Chi-square

to request the chi-square
test of independence.

Second, click on
Continue button to
close the Statistics
dialog box.

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Slide
33

Chi-Square Test of Independence: post hoc

test in SPSS (11)

Now click on
Cells button to
specify the
contents in the
cells of the
crosstabs table.

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Slide
34

Chi-Square Test of Independence: post hoc

test in SPSS (12)

First, make sure both

Observed and
Expected in the
Counts section in
Crosstabs: Cell Display
dialog box are checked.

In the Residuals
section, select
Unstandardized and
Standardized
residuals and click on
Continue and OK
buttons.

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Slide
35

Chi-Square Test of Independence: post hoc

test in SPSS (13)

In the table Chi-Square Tests

result, SPSS also tells us that 0
cells have expected count less
than 5 and the minimum
expected count is 6.79.
The sample size requirement
for the chi-square test of
independence is satisfied.

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Slide
36

Chi-Square Test of Independence: post hoc

test in SPSS (14)
The probability of the chi-square
test statistic (chi-square=23.083)
was p<0.001, less than or equal
to the alpha level of significance
of 0.05. The null hypothesis that
differences in "accuracy of the
description of feeling protective
toward people being taken
advantage of" are independent of
differences in "sex" is rejected.
The research hypothesis that
differences in "accuracy of the
description of feeling protective
toward people being taken
advantage of" are related to
differences in "sex" is supported
by this analysis.
Now, you can examine the post
hoc test using the given critical
value.

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Slide
37

Chi-Square Test of Independence: post hoc

test in SPSS (15)
The residual is the difference
between the actual frequency
and the expected frequency
(58-79.2=-21.2).
When converted to a z-score,
the standardized residual (-2.4)
was smaller than the critical
value (-1.96), supporting a
specific finding that among
survey respondents who were
male, there were fewer who
said that feeling protective
toward people being taken
advantage of describes them
very well than would be
expected.
The answer to the question is
true.

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Slide
38

Steps in solving chi-square test of

independence: post hoc problems - 1
The following is a guide to the decision process for answering
homework problems about chi-square test of independence post
hoc problems:

Is the dependent and

independent variable
nominal, ordinal,
dichotomous, or grouped
interval?

Yes

No

Incorrect
application of
a statistic

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Slide
39

Steps in solving chi-square test of

independence: post hoc problems - 2

Compute the Chi-Square test of independence,

requesting standardized residuals in the output

Yes
Expected cell counts less
than 5?

Incorrect
application of
a statistic

No
Is the p-value for the chisquare test of
independence <= alpha?

Yes

No

False

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Slide
40

Steps in solving chi-square test of

independence: post hoc problems - 3
Identify the cell in the crosstabs table that
contains the specific relationship in the problem

Is the value of the standardized

residual for the specified cell
larger (smaller) than the postive
(negative) critical value given in
the problem?

No
False

Yes
No
Is the relationship correctly
described?
Yes
True

False