DETERMINATION OF ERRORS IN INSTRUMENT

TRANSFORMERS USING LAB-VIEW

Project report submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements
For the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
By
M.GOUTHAM REDDY (08241A0266)
A.HEMANTH (08241A0269)
M.PRADEEP (08241A0282)
P.VINAY CHANDER (08241A02B5)

Under the guidance of

Ms. D.RAMYA
Assistant Professor

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

GOKARAJU RANGARAJU INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING &
TECHNOLOGY, BACHUPALLY, HYDERABAD-72
1

2012
GOKARAJU RANGARAJU INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND
TECHNOLOGY
Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh.

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project report entitled DETERMINATION OF ERRORS IN

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS USING LAB-VIEW that is being submitted

by Mr. M.GOUTHAM REDDY, Mr. A.HEMANTH, Mr. M.PRADEEP, Mr. P.VINAY
CHANDER in partial fulfillment for the award of the Degree of Bachelor of Technology

in Electrical and Electronics Engineering to the Jawaharlal Nehru Technological

University is a record of bonafide work carried out by him under my guidance and supervision.
The results embodied in this project report have not been submitted to any other University or
Institute for the award of any graduation degree.

Mr. P.M.Sarma

Ms. D.RAMYA

HOD, EEE

Assistant Professor.

GRIET, Hyderabad

GRIET, Hyderabad
(Internal Guide)
2

Acknowledgement
This is to place on record my appreciation and deep gratitude to the persons without
whose support this project would never seen the light of day.

I have immense pleasure in expressing my thanks and deep sense of gratitude to my

guide MS. D.RAMYA, Assistant Professor Department of Electrical Engineering,
and G.R.I.E.T for his guidance throughout this project.

I also express my sincere thanks to Mr.P.M.Sarma, Head of the Department, and

Mr. M. Chakravarthy, Associate Proffessor G.R.I.E.T for extending his help.

I express my gratitude to The Dr.S.N.Saxena, Project Supervisor G.R.I.E.T for his

valuable recommendations and for accepting this project report.

Finally I express my sincere gratitude to all the members of faculty and my friends who
contributed their valuable advice and helped to complete the project successfully.

M.GOUTHAM REDDY
A.HEMANTH
M.PRADEEP
P.VINAY CHANDER

ABSTRACT
In electrical engineering, current transformer (CT) is used for measurement of electric currents.
Current transformers, together with voltage transformers (VT) (potential transformers (PT)), are
known as instrument transformers. When current in a circuit is instruments. A current
transformer also isolates the measuring instruments from what may be very high voltage in the
monitored circuit. Current transformers are commonly used in metering too high to directly
apply to measuring instruments, a current transformer produces a reduced current accurately
proportional to the current in the circuit, which can be conveniently connected to measuring and
recording and protective relays in electrical power industry.
Measurement of errors of current transformers is very
essential for measurement of current accurately. There are several methods for the measurement
of errors of instrument of current transformers. The comparison method is a convenient one for
the measurement of the errors of current transformers. Conventionally, the comparison method is
implemented using an AC bridge of an AC potentiometer. We now present a LAB-VIEW based
technique for the determination of the errors of instrument transformers, dispensing the AC
bridge/potentiometer. Dispensing the bridge involves explicit measurements and trigonometric
computations which can be done much efficiently using LAB-VIEW.
LAB-VIEW is system design software that provides
engineers and scientists with the tools needed to create and deploy measurement and control
systems through unprecedented hardware integration. You can get more done in less time with
LAB-VIEW through its unique graphical programming environment; built-in engineeringspecific libraries of software functions and hardware interfaces; and data analysis, visualization,
and sharing features.

CONTENTS:
S.NO

TITLE

Page
No.

1.

Introduction

2.

CURRENT TRANSFORMER

2.1 Principle of operation

2.2 Design

11

2.3 Types of current transformers

12

2.4 Accuracy
2.4.1 Burden
2.4.2 Knee point Voltage
2.4.3 Rating factor

3.

13
13
18
19
19

2.5 Safety and Precaution

19

2.6 Tests of CT

21

2.7 Applications

22

DATA ACQUISTION
3.1 Sensor

22
22

3.2 DAQ Device

3.2.1 Signal Conditioning
3.2.2 Analog-to-Digital Converter
3.3 Computer Bus
3.4 Advantages of NI DAQ
3.4.1 High-Performance I/O
3.4.2 Easy Sensor Connectivity with

23
24
26
33
36
5

3..4.3 Integrated Signal Conditioning

37

3..4.4. Improved Productivity through Software

37
38
38
38

4.

39

LAB-VIEW
4.1 Introduction

39

4.2 Application Areas

40
40

4.2.1 For Acquiring Data and Processing Signals

41

4.2.2 For Instrument Control

42

4.2.3 For Monitoring and Controlling Embedded Systems

42
43

5.

HARDWARE DESIGN
5.1 Priciple Of Measurement

45

5.2 Working

45

5.3 Waveforms And Results

46
47
48

CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSIONS

6.1. Results Acheived
6.2.Difficulties Encountered
6.3. Future Scope

49
49
50
51

REFERENCES

52

LIST OF FIGURES

54

APPENDIX
8.1 Software used
8.2 NI daq 6009 Specifications

55
55
56

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

Instrument transformers, namely current and voltage (potential) transformers (CT and VT or PT),
are employed in power systems for measurement and protection purposes. These instrument
transformers are characterized by their ratio and phase errors. Direct and comparison methods
have long been in use for measurement of the errors of instrument transformers. The principal
drawback of conventional test equipment has been the tedious process of manual balancing. Zinn
was first to introduce a semi-automated scheme using analogue electronics for the measurement
of current transformer errors. The circuit by Iwansiw has AC potentiometer under the control of
microprocessor. Also a unit is developed to determine errors of instrument transformer without
need for an AC potentiometer. In our project we present the development of a unit employing of
a data acquisition unit to take the input currents of both standard and test specimen transformer
currents and using LAB-VIEW we calculate ratio and phase errors of test specimen CT.

CHAPTER 2
CURRENT TRANSFORMER
A current transformer is defined as as an
instrument transformer in which the secondary current is substantially proportional to the
primary current (under normal conditions of operation) and differs in phase from it by an angle
which is approximately zero for an appropriate direction of the connections. This highlights the
accuracy requirement of the current transformer but also important is the isolating function,
which means no matter what the system voltage the secondary circuit need be insulated only for
a low voltage.
A current transformer also isolates the measuring instruments from what
may be very high voltage in the monitored circuit. Current transformers are commonly used in
metering too high to directly apply to measuring instruments, a current transformer produces a
reduced current accurately proportional to the current in the circuit, which can be conveniently
connected to measuring and recording and protective relays in electrical power industry.

FIG 2.1 Basic current transformers

2.1. PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION:

The current transformer works on the principle of variable flux. In the
ideal current transformer, secondary current would be exactly equal (when multiplied by
the turns ratio) and opposite of the primary current. But, as in the voltage transformer, some
of the primary current or the primary ampere-turns are utilized for magnetizing the core, thus
leaving less than the actual primary ampere turns to be transformed into the secondary
ampere-turns. This naturally introduces an error in the transformation. The error is classified
into two-the current or ratio error and the phase error.
CT is designed to minimize the errors using the best quality electrical steels for
the core of the transformer. Both toroidal (round) and rectangular CT s are manufactured.
A current transformer is a transformer, which produces in its secondary winding a current,
which is proportional to the current flowing in its primary winding. The secondary current is
usually smaller in magnitude than the primary current.
The principal function of a CT is to produce a proportional current at a level of
magnitude, which is suitable for the operation of measuring or protective devices such as
indicating or recording instruments and relays. The rated secondary current is commonly 5A

or 1A, though lower currents such as 0.5A are not uncommon. It flows in the rated secondary
load, usually called the burden, when the rated primary current flows in the primary winding.
The primary winding can consist merely of the primary current conductor passing once
through an aperture in the current transformer core or it may consist of two or more turns
wound on the core together with the secondary winding. The primary and secondary currents
are expressed as a ratio such as 100/5. With a 100/5 ratio CT, 100A flowing in the primary
winding will result in 5A flowing in the secondary winding, provided the correct rated
burden is connected to the secondary winding. Similarly, for lesser primary currents, the
secondary currents are proportionately lower.

It should be noted that a 100/5 CT would not fulfill the function of a 20/1
or a 10/0.5 CT as the ratio expresses the current rating of the CT, not merely the ratio of the
primary to the secondary currents. The extent to which the secondary current magnitude
differs from the calculated value expected by virtue of the CT ratio is defined by the
[accuracy] Class of the CT. The greater the number used to define the class, the greater the
permissible current error [the deviation in the secondary current from the calculated
value].
Except for the least accurate classes, the accuracy class also defines the
permissible phase angle displacement between primary and secondary currents. This latter
point is important with measuring instruments influenced both by magnitude of current and
by the phase angle difference between the supply voltage and the load current, such as kWh
meters, wattmeters, vary meters and power factor meters.

2.2. Design:
Like any other transformer, a current transformer has a primary winding, a magnetic current
and a secondary winding. The alternating current flowing in the primary produces a magnetic
field in the core, which then induces a current in the secondary winding circuit. A primary
10

objective of current transformer design is to ensure that the primary and secondary circuits are
efficiently coupled, so that the secondary current bears an accurate relationship to the primary
current.
The most common design of CT consists of a length of wire wrapped many times around a
silicon steel ring passed over the circuit being measured. The CT's primary circuit therefore
consists of a single 'turn' of conductor, with a secondary of many tens or hundreds of turns. The
primary winding may be a permanent part of the current transformer, with a heavy copper bar to
carry current through the magnetic core. Window-type current transformers are also common,
which can have circuit cables run through the middle of an opening in the core to provide a
single-turn primary winding. When conductors passing through a CT are not centered in the
circular (or oval) opening, slight inaccuracies may occur.
Shapes and sizes can vary depending on the end user or switchgear manufacturer. Typical
examples of low voltage single ratio metering current transformers are either ring type or plastic
moulded case. High-voltage current transformers are mounted on porcelain bushings to insulate
them from ground. Some CT configurations slip around the bushing of a high-voltage
transformer or circuit breaker, which automatically centers the conductor inside the CT window.
The primary circuit is largely unaffected by the insertion of the CT. The rated secondary current
is commonly standardized at 1 or 5 amperes. For example, a 4000:5 CT would provide an output
current of 5 amperes when the primary was passing 4000 amperes. The secondary winding can
be single ratio or multi ratio, with five taps being common for multi ratio CTs. The load, or
burden, of the CT should be of low resistance. If the voltage time integral area is higher than the
core's design rating, the core goes into saturation. towards the end of each cycle, distorting the
waveform and affecting accuracy.

2.3 Types of Current transformers (CTs)

They are available in 3 basic configurations:
1. Ring Core CTs
11

There are available for measuring currents from 50 to 5000 amps, with windows (power
conductor opening size) from 1 to 8 diameter.
2. Split Core CTs
There are available for measuring currents from 100 to 5000 amps, with windows in
varying sizes from 1 by 2 to 13 by 30. Split core CTs have one end removable so that
the load conductor or bus bar does not have to be disconnected to install the CT.
3. Wound Primary CTs
There are designed to measure currents from 1 amp to 100 amps. Since the load
current passes through primary windings in the CT, screw terminals are provided for the load
and secondary conductors. Wound primary CTs are available in ratios from 2.5:5 to 100:5

2.4. Accuracy
The accuracy of a CT is directly related to a number of factors including:
Burden
Burden class/saturation class
Rating factor
Load
Externa and external magnetic field
Temperature
Physical configuration.
The selected tap, for multi-ratio CTs

For the IEC standard, accuracy classes for various types of measurement are set out in IEC
60044-1, Classes 0.1, 0.2s, 0.2, 0.5, 0.5s, 1, and 3. The class designation is an approximate
measure of the CT's accuracy. The ratio (primary to secondary current) error of a Class 1 CT is
1% at rated current; the ratio error of a Class 0.5 CT is 0.5% or less. Errors in phase are also
important especially in power measuring circuits and each class has an allowable maximum
12

phase error for specified load impedance. Current transformers used for protective relaying also
have accuracy requirements at overload currents in excess of the normal rating to ensure accurate
performance of relays during system faults

2.4.1 Burden
The secondary load of a current transformer is usually called the "burden" to distinguish it from
the load of the circuit whose current is being measured. The CT burden is the maximum load (in
VA) that can be applied to the CT secondary.
The CT secondary load = Sum of the VAs of all the loads (ammeter, wattmeter, transducer etc.)
connected in series to the CT secondary circuit + the CT secondary circuit cable burden (cable
burden = I2 x R x L, where I = CT secondary current, R = cable resistance per length, L = total
length of the secondary circuit cable. If the proper size and short length of wire is used, cable
burden can be ignored).
The CT secondary circuit load shall not be more than the CT VA rating. If the load is less
than the CT burden, all meters connected to the measuring CT should provide correct
reading. So, in your example, there should not be any effect on Ammeter reading if you use a
CT of either 5 VA or 15 VA (provided the proper size and short length of wire is used for the
CT secondary side).
Accuracy of a CT is another parameter which is also specified with CT class. For example, if
a measuring CT class is 0.5M (or 0.5B10), the accuracy is 99.5% for the CT, and the
maximum permissible CT error is only 0.5%.
CT burden is the load imposed on CT secondary during operation.
The burden is mentioned as x-VA for the CT.

13

In the case of Measuring Current transformer, the burden depends on the connected meters
and quantity of meters on the secondary i.e. no of Ammeters, KWh meters, Kvar meters,
Kwh meters, transducers and also the connection cable burden (I x I x R of cable x 2L) to
metering shall be taken into account.
where 2L is the to &fro distance of cable length-L from CT to metering circuits
R=is the resistance of unit length of connecting cable
I=secondary current of CT
Total burden of Measuring CT=Connecting cable Burden in VA + sum of Meters Burden in
VA
Note Meters burden can be obtained from manufacturer catalogue
Selected CT burden shall be more than the calculated burden.
In the case of Protection CTs the burden is calculated in the same way as above except the
burden of individual protective relays burden shall be considered instead of meters. The
connecting cable burden is calculated in the same way as metering CT
Total burden of Protection CT=Connecting cable Burden in VA + sum of Protective relays
Burden in VA.
Selected CT burden shall be more than the calculated burden.
The burden can be expressed in two ways. The burden can be expressed as the total
impedance in ohms of the circuit or the total volt-amperes and power factor at a specified
value of current or voltage and frequency.
The engineer can convert a volt-amperes value to total impedance in ohms by dividing the
volt-amperes by the square of the secondary amperes.

14

A typical calculation would be to convert 50 volt-amperes to total impedance in ohms.

Dividing 50 volt amperes by 52 /25 would be an impedance of 2 ohms.
To determine the total impedance, both active and reactive, one must sum the burden of the
individual devices connected to the current transformer.
The individual devices may only be the current transformer, a short run of wire and a meter.
In contrast, the circuit may have the current transformer, a lone run of wiring, a relay, a
meter, an auxiliary current transformer and a transducer. While the latter configuration would
not be used today, one may be required to make this calculation on an existing system.
All manufacturers can supply the burden of their individual devices. Although not used very
often these days, induction disk over-current devices always gave the burden for the
minimum tap setting. To determine the impedance of the actual tap setting being used, first
square the ratio of minimum divide by the actual tap setting used and, second multiply this
value by the minimum impedance.
Suppose an impedance of 1.47 + 5.34j at the 1-amp tap. To apply the relay at the 4-amp tap
the engineer would multiply the impedance at the 1-amp tap setting by (1/4)2. The
impedance at the 4-amp tap would be 0.0919 + 0.3338j or 0.3462 Z at 96.4 power factor.
The external load applied to the secondary of a current transformer is called the burden
The burden is expressed preferably in terms of the impedance of the load and its resistance
and reactance components.
Formerly, the practice was to express the burden in terms of volt-amperes and power factor,
the volt-amperes being what would be consumed in the burden impedance at rated secondary
current (in other words, rated secondary current squared times the burden impedance). Thus,
a burden of 0.5-ohm impedance may be expressed also as 12.5 volt-amperes at 5 amperes,
if we assume the usual 5-ampere secondary rating. The volt ampere terminology is no longer
standard, but it needs defining because it will be found in the literature and in old data.

15

The term burden is applied not only to the total external load connected to the terminals of a
current transformer but also to elements of that load. Manufacturers publications give the
burdens of individual relays, meters, etc., from which, together with the resistance of
interconnecting leads, the total CT burden can be calculated.
The CT burden impedance decreases as the secondary current increases, because of
saturation in the magnetic circuits of relays and other devices. Hence, a given burden may
apply only for a particular value of secondary current. The old terminology of volt-amperes
at 5 amperes is most confusing in this respect since it is not necessarily the actual volt
amperes with 5 amperes flowing, but is what the volt-amperes would be at 5 amperes
If there were no saturation. Manufacturers publications give impedance data for several
values of over current for some relays for which such data are sometimes required.
Otherwise, data are provided only for one value of CT secondary current.
If a publication does not clearly state for what value of current the burden applies, this
information should be requested. Lacking such saturation data, one can obtain it easily by
test. At high saturation, the impedance approaches the d-c resistance. Neglecting the
reduction in impedance with saturation makes it appear that a CT will have more inaccuracy
than it actually will have. Of course, if such apparently greater inaccuracy can be tolerated,
further refinements in calculation are unnecessary. However, in some applications neglecting
the effect of saturation will provide overly optimistic results; consequently, it is safer always
to take this effect into account.
It is usually sufficiently accurate to add series burden impedances arithmetically. The results
will be slightly pessimistic, indicating slightly greater than actual CT ratio inaccuracy. But, if
a given application is so borderline that vector addition of impedances is necessary to prove
that the CTs will be suitable, such an application should be avoided.
If the impedance at pickup of a tapped over current-relay coil is known for a given pickup
tap, it can be estimated for pickup current for any other tap. The reactance of a tapped coil
varies as the square of the coil turns, and the resistance varies approximately as the turns. At
16

pickup, there is negligible saturation, and the resistance is small compared with the reactance.
Therefore, it is usually sufficiently accurate to assume that the impedance varies as the
square of the turns. The number of coil turns is inversely proportional to the pickup current,
and therefore the impedance varies inversely approximately as the square of the pickup
current.
Whether CT is connected in wye or in delta, the burden impedances are always connected in
wye. With wye-connected CTs the neutrals of the CTs and of the burdens are connected
together, either directly or through a relay coil, except when a so-called zero phase-sequencecurrent shunt (to be described later) is used.
It is seldom correct simply to add the impedances of series burdens to get the total, whenever
two or more CTs are connected in such a way that their currents may add or subtract in
some common portion of the secondary circuit. Instead, one must calculate the sum of the
voltage drops and rises in the external circuit from one CT secondary terminal to the other for
assumed values of secondary currents flowing in the various branches of the external circuit.
The effective CT burden impedance for each combination of assumed currents is the
calculated CT terminal voltage divided by the assumed CT secondary current. This effective
impedance is the one to use, and it may be larger or smaller than the actual impedance which
would apply if no other CTs were supplying current to the circuit.
If the primary of an auxiliary CT is to be connected into the secondary of a CT whose
accuracy is being studied, one must know the impedance of the auxiliary CT viewed from its
primary with its secondary short-circuited. To this value of impedance must be added the
impedance of the auxiliary CT burden as viewed from the primary side of the auxiliary CT;
to obtain this impedance, multiply the actual burden impedance by the square of the ratio of
primary to secondary turns of the auxiliary CT. It will become evident that, with an auxiliary
CT that steps up the magnitude of its current from primary to secondary, very high burden
impedances, when viewed from the primary, may result.
Burden is depending on pilot lead length
17

VA

Applications

1 To 2 VA

Moving iron ammeter

1 To 2.5VA

Moving coil rectifier ammeter

2.5 To 5VA

Electrodynamics instrument

3 To 5VA

Maximum demand ammeter

1 To 2.5VA

Recording ammeter or transducer

2.4.2

Knee-point voltage

The knee-point voltage of a current transformer is the magnitude of the secondary voltage after
which the output current ceases to follow linearly the input current. This means that the one-toone or proportional relationship between the input and output is no longer within declared
accuracy. In testing, if a voltage is applied across the secondary terminals the magnetizing
current will increase in proportion to the applied voltage, up until the knee point. The knee point
is defined as the point at which an increase of applied voltage of 10% results in an increase in
magnetizing current of 50%. From the knee point upwards, the magnetizing current increases
abruptly even with small increments in voltage across the secondary terminals. The knee-point
voltage is less applicable for metering current transformers as their accuracy is generally much
tighter but constrained within a very small bandwidth of the current transformer rating, typically
1.2 to 1.5 times rated current. However, the concept of knee point voltage is very pertinent to
protection current transformers, since they are necessarily exposed to currents of 20 or 30 times
rated current during faults.

2.4.3

Rating factor

Rating factor viqar is a factor by which the nominal full load current of a CT can be multiplied to
determine its absolute maximum measurable primary current. Conversely, the minimum primary
current a CT can accurately measure is "light load," or 10% of the nominal current (there are,
however, special CTs designed to measure accurately currents as small as 2% of the nominal
current). The rating factor of a CT is largely dependent upon ambient temperature. Most CTs
18

have rating factors for 35 degrees Celsius and 55 degrees Celsius. It is important to be mindful of
ambient temperatures and resultant rating factors when CTs are installed inside pad-mounted
transformers or poorly ventilated mechanical rooms. Recently, manufacturers have been moving
towards lower nominal primary currents with greater rating factors. This is made possible by the
development of more efficient ferrites and their corresponding hysteresis curves.

2.5. Safety and Precautions:

For personnel and equipment safety and measurement accuracy, current measurements on
conductors at high voltage should be made only with a conducting shield cylinder placed
inside the CT aperture. There should be a low electrical impedance connection from one end
only to a reliable local ground. An inner insulating cylinder of adequate voltage isolation
should be between the shield cylinder and the conductor at high voltage. Any leakage,
induced or breakdown current between the high voltage conductor and the ground shield will
substantially pass to local ground rather than through the signal cable to signal ground.Do not
create a current loop by connecting the shield cylinder to ground from both ends. Current
flowing in this loop will also be measured by the CT.
Unless a burden (i.e. meters, relays, etc.) is connected to the CT, current
transformers should always be shorted across the secondary terminals. The reason is very
high voltages will be induced at the terminals. Think of the CT as a transformer, with a 1 turn
primary and many turns on the secondary. When current is flowing through the primary, the
resulting voltage induced in the secondary can be quite high, on the order of kilovolts. When
a CT fails under open circuit conditions, the cause of failure is insulation breakdown, either
at the shorting terminal strip, or at the feedthrough (in the case of oil filled apparatus),
because the distances between terminals are not sufficient for the voltages present. CT is
connect in series with the load, when CT is shorted or connected to certain load, the
impedance become negligible compared to circuit its connected, so voltage drop across CT
will be negligible. When CT gets open circuited, the impedance of CT become infinity,
hence the voltage drop across CT primary will try to rise up to to the rated supply voltage,
but in this process insulation fails.
19

The reason is that the fidelity of the current transformer is highest when the
secondary is short circuited.The purpose of a current transformer is to provide a scaled-down
version of the primary current with the highest possible fidelity, that is, the secondary current
should be a faithful replica of the primary current. In many applications it is not just the
magnitude of the measured current that is important, but also faithful reproduction of the
phase and high-order harmonics.
Thus, the question becomes, why is the fidelity highest when the
secondary is shorted? At first this seems counter-intuitive, for the fidelity of the more
familiar voltage transformer is most definitely NOT optimised by shorting the secondary!
Indeed, as a voltage transformer is loaded more heavily by reducing the secondary load
resistance, the secondary voltage 'sags', phase error is increased, and frequency response
decreased, all leading to a loss of fidelity of the secondary voltage waveform. This occurs
mainly due to winding resistance and leakage inductance, which would both be zero in an
'ideal' transformer. For a voltage transformer, the fidelity of the secondary voltage is highest
with a high secondary load resistance, which draws very little current.

However, with current transformers, just about everything turns out to be

reversed compared to voltage transformers, which can be confusing. As with all
transformers, the secondary load resistance is reflected back to the primary side, scaled by
the square of the turns ratio. Therefore, if we short the secondary, then we also short the
primary. Note that the primary current is fixed and constant, being set by the external circuit.
Therefore, from V=IR, the voltage developed across the primary winding is approximately
zero when the secondary is shorted. Of course, the secondary voltage is also zero when
shorted. But why does this improve the current fidelity? Without going into too much detail,
the 'magnetizing current' of an transformer depends on the winding inductance and the
winding voltage. The inductance is set by the number of turns and the core material and
geometry, which are fixed for any given current transformer. However, by reducing the
winding voltages, by shorting the secondary, the magnetizing current is also reduced to near
zero. That is a GOOD THING, because the magnetizing current is an error, representing a
20

proportion of the primary current that DOES NOT end up being reflected in the secondary
current. The magnetizing current results in an error in both the magnitude and phase of the
secondary current, definitely not a good thing where high fidelity is required. To say the
same thing in a different way, shorting the secondary permits larger currents to be measured
with acceptable fidelity, and without core saturation.

2.6. Tests of CT
A number of routine and type tests have to be conducted on CT s before they can meet the
standards specified above. The tests can be classified as :
1. Accuracy tests to determine whether the errors of the CT are within specified limits.
2. Dielectric insulation tests such as power frequency withstand voltage test on primary
and secondary windings for one minute, inter-turn insulation test at power frequency
voltage, impulse tests with 1.2u/50 wave, and partial discharge tests (for voltage >=6.6kv)
to determine whether the discharge is below the specified limits.
3. Temperature rise tests.
4. Short time current tests.
5. Verification of terminal markings and polarity.

2.7. APPLICATIONS
6. The variety of applications of current transformers seems to be limited only by ones
imagination. As new electronic equipment evolves and plays a greater role in the
generation, control and application of electrical energy, new demands will be placed upon
current transformer manufacturers and designers to provide new products to meet these
needs.
7. Current transformers are used extensively for measuring current and monitoring the
operation of the Power grid. Along with voltage leads, revenue-grade CTs drive the
electrical utility's watt-hour meter on virtually every building with three-phase service
and single-phase services greater than 200.
8. The CT is typically described by its current ratio from primary to secondary. Often,
21

multiple CTs are installed as a "stack" for various uses. For example, protection devices
and revenue metering may use separate CTs to provide isolation between metering and
protection circuits, and allows current transformers with different characteristics
(accuracy, overload performance) to be used for the devices.

CHAPTER 3
DATA ACQUISTION (DAQ)
Data acquisition (DAQ) is the process of measuring an electrical or physical
phenomenon such as voltage, current, temperature, pressure, or sound with a computer. A DAQ
system consists of sensors, DAQ measurement hardware, and a computer with programmable
software. Compared to traditional measurement systems, PC-based DAQ systems exploit the

22

processing power, productivity, display, and connectivity capabilities of industry-standard

computers providing a more powerful, flexible, and cost-effective measurement solution.

PARTS OF DAQ SYSTEM

FIG 3.1: Basic working of DAQ

3.1. SENSOR
The measurement of a physical phenomenon, such as the temperature of a room, the
intensity of a light source, or the force applied to an object, begins with a sensor. A sensor, also
called a transducer, converts a physical phenomenon into a measurable electrical signal.
Depending on the type of sensor, its electrical output can be a voltage, current, resistance, or
another electrical attribute that varies over time. Some sensors may require additional
components and circuitry to properly produce a signal that can accurately and safely be read by a
DAQ device.
Essential to any data acquisition is a transducer sensor that converts real-world
phenomena, such as temperature and pressure, into measurable currents and voltages. This set of
tutorials is designed to provide you with essential information about using and understanding
various types of sensors to acquire data.
Common Sensors:

Sensor

Phenomenon
23

Thermocouple, RTD, Thermistor

Temperature

Photo Sensor

Light

Microphone

Sound

Strain Gage, Piezoelectric Transducer

Force and Pressure

Potentiometer, LVDT, Optical Encoder

Position and Displacement

Accelerometer

Acceleration

pH Electrode

pH

3.2.DAQ DEVICE
DAQ hardware acts as the interface between a computer and signals from the outside
world. It primarily functions as a device that digitizes incoming analog signals so that a computer
can interpret them. The three key components of a DAQ device used for measuring a signal are
the signal conditioning circuitry, analog-to-digital converter (ADC), and computer bus. Many
DAQ devices include other functions for automating measurement systems and processes. For
example, digital-to-analog converters (DACs) output analog signals, digital I/O lines input and
output digital signals, and counter/timers count and generate digital pulses.
Key Measurement Components of a DAQ Device:

3.2.1

Signal Conditioning

Signals from sensors or the outside world can be noisy or too dangerous to measure directly.
Signal conditioning circuitry manipulates a signal into a form that is suitable for input into an
ADC. This circuitry can include amplification, attenuation, filtering, and isolation. Some DAQ
devices include built-in signal conditioning designed for measuring specific types of sensors.
Many applications require environment or structural measurements, such as
temperature and vibration, from sensors. These sensors, in turn, require signal conditioning
before a data acquisition device can effectively and accurately measure the signal. Key signal
conditioning technologies provide distinct enhancements to both the performance and
accuracy of data acquisition systems.

24

FIG 3.2: Signal conditioning provides more accurate sensor measurements.

Amplification

Amplifiers increase voltage level to better match the analog-to-digital converter (ADC) range,
thus increasing the measurement resolution and sensitivity. In addition, using external signal
conditioners located closer to the signal source, or transducer, improves the measurement signalto-noise ratio by magnifying the voltage level before it is affected by environmental noise.
Attenuation

Attenuation, the opposite of amplification, is necessary when voltages to be digitized are beyond
the ADC range. This form of signal conditioning decreases the input signal amplitude so that the
conditioned signal is within ADC range. Attenuation is typically necessary when measuring
voltages that are more than 10 V.

Isolation

Isolated signal conditioning devices pass the signal from its source to the measurement device
without a physical connection by using transformer, optical, or capacitive coupling techniques.
In addition to breaking ground loops, isolation blocks high-voltage surges and rejects high
common-mode voltage and thus protects both the operators and expensive measurement
equipment.

Filtering

Filters reject unwanted noise within a certain frequency range. Oftentimes, lowpass filters are
25

used to block out high-frequency noise in electrical measurements, such as 60 Hz power.

Another common use for filtering is to prevent aliasing from high-frequency signals. This can be
done by using an antialiasing filter to attenuate signals above the Nyquist frequency.

Excitation

Excitation is required for many types of transducers. For example, strain gages, accelerometers
thermistors, and resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) require external voltage or current
excitation. RTD and thermistor measurements are usually made with a current source that
converts the variation in resistance to a measurable voltage. Accelerometers often have an
integrated amplifier, which requires a current excitation provided by the measurement device.
Strain gages, which are very-low-resistance devices, typically are used in a Wheatstone bridge
configuration with a voltage excitation source.
Linearization

Linearization is necessary when sensors produce voltage signals that are not linearly related to
the physical measurement. Linearization is the process of interpreting the signal from the sensor
and can be done either with signal conditioning or through software. Thermocouples are the
classic example of a sensor that requires linearization.

Cold-Junction Compensation

Cold-junction compensation (CJC) is a technology required for accurate thermocouple

measurements. Thermocouples measure temperature as the difference in voltage between two
dissimilar metals. Based on this concept, another voltage is generated at the connection between
the thermocouple and terminal of your data acquisition device. CJC improves your measurement
accuracy by providing the temperature at this junction and applying the appropriate correction.

Bridge Completion

26

Bridge completion is required for quarter- and half-bridge sensors to comprise a four resistor
Wheatstone bridge. Strain gage signal conditioners typically provide half-bridge completion
networks consisting of high-precision reference resistors. The completion resistors provide a
fixed reference for detecting small voltage changes across the active resistor(s).

3.2.2 Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC)

Analog signals from sensors must be converted into digital before they are manipulated by digital
equipment such as a computer. An ADC is a chip that provides a digital representation of an
analog signal at an instant in time. In practice, analog signals continuously vary over time and an
ADC takes periodic samples of the signal at a predefined rate. These samples are transferred to
a computer over a computer bus where the original signal is reconstructed from the samples in
software.
a) Bandwidth is defined as the measure of a circuit or transmission channel to pass
a signal without significant attenuation over a range of frequencies. Bandwidth is
measured between the lower and upper frequency points where the signal amplitude falls
to -3 dB below the pass-band frequency. The -3 dB points are referred to as the half-power
points.
Units
Hertz (Hz)
Example
If you input a 1 V, 100 MHz sine wave into high-speed digitizer with a bandwidth of 100
MHz, the signal will be attenuated by the digitizers analog input path and the sampled
waveform will have amplitude of approximately 0.7 V. The value of ~0.7 V can be
calculated by using the following equation:
-3 dB = 20 LOG (Vppout / Vppin)
Where
Vppout = Peak to peak Voltage of the output waveform
Vppin = Peak to peak Voltage of the input waveform = 1 V (in the above example)
27

-3 = 20 LOG (Vppout / 1)
Vppout = 0.7079 V = 0.7 V approximately

FIG 3.3: Attenuation of a 100 MHz sine wave when passed through a 100 MHz Digitizer

FIG 3.4: Typical 100 MHz Digitizer Input Response

Theoretical amplitude error of a measured signal
It is recommended that the bandwidth of your digitizer be 3 to 5 times the highest
frequency component of interest in the measured signal to capture the signal with minimal
amplitude error (bandwidth required = (3 to 5)*frequency of interest). The theoretical
amplitude error of a measured signal can be calculated from the ratio (R) of the digitizer's
bandwidth (B) in relation to the input signal frequency (fin)

28

Where
R = B / fin
Rise Time
Another important topic related to the bandwidth is rise time. The rise time of an input signal is
the time for a signal to transition from 10% to 90% of the maximum signal amplitude and is
inversely related to bandwidth.

FIG 3.5: Rise time for a signal is the time span from 10% to 90% of its maximum amplitude

It is recommended that the rise time of the digitizer input path be 1/3 to 1/5 the rise time of the
measured signal to capture the signal with minimal rise time error. The theoretical rise time
measured (Trm) can be calculated from the rise time of the digitizer (Trd) and the actual rise
time of the input signal (Trs).

b) Sampling rate is the rate at which data is sampled. Sampling rate is not directly related to the
bandwidth specifications of a high-speed digitizer. Sampling rate is the speed at which the
digitizers ADC converts the input signal, after the signal has passed through the analog input
29

path, to digital values. Hence, the digitizer samples the signal after any attenuation, gain, and/or
filtering has been applied by the analog input path, and converts the resulting waveform to digital
representation. The sampling rate of a high-speed digitizer is based on the sample clock that
controls when the ADC converts the instantaneous analog voltage to digital values.

There are several products available in the market like National Instruments M-series Data
Acquisition, Digital Signal Acquisition, Digital Multimeters and several others that have
different specifications for the maximum sampling rate. The choice of the most appropriate
device for your application will depend on the signal you are measuring.

c) Nyquist Theorem: Sampling rate (f s) > 2 * highest frequency component (of

interest) in the measured signal The Nyquist theorem states that a signal must be sampled at a
rate greater than twice the highest frequency component of interest in the signal to capture the
highest frequency component of interest; otherwise, the high-frequency content will alias at a
frequency inside the spectrum of interest (pass-band).

30

FIG 3.6: Effects of various sampling rates while sampling a signal

d) If a signal is sampled at a sampling rate smaller than twice the Nyquist frequency,
false lower frequency component(s) appears in the sampled data. This phenomenon is called
Aliasing.

The following figure shows a 5 MHz sine wave digitized by a 6 MS/s ADC. The dotted line
indicates the aliased signal recorded by the ADC. The 5 MHz frequency aliases back in the passband, falsely appearing as a 1 MHz sine wave

FIG 3.7:. Sine wave demonstrating Aliasing

31

Alias frequency
The alias frequency is the absolute value of the difference between the frequency of the input
signal and the closest integer multiple of the sampling rate.
Alias Freq. = ABS (Closest Integer Multiple of Sampling Freq. Input Freq.)
where
ABS means the absolute value.

e) Quantization is defined as the process of converting an analog signal to a digital

representation. Quantization is performed by an analog-to-digital converter (A/D converter or
ADC).

If we can convert our analog signals to a stream of digital data, we can take advantage of the
power of the personal computer and software to do any manipulation or calculation on the
signals. To do this, we must sample our analog waveform at well-defined discrete (but limited)
times so we can maintain a close relationship between time in the analog domain and time in the
digital domain. If we do this, we can reconstruct the signal in the digital domain, do our
processing on it, and later, reconstruct it into the analog domain if we need to.

FIG 3.8: When converting an analog signal to digital domain, signal values are taken at discrete
time instants.
The time resolution we have is limited by the maximum sampling rate of the ADC. Even if we
were able to increase our sampling rate forever, it would still never be purely continuous time
as is our input signal, as shown in figure 9. For most real world applications, this is still very
useful despite its limited nature. But obviously the usefulness of our digital representation
increases as our time and amplitude resolution increases. The amplitude resolution is limited by
the number of discrete output levels an ADC has.
32

FIG 3.9: Quantization error when using a 3 bit ADC

f) Dithering: During Quantization, in the time domain, we could almost completely

preserve the waveform information by sampling fast enough. In the amplitude domain we
can preserve most of the waveform information by dithering.
Dithering involves the deliberate addition of noise to our input signal. It helps by
smearing out the little differences in amplitude resolution. The key is to add random
noise in a way that makes the signal bounce back and forth between successive levels. Of
course, this in itself just makes the signal noisier. But, the signal smoothes out by
averaging this noise digitally once the signal is acquired.

33

FIG 3.10: Effects of dithering and averaging on a sine wave input

3.3.Computer Bus
DAQ devices connect to a computer through a slot or port. The computer bus serves as the
communication interface between the DAQ device and computer for passing instructions and
measured data. DAQ devices are offered on the most common computer buses including USB,
PCI, PCI Express, and Ethernet. More recently, DAQ devices have become available for 802.11
Wi-Fi for wireless communication. There are many types of buses, and each offers different
advantages for different types of applications.
All PC buses have a limit to the amount of data that can be transferred in a
certain period of time. This is known as the bus bandwidth and is often specified in megabytes
per second (MB/s). If dynamic waveform measurements are important in your application, be
sure to consider a bus with enough bandwidth.
Depending on the bus that you choose, the total bandwidth can be shared among several
devices or dedicated to certain devices. The PCI bus, for example, has a theoretical bandwidth of
132 MB/s that is shared among all PCI boards in the computer. Gigabit Ethernet offers 125 MB/s
34

shared across devices on a subnet or network. Buses that offer dedicated bandwidth, such as PCI
Express and PXI Express, provide the maximum data throughput per device.
When taking waveform measurements, you have a certain sampling rate and resolution that need
to be achieved based on how fast your signal is changing. You can calculate the minimum
required bandwidth by taking the number of bytes per sample (rounded up to the next byte),
multiplied by the sampling speed, and then multiplied by the number of channels.
For example, a 16-bit device (2 bytes) sampling at 4 MS/s on four channels would be

our bus bandwidth needs to be able to support the speed at which data is being acquired, and it is
important to note that the actual system bandwidth will be lower than the theoretical bus limits.
Actual observed bandwidth depends on the number of devices in a system and any additional bus
traffic from overhead. If you need to stream a lot of data on a large number of channels,
bandwidth may be the most important consideration when choosing your DAQ bus.
While there are many different buses and form factors to choose from, this section focuses on the
seven most common buses, including:
b) PCI
c) PCI Express
d) USB
e) PXI
f) PXI Express
g) Ethernet
h) Wireless
Figure 1 shows these buses organized into a PC-bus hierarchy of NI data acquisition products,
from internal plug-in options to hot-swappable external buses.
35

USB

FIG 3.11: DAQ which connected to computer through USB.

The Universal Serial Bus (USB) was originally designed to connect peripheral devices, such as
keyboards and mice, with PCs. However, it has proven useful for many other applications,
including measurement and automation. USB delivers an inexpensive and easy-to-use
connection between data acquisition devices and PCs. USB 2.0 has a maximum theoretical
bandwidth of 60 MB/s, which is shared among all devices connected to a single USB controller.
USB devices are inherently latent and nondeterministic. This means that single-point data
transfers may not happen exactly when expected, and therefore USB is not recommend for
closed-loop control applications, such as PID.
On the other hand, the USB bus has several characteristics that make it easier to use than some
traditional internal PC buses. Devices that connect using USB are hot-pluggable, so they
eliminate the need to shut down the PC to add or remove a device. The bus also has automatic
device detection, meaning that users do not have to manually configure their devices after
plugging them in. Once the software drivers have been installed, the operating system should
detect and install the device on its own.

36

FIG 3.12: The required signals are fed to computer for analysis.

3.4.

Advantages of NI DAQ

Designed for performance, NI data acquisition devices provide high-performance I/O, industryleading technologies, and software-driven productivity gains for your application. With patented
hardware and software technologies, National Instruments offers a wide-spectrum of PC-based
measurement and control solutions that deliver the flexibility and performance that your
application demands. For more than 25 years, National Instruments has served as more than just
an instrument vendor, but as a trusted advisor to engineers and scientists around the world.

3.4.1. High-Performance I/O

Measurement accuracy is arguably one of the most important considerations in designing
any data acquisition application. Yet equally important is the overall performance of the
system, including I/O sampling rates, throughput, and latency. For most engineers and
scientists, sacrificing accuracy for throughput performance or sampling rate for resolution is
not an option. National Instruments wide selection of PC-based data acquisition devices
have set the standard for accuracy, performance, and ease-of-use from PCI to PXI and USB
to wireless.

37

3.4.2. High-Accuracy Designs

Many scientists and engineers mistakenly evaluate DAQ device error by just
considering the bit resolution of the DAQ device. However, the error dictated by the device
resolution, or quantization error, might account for only a very small amount of the total
error in your measurement result. Other types of errors, such as temperature drift, offset,
gain, and non-linearity can vary drastically by hardware design. Through years of
experience, NI has developed several key technologies to minimize these errors and
maximize the absolute accuracy of your measurements.

3.4.3. Easy Sensor Connectivity with Integrated Signal Conditioning

Traditionally, measuring sensors required separate front-end signal conditioning systems
cabled to a data acquisition system. New technologies and miniaturization have enabled the
integration of sensor-specific signal conditioning and analog to digital conversion on the
same device. NI DAQ devices with integrated signal conditioning deliver higher-accuracy
measurements by eliminating error-prone cabling and connectors and reduce the number of
components in a measurement system. NI has also partnered leading sensor vendors to
provide easy, tool-free sensor connectivity and automatic sensor configuration with TEDS
technology.

3.4.4. Improved Productivity through Software

One of the biggest benefits of using a PC-based data acquisition device is that you
can use software to customize the functionality and visualization of your measurement
system to meet your application needs. When examining the cost of building a data
acquisition system, software development often accounts for 25 percent of total system cost.
Obtaining easy-to-use driver software with an intuitive application programming interface
makes a big impact on completing a project on time and under budget. National Instruments
provides a wide array of software tools that make you more productive at accomplishing
your measurement or automation tasks.

38

FIG 3.13: DAQ(NI usb 6009)

39

CHAPTER-4
LABVIEW
4.1 INTRODUCTION:
LabVIEW is system design software that provides engineers and scientists with the tools
needed to create and deploy measurement and control systems through unprecedented hardware
integration. LabVIEW inspires you to solve problems, accelerates your productivity, and gives
you the confidence to continually innovate.

FIG 4.1: LABVIEW Logo

LabVIEW is an ideal platform for prototyping, designing, and deploying high-quality
products to market fast. You can use one development environment to quickly iterate on your
embedded hardware and software designs and then reuse the best parts in a final product. The
complexity of products that engineers need to test is increasing rapidly. Markets are demanding
improved quality with additional features. LabVIEW reduces the time to test these products by
helping you develop a flexible and efficient system that synchronizes multiple measurements and
analysis within your software. This results in faster inspection times across I/O.

APPLICATION AREAS:
1. For Acquiring Data and Processing Signals:
LabVIEW is system design software that accelerates your productivity by automating
several measurements from a wide variety of sensors. With tight hardware integration,
you can connect to more than 200 NI data acquisition and third-party devices, and with
40

the unparalleled data analysis, visualization, and sharing features, you can save time as
you translate results into decisions. Experience the flexibility of LabVIEW for
measurements.

Add Power and Flexibility Through Software

One of the biggest benefits of using a PC-based DAQ device is that you can use
software to customize your measurement system functionality and visualization to meet
your application needs. Taking measurements by hand is costly, slow, and error-prone
whereas software defined systems perform quickly and consistently. NI LabVIEW software
provides a single programming interface to DAQ devices, resulting in seamless hardware
and software integration. You can automate measurements from several devices, analyze
data in parallel with acquisition, and create custom reports all in a matter of minutes with
LabVIEW.

Accelerate Your Productivity

LabVIEW makes you more productive by focusing on data and the operations
performed on that data as well as abstracting much of the administrative complexity of
computer programming such as memory allocation and language syntax. Built-in
engineering-specific software libraries allow for easy acquisition, analysis, control, and
data-sharing, so that you can focus on your data, not on programming.

Build on Industry-Leading Innovation

National Instruments has been a premier virtual instrumentation hardware and
software developer for more than 25 years. Feel safe knowing that you are building on a
platform supported by an extensive R&D team, alliances with leading technology partners,
and experience making innovative software and dependable hardware that work hand in
hand.

Distribute Stand-Alone Applications

You can create stand-alone applications for programs that need to be deployed to
41

other systems with the LabVIEW Application Builder. Distribute royalty-free copies of
software as end-use applications, or provide developers with shared libraries for use in
other development environments. LabVIEW makes it easy for you to create installers that
bundle all of the drivers and required run-time engines with your executables.

Save Time by Using Pre-built Components

You do not need to create your entire DAQ system from scratch. Save up to 80
percent of your development time using the built-in LabVIEW Express functions and
example programs. Express functions help you program using interactive windows and
simple pull-down menus, and take you step-by-step through the configuration, so you can
apply custom scaling and engineering units. LabVIEW also includes several open-and-run
example programs for most common measurement tasks, ranging from simple singlechannel measurements to advanced timing, triggering, and synchronization across multiple
devices. Configuring voltage, current, temperature, strain, sound, and other sensor
measurements has never been easier.

Turn Raw Data Into Results

LabVIEW includes thousands of advanced analysis functions created specifically
for engineers and scientists, all with detailed help files and documentation. With these
powerful tools, you can perform advanced signal processing; frequency analysis;
probability and statistics; curve fitting; interpolation; digital signal processing; and more.
You also can extend LabVIEW with toolkits for sound and vibration; machine vision; RF
communications; and transient and short-time duration signal analysis. For additional
analysis, you can integrate LabVIEW with algorithms developed in third-party software.

Drag and Drop Your Way to a Custom User Interface

You can quickly create a GUI using hundreds of drag-and-drop controls,
graphs, and 3D visualization tools. Built for engineers and scientists, UI elements work
seamlessly with acquired and analyzed data without complicated reformatting and custom
development. You also can incorporate custom imagery and logos, or modify the default
controls to provide a custom appearance.

42

Log Data and Generate Reports

Writing your data to disk or creating a custom report is as simple as calling
one function within LabVIEW. Native file formats are optimized for high-speed streaming,
and LabVIEW easily integrates with NI DIAdem software so you can quickly locate,
inspect, analyze, and report on measurement data. LabVIEW works with spreadsheet
applications such as Microsoft Excel. You also can use it to attach descriptive information
to your measurements, making them easier to reference offline.

Stay Informed and Protect Your Investment

Whether you are a single-seat user or have a business with multiple licenses, the
NI software maintenance and support program can help you maximize your software
investment. Stay up to date on the latest technology improvements by automatically
receiving software updates and maintenance releases. Reduce your application development
time with direct access to technical support from NI applications engineers. Be informed
through special online software training modules that highlight features, application uses,
and development best practices.

Increase Your Industry Value

NI training courses help you quickly pick up new skills, and NI certification helps
you prove your understanding of proper development and documentation practices that
make your applications easier to develop, support, and maintain. It also gives your
customers, peers, and employers confidence in your abilities, which can potentially lead to
new business, promotions, career opportunities, and an increased salary.

2. For Instrument Control:

NI LabVIEW is a graphical programming environment that makes it easy to
control and acquire data from any instrument over any bus. You can automate
measurements from several devices, analyze data as you acquire it, and create custom
reports all in a matter of minutes. Avoid spending hours learning how to take
measurements from a particular device. With LabVIEW, you can focus on the results
rather than the process of obtaining them.
43

Work Faster With a Graphical Approach

Develop and debug applications using drag-and-drop graphical icons and

flowchart representations instead of writing lines of text.

Quickly Automate Any Instrument Using Free Instrument Drivers

Download time-saving LabVIEW drivers for virtually any instrument free of

charge. The Instrument Driver Finder helps you install drivers in seconds directly from
LabVIEW. Consistent driver APIs eliminate the need for you to learn low-level instrument
commands specific to each instrument.

Get Started Immediately With Open-and-Run Examples

Never start developing code from scratch. Every certified instrument driver

includes ready-to-run examples.

3. for Monitoring and Controlling Embedded Systems:
LabVIEW is system design software that is used by engineers and
scientists to efficiently design, prototype, and deploy embedded monitoring and control
applications.It combines hundreds of prewritten libraries, tight integration with off-the-shelf
hardware, and a variety of programming approaches including graphical development, .m file
scripts, and connectivity to existing ANSI C and HDL code. Whether designing medical
devices or complex robots, you can reduce time to market and the overall cost of embedded
monitoring and control with LabVIEW.
Reasons to Use NI LabVIEW for Designing Embedded Systems:
Prototype Faster with a Graphical Design
EnvironmentEasily Reuse Embedded Code and Existing IP

44

CHAPTER 5
HARDWARE DESIGN

PRICIPLE OF MEASUREMENT:
The figure below depicts the principle of error measurement for a CT using the
comparison method. The errors of the test CTs, CTx are determined by comparing it with a
standard CT, CTs having same ratio as the test CT but possessing very low, or known errors.
The errors can be expressed as,

FIG 5.1: Basic circuit for comparison test.

To find ratio and phase errors we need to take both current signals of standard
transformer and test specimen transformer. Considering Is1 and Is2 as currents of both the
transformers. Now to determine the ratio error we need to know differential current flowing in
between the two current signals. The ratio error is defined as ratio of cosine component of
differential current to standard current. Phase error is defined as the differential angle with
45

respect to the reference value. The differential current and standard current values are explicitly
measured using data acquisition system and errors are compiled.

WORKING:
In order to find ratio and phase errors we need the current signals of both the
transformers standard and test specimen. These signals are fed to DAQ as voltage signals by
taking signals from resistors connected parallel to them. Now from here the software part comes
into picture. These two voltage signals are sent to the software LAB-VIEW using DAQ and
waveform is generated in the computer, now the rms values of both the signals are calculated. To
find differential current we need substract those two signals and we get rms value of differential
current and the ratio error and phase error can be calculated using above formulae.
The DAQ receives the two voltage signals which are analog and these signals are
continuously sampled using DAQ assistant part of LAB-VIEW. After connecting the CTs to
DAQ, the DAQ should be connected to computer then in LAB-VIEW we need to configure the
signals which are taken for calculations. The figure shows the block diagram of the project.

FIG 5.2: Test and standard transformers are connected to DAQ

46

FIG 5.3: Block diagram of our project.

Firstly, the signals are converted into respective rms values, then these rms values are subtracted
to obtain the rms value of differential current now the phase angle can be obtained using special
functions in LAB-VIEW now the error is the ratio of cosine component of differential current
with standard current, the cosine of phase angle is obtained by functions then multiplied with rms
value of differential current and ratio of this value is taken with rms value of standard current. To
calculate the phase error sine component is used and inverse tangent is used and phase is also
calculated.
In the figure shown below the two current transformers, standard and the test specimen
transformers primary sides are connected in series with a load. The load used is 100w bulb. Then
supply is connected to primary. A resistor is connected to both the secondaries and a resistor is
connected to both secondaries and standard current flows through the resistors. Standard voltage
waveform and differential voltage waveform are taken from the terminals of standard resistor
and differential resistor.These two terminals from standard and differential resistors are
connected to DAQ. From DAQ it is connected to computer through LAB-VIEW.

47

FIG: schematic diagram of current transformers

RATIO ERROR:
The secondary current is less than the expected value. The secondary is less in
magnitude. This diffence is known as ratio error.
PHASE ANGLE ERROR:
The angle between the expected and actual secondary current is known as phase error.

48

WAVEFORMS AND RESULT:

The voltage waveforms of both current transformers are shown below,

FIG 5.4: Waveforms of both currents.

FIG: These are the voltage signals of test and standard transformers.
The obtained values of ratio error and phase error are given below,

FIG 5.5: Results obtained in LABVIEW

FIG: The ratio error and Phase error are calculated in LAB-VIEW.
49

The signals are scaled because the signal obtained is very low and finally the ratio error and
phase error values are obtained. Multiple measurements can be easily implemented and average
value is obtained. Comparing other methods DAQ based unit for , measurement is accurate easy
method to find ratio and phase errors.

CHAPTER-6
CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSIONS
6.1. RESULTS ACHIEVED IN THE PROJECT
In this project, we have calculated ratio error and phase angle error of current
transformer with reference to standard current transformer using DAQ. The results obtained from
lab-view are very accurate so we can get correct values when compared to other methods such as
comparison method etc.

FIG 6.1. RATIO AND PHASE ERROR CALCULATED IN LAB-VIEW

The above figure shows the values of ratio and phase error of current transformer. We can
see the rms values of both current transformers, phase difference between the two signals. The
advantage of the proposed method lies in the fact that the measuring time is independent of the
50

magnitude of error.

6.2.DIFFICULTIES ENCOUNTERED

To calculate the exact resistance to be connected across secondary of the cuurent

transoformer so that current flowing through it will be in permissible limits.
During simulation of the circuit, we have faced the problem with signals as they are not
perfectly sinusoidal.

FIG 6.2: These are the voltage signals of test and standard transformers
While calculating ratio error and phase error in lab-view ,as the values are very small we
have calibrated the values so that we can easily use it for further calculations.

51

FIG 6.3: IMPLEMENTATION OF LOGIC IN LAB-VIEW

The figure shows how the mathematical calculations are done in lab-view to
calculate ratio error and phase error.

6.3. FUTURE SCOPE

The ratio error and phase angle error of current transformer are calculated using
lab-view. Calculation of errors in current transformers is very important because while we use
current transformers for measurement purposes, errors plays very important role in calculation
of the accurate result.
The future scope is to calculate the ratio error and phase error using
microprocessor so that we can get more accurate result. The advantage of using microprocessor
lies in the fact that the measuring time is independent of the magnitude of error. Multiple
measurements can be made and averaging can be easily implemented in the software to take into
account noise in the ZCD, if felt necessary.

52

REFERENCES

DAQ ASSISTANT BOOKS REFERED

[1] LabVIEW for Data Acquisition- Bruce Mihura
[2] Introduction to Data Acquisition with LabVIEW- Robert H. King

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS BOOKS REFERED

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[1] Instrument transformers: their theory, characteristics and testing; a

theoretical and practical handbook for test-rooms and research
laboratories-Bernard Hague
[2] Current transformers: their transient and steady state performance Arthur Wright

LIST OF FIGURES
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FIG 2.1 Basic current transformer

FIG 3.1: Basic working of DAQ

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FIG 3.2: Signal conditioning provides more accurate sensor measurements.

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FIG 3.3: Attenuation of a 100 MHz sine wave when passed through a 100 MHz

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Digitizer
FIG 3.4: Typical 100 MHz Digitizer Input Response

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FIG 3.5: Rise time for a signal is the time span from 10% to 90% of its

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maximum amplitude
FIG 3.6: Effects of various sampling rates while sampling a signal

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FIG 3.7:. Sine wave demonstrating Aliasing

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FIG 3.8: When converting an analog signal to digital domain, signal values are

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taken at discrete time instants

FIG 3.9: Quantization error when using a 3 bit ADC

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FIG 3.10: Effects of dithering and averaging on a sine wave input

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FIG 3.11: DAQ which connected to computer through USB.

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FIG 3.12: The required signals are fed to computer for analysis.

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FIG 3.13: DAQ(NI usb 6009)

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FIG 4.1: LABVIEW Logo

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FIG 5.1: Basic circuit for comparison test.

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FIG 5.2: Test and standard transformers are connected to DAQ

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FIG 5.3: Block diagram of our project.

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FIG 5.4: Waveforms of both currents.

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FIG 5.5: Results obtained in LABVIEW

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FIG 6.1. RATIO AND PHASE ERROR CALCULATED IN LAB-VIEW

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FIG 6.2: These are the voltage signals of test and standard transformers

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FIG 6.3: IMPLEMENTATION OF LOGIC IN LAB-VIEW

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APPENDIX
SOFTWARE USED LABVIEW
LabVIEW is a highly productive graphical programming environment that combines easy-touse
graphical development with the flexibility of a powerful programming language. It offers an
intuitive environment, tightly integrated with measurement hardware, for engineers and
scientists to quickly produce solutions for data acquisition, data analysis, and data presentation.

Integrated Hardware
LabVIEW has built-in compatibility with hardware libraries for: GPIB/VXI/PXI/Computerbased instruments RS-232/485 protocol Plug-in data acquisition Analog/digital/counter timer I/O
Signal conditioning Distributed data acquisition Image acquisition and machine vision Motion
control PLCs/data loggers.
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Powerful Analysis
LabVIEW features comprehensive analysis libraries that rival those of dedicated analysis
packages. These libraries are complete with statistics, evaluations, regressions, linear algebra,
signal generation algorithms, time and frequency-domain algorithms, windowing routines, and
Digital filters.

Open Development Environment

With the open development environment of LabVIEW, you can connect or communicate to any
other application through ActiveX, the Internet, DLLs (dynamic linked libraries), shared
libraries, SQL (for databases), DataSocket, TCP/IP, DDE, and numerous other protocols.

Optimal Performance
All LabVIEW applications execute at compiled speed for optimal performance. With the
abVIEW Professional Development System or Application Builder, you can also build standalone executables for secure distribution to operator station.

NI 6009 DAQ SPECIFICATIONS

Application and Technology
The USB-6008 and USB-6009 are ideal for applications where a low-cost, small form factor and
simplicity are essential. Examples include the following:

Data logging quick and easy environmental or voltage data logging

Academic lab use student ownership of data acquisition hardware for completely
interactive lab-based courses (Academic pricing available. Visit ni.com/academic for
details.)

OEM applications as I/O for embedded systems

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Recommended Software
National Instruments measurement services software, built around NI-DAQmx driver software,
includes intuitive application programming interfaces, configuration tools, I/O assistants, and
other tools designed to reduce system setup, configuration, and development time. National
Instruments recommends using the latest version of NI-DAQmx driver software for application
development in NI LabVIEW, LabVIEW SignalExpress, LabWindows/CVI, and
Measurement Studio software. To obtain the latest version of NI-DAQmx,
visit ni.com/support/daq/versions.
NI measurement services software speeds up your development with features including the
following:

A guide to create fast and accurate measurements with no programming using the DAQ
Assistant.

Automatic code generation to create your application in LabVIEW.

LabWindows/CVI; LabVIEW SignalExpress; and C#, Visual Studio .NET, ANSI C/C++,
or Visual Basic using Measurement Studio.

Multithreaded streaming technology for 1,000 times performance improvements.

Automatic timing, triggering, and synchronization routing to make advanced applications

easy.

More than 3,000 free software downloads available at ni.com/zone to jump-start your
project.

Software configuration of all digital I/O features without hardware switches/jumpers.

Single programming interface for analog input, analog output, digital I/O, and counters
on hundreds of multifunction DAQ hardware devices. M Series devices are compatible
with the following versions (or later) of NI application software LabVIEW,
LabWindows/CVI, or Measurement Studio versions 7.x; and LabVIEW SignalExpress
2.x.

Every National Instruments DAQ device includes a copy of LabVIEW SignalExpress LE datalogging software, so you can quickly acquire, analyze, and present data without programming.
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The NI-DAQmx Base driver software is provided for use with Linux, Mac OS X, Windows
Mobile, and Windows CE operating systems.

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