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© © All Rights Reserved
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/ 50
eee eee ee
Fale Fundamentals of
Complex Analysis
Dru aerate anaes ae ited
pete
Cee arapc) (stereo anes rey
Bee ae Ta i
Poa ce So 1.1 The Algebra of Comptex Numbers 5
3. Notice that 0.and 1] retain their “identity” properties as complex numbers; that is,
O+z2=2z and 1-z= z when z is complex,
(a) Verify that complex subtraction is the inverse of complex addition (that is,
23 = 22 — 21 if and only if z3 + zy = zz).
(b) Verify that complex division, as given in the.text, is the inverse of complex
multiplication (that is, if z2 4 0, then 23 = 21/22 if and only if 2379 = 21).
4. Prove that if z;z2 = 0, then z; = Oorza =0.
In Problems 5-13, write the number in the form a+ bi.
i 2
5. (a)-3 G) (b) (8+i) — (5 +2) (c) =
j\2 2-i : :
6. (a) (-1 +/)° (b) = (c) i(@ — 47)
5
8i 1 —14 5i 33
Las 0) 3 OF+3
g, r= a-f)
. (2+ i)?
9, 243i _ B+i
“Y4+2i 6-7
>
247 -
10. a -( I
1. FG4+17
12, (2+i)(-1 -)GB — 28)
13. (3—i —3
14, Show that Re(?z) = —Im z for every complex number z.
15. Let & be an integer. Show that
i = 1, perl 2 5, pet? = 1, pikt3 = j,
16, Use the result of Problem 15 to find
(a)i? (b) 6? (e) 7720 (@ i?
17. Use the result of Problem 15 to evaluate
8 ro
3g"! +6i7+ po +i ‘
18. Show that the complex number:z = —1-+/ satisfies the equation
2+2z7+2=0. Coniplex Numbers
12
eS
This is a useful fact to remember: The square of the modulus of a complex ntunber
Soe iueale.
equals the nuntber times its conjuga ; ; . .
Actually we have already employed complex conjugates in Sec. 1.1, in the process
of rationalizing the denominator for the division algorithm. Thus, for instance, if zy
and z2 are complex numbers, then we rewrite 21/z2 as a ratio with a real denominator
by using 23: = a
3 1 ee (8)
2 zz lz
In particular,
tz (9)
z le
In closing we would like to mention that there is another, possibly more enlight-
ening, way to see Eq, (2). Notice that when we represent a complex number in terms
of two real numbers and the symbol 7, as in z = a + by, then the action of conjuga-
tion is equivalent to changing the sign of the i term. Now recall the role that / plays in
computations; it merely holds a place while we compute around it, replacing its square
by —1 whenever it arises. Except for these occurrences j is never really absorbed into
the computations: we could just as well call it JA, JT, or any other symbol whose
square we agree to replace by —1. In fact, without affecting the vaiidity of the caicula-
tion, we could replace it throughout by the symbol (~i), since the square of the latter
is also 1. Thus, for instance, if in the expression (a; + byi) (ay + bof) we replace i
by ~/ and then multiply, the only thing different about the product will be the appear-
ance of —i instead of /. But expressed in terms of conjugation, this is precisely the
statement of Example 3.*
EXERCISES 1.2
I. Show that the point (z 4- 29)/2 is the midpoint of the line Segment joining z; and
22.
2. Given four particles Of masses 2, 1, 3, and § located at the respective points 1+ j,
—3i, 1 — 2%, and —6, find the center of mass of this system,
3. Which of the points i, 2—j, and —3 is farthest from the origin?
4. Letz =3 vs lot the Points z, ~%, 2, ~Z, and | the complex lane. Do the
£1 72 /z mn Dp.
» Show that the poin lL- i |
oot Ps » 71/2 + 1V3/2, and -1/2 — i/3/2 are the vertices of an
in
6. Show that the points 3 + i, 6, and 4 +. 4; are the vertices of aright triangle.
}
By the same token we should. be
able to replac —V¥2i
before or after muttiptying and obtain the same cou a Vin C+ 224 °¥2) lier Complex Numbers
mo apes
Figure 1.13 The argument of the conjugate and the reciprocal.
EXERCISES 1.3
1.
Let 23 = 2—i and z2 = 1+. Use the parallelogram law to construct each of the
following vectors.
(a) zi +22 (b) z1 — 22 (c) 2z1 — 3z2
. Show that |z1z2z3| = [211 [zal |z3l.
. Translate the following geometric theorem into the language of complex numbers:
The sum of the squares of the lengths of the diagonals of a parallelogram is equal to
the sum of the squares of its sides. (Sce Fig. 1.6.)
. Show that for any integer k. |z*| = |z|* (provided z 3 O when k is negative).
. Find the following.
1+2i —— : i(2+63 (x +i) 100
(a) | (b) | + )(2 — 38)(4i — 3)| () | ——___—__,
=r TP +I(2- 3147 -3)| © aap? Gna
. Draw each of the following vectors.
(a) 7cis(37/4) — (b) 4cis(—x/6)—(e) cis(37/4) (d) 3 cis(27z /4)
7. rind the argument of each of the following complex numbers and write each in polar
form.
(a) -1/2 (b) —3 + 33 (¢) —2i
(d) -2./3 ~ 2; @Ud-iN-V3+i) (W312
( w+ (ny V7 +4)
242i 34h
8
. Show geometrically that the nonzero co
. Given the vector z,
; mplex nuntbers z; and zp satisfy |z =
Izil + |za| ifand only if they have the same argument. Yr +al
interpret geomeirically the vector (cos @ + i sin @)z. 14 The Complex Exponential 31
TS
EXERCISES 1.4
In Problems 1 and 2 write each of the given numbers in the forma + bi.
t+i3z
in /4 é
1. (a) eit? (b) goiayi (©) of
etl — ¢-3i
2. (a) ap (b) 2e* +776 (c) e*, where z = 4e!/3
in Problems 3 and 4 write each of the given numbers in the polar form re'®,
1-;
3. (a) > (b) —8x(1 + /3i) (©) (+96
Qn da\3 24.0 4
4, — = -
(a) (cos = 9 + isin >) (b) ———. Fai © sam
5. Show that je*+!| = e* and arg e* HY =y-t 2kr (k =0,41,42,...).
6. Show that, for real 0,
i@
.
16
(b) csc @ = 2
—e
i(@8 + e719)
7, Show that e= = e+?! for all z. (The exponential function is periodic with period
277i.)
8. Show that, for all z,
(a) tané = a
ef @—2/2) _ gA@ra/2)
(a) ef tF = —g* bb) =e
9. Show that (e*)".= e** for any integer 7,
10. Show that Je*| < 1 ifRez <0.
11. Determine which of the following properties of the real exponential function remain
true for the complex exponential function (that is, for x replaced by z).
(a) e* ig never zero. (b) e* is a one-to-one function:
(ec) e* is defined for all x. (d) e* = Ie*.
12, Use De Moivre’s formula together with the binomial formula to derive the following
identities.
(a) sin 30 = 3cos* sind — sin? 8
(b) sin4@ = 4 cos’ 0 sind — 4cos0 sin’ 6
13, Show how the following trigonometric identities follow from Egs. (11) and (12),
(a) sin?@ +cos’6 = |
(b) cos (6; + 02) = cos; cos@ — sin 0; sin Ox Complex Numbers
32
14. Does De Moivre's formula hold for negative integers n?
48. (a) Show that the multiplicative law (1) follows from Definition 5.
(b) Show that the division rule (9) follows from Definition 5.
16. Letz = re, (2 #0). Show that exp(inr + ip) =zt
describes the unit circle [z| = 1
sthat the function z(t) = e,0 <7 < 2n,
17. Show that tt a 5 from 0 to 27). Then
traversed in the counterclockwise direction (as ¢ increase!
describe each of the following curves.
@)ina3e, Osi <2n ()e()=2e +i, Ost srt
(x(t) = 2027, O51 S172 Gz) de" 42-1. OST S2e
18. Sketch the curves that are given for 0 <1 < 27 by
(a) (1) = e408 (b) z(t) = et
(c) 2(1) = ht z=!
19, Let » be a positive integer greater than 2. Show that the points erikin k = 0,1,
..., 4 — t, form the vertices of a regular polygon.
20, Prove that if z 2 1, then
Atl l
tebe" =
z—l
Use this result and De Moivre’s formula to establish the following identities.
1 sin[(u + 4)9]
2 2Qsin(6/2)
sin (16/2) sin (Gr + 1)8/2)
sin (6/2) ,
(a) 12cos@ + cos2@ 4+ +--+ cosnf =
(b) sing +sin20 +--+. +sinnd =
O<6 <2.
where
21. Prove that if n is a positive integer, then
sin(n@ /2)
sin(6 /2)
Sn (6 40,427,447. ...).
[HINT: Argue first that if z =e, then the left-hand side equals |(1 — 2") /(1 —z)|.]J
22, Show that if 7 is an integer, then
an 2a
at 2
[ cao = [ cosinty.te +e [| " sin(n6) dg ={ 2% ifw=0,
0 0 ifn 40.
23. Compute the fi ing i i
pute the following integrals by using the representations (1 1) or (12) together
with the binomial formula,
(a ‘or 8
) a” cos 6 dé (b) fo" sin (26) ao.
AS aconve enc MN We some! Wi ( z
mMieNce mp. inting we sometimes Tite exp(z) mstead of ¢’
‘
et cas Ba a Ne ec taal eta act comme ek eat esse Pm bit eal
a rl ba i ta 1.5 Powers and Roots 37
Solution. After multiplying Eq. (7) by 4a, one can manipulate it into the form
4a’z? + 4abz + b? = b* ~ dac.
The left hand side is (2az + 6)*, so
az +b = (b? — 4acy'!? = 4+Vb2 — dae,
which is equivalent to Eq. (8).
EXERCISES 1.5
1.
2.
3.
10.
1
Prove jdentity (1) by using induction.
Show that formula (1) also holds for negative integers n.
Let 1 be a positive integer. Prove that arg z” = » Arg z+ 2kx,k =0, +1, £2....,
for z #0.
. Use the identity (1) to show that
(a) (V3 —i)7 = 64/3 +164 = (b) (1 +.) = 24701 -2)
. Find all the values of the following.
(a) (—16)!/4 (b) 14/9 (ce) i+
~ \ 1/6
(a) (= v3 (9 ¢-? © (Fa)
. Deseribe how to construct geometrically the fifth roots of zo if
(a)zo = —1 (b) 0 =i ()z=l +s
. Solve each of the following equations.
(a) 227 +24+3=0
(b) 22 - (3 —-2i)z+1—3i =0
(ec) 2 -2+i=0
Let a, 6, and c be real members and let « > 0. Show that the equation azvz+bite =
0 has
(a) two real solutions if 4? — 4ac > 0.
(b) two nonreal conjugate solutions if b? —4ac <0.
. Solve the equation z? — 327 + 62-4 =0.
Find all four roots of the equation 2441 =O and use them to deduce the factoriza-
tion af 1 = (22 — V22 + D@? + ¥2z2 4 1).
Solve the equation (+ 1)? = 2. Analytic Functions
So
2) = (Re 2)/|zP? and Im(1/z) = —(m z)/|z|?, we get after simplifi-
Since Re(1/
cation that
> 1—{zl?
» _ 2Reé = m2 Ly, and = ay =
a= a BE Te b+kP
A fotation about the xt-axis preserves ¥, while negating x2 and x3; so indeed W is the
stated rotation of Z.
One nice consequence of this example is the fact that an inversion mapping pre~
serves the class of circles and lines (sec Prob. 17)
EXERCISES 2.1
1. Write each of the following functions in the form w = u(x, y) + iu(x,y).
(a) f(@) = 32 +5248 +1 (b) a(2) = I/z
@ho= ss @) q(2) = a
(e) F(z) = e* () G(z) =e? te
2. Find the domain of definition of each of the functions in Prob. 1.
3. Describe the range of each of the following functions.
(a) f(@) =z+5 forRez>0
(b) g(z) = 2 forz in the first quadrant, Re z > 0, Im z>0
1
(c) AQ) = z for 0 <|z| <1
(d) p(z) = 223 for z in the quarter-disk |z| < 1,0 < Arg z< ;
4. Show that the inversion mapping w = f(z) = 1 /z Maps
(a) the circle |z| =r onto the circle Jw| = 1/7;
(b) the ray Arg z = 6, —7 < Oy < , onto the ray Arg w = —6p:
(c) the circle |z — 1} = 1 onto the vertical line x = 1/2.
5. For the-complex exponential function f(z) = e® defined in See, 1.4:
(a) Describe the domain of definition and the Tange,
(b) Show that f(~2 = I/f(z).
(c) Describe the image of the vertical line Re z=],
(d) Describe the image of the horizontal line Im z = 7 /4.
(e) Describe the image of the infinite stip 0 < In z < w/4. 2.1 Functions of a Complex Variable 57
6. The Joukowski mapping is defined by
w=J(Z=
NI
(: + :) :
z
Show that
(a) JQ) =J(/2.
(b) J maps the unit circle |z| = 1 onto the real interval [—1, 1].
(c) J maps the circle |z] =r (r > 0,7 ¢ 1) onto the ellipse
we y2
+———_, =1,
Leer ea)
which has foci at +1.
7. A function of the form F(z) = z +c, where ¢ is a complex constant, generates
a translation mapping. Sketch the image of the semidisk |z| < 2, Im z = 0, [see
Fig. 2.2(a)] under F when (a) ¢ = 3; (b) ¢ = 2i; (ec) c = —1 —i.
8. A function of the form G(z) = e'¢z, where @ is areal constant, generates a rotation
mapping. Sketch the image of the semidisk |z| < 2, Im z = 0 [see-Fig, 2.2(a)]
under G when (a) ¢ = 77/4; (b) ¢ = —7/4; (€) @ = 37/4.
9. A function of the form H(z) = oz, where p is a positive real constant, generates a
magnification mapping when p > 1 and a reduction mapping when p < L. Sketch
the image of the semidisk |z| < 2, Imz > 0 [see Fig. 2.2(a)| under H when (a)
p = 3; (b) p = 1/2.
10. Let F() = 2 +i, G(z) = 42, and H(z) = 2/2. Sketch the image of the.
semidisk |z| < 2, Im z > 0 [see Fig. 2.2(a)] under each of the following composite
mappings:
(a) G(F (2) (b) G(H@))
(ce) H(F@)) (d) F(G(H(@)
VW. Le FQ) =7-3.6(@ = —iz, and H(z) = 2z. Sketch the image of the circle
}z| = 1 under each of the following composite mappings:
(a) G(F@) (b) G(H())
(c) H(F(2)) (d) F(G(A())
i = bi Jex constants, is called
12. A function of the form f(z) = az+b, where a and bare comp ;
a linear transformation. Show that every linear transformation can be expressed 2s
the composition of a magnification (or reduction; Prob. 9), a rotation (Prob. 8), an
a translation (Prob. 7). Deduce from this that a linear transformation maps lines to
lines and circles to circles. [HINT: Write a in polar form.] 2.2 Limits and Continuity
TB
In closing this section, we wish to emphasize an important ‘distinction between
the concepts of limit in the (one-dimensional) real and complex cases, For the latter
situation, observe that a sequence {zn}° may approach a limit zq from any direction in
the plane, or even along a spiral, etc, Thus the manner in which a sequence of numbers
approaches its limit can be much more complicated in the complex case.
EXERCISES 2.2
5
9.
10.
11.
12.
Sketch the first five terms of the sequence (i/2)",n = 1, 2,3, ...,and then describe
the convergence of this sequence,
. Sketch the first five terms of the sequence (2/)", 1 = 1.2,3,..., and then describe
the divergence of this sequence.
Using Definition 1, prove that the sequence of complex numbers zn = X_ + fn
converges to zo = Xo +/yo if and only if.x,; converges to xp and y, converges to Yo.
[HINT: [xn—x0] < (Zn —-Zol, Iyn—Yo! S bzn—Zol. and |zn—zol < btn—xol+l¥n— ol]
. Prove that z, — Zo if and only if Z,; — 7 asm —> 00.
Prove that limy—+o0 Zn = 0 if and only if lim) +20 [Zn = 0 using Definition |.
. Prove that if |zo| < 1, then z) -> Gas — oo. Also prove that if |zo| > 1, then the
sequence zj diverges.
Decide whether each of the following sequences converges, and if so, find its limit.
j i
(@) n= (b) 2, =i(-1" (© ze =Are(-1+ 7)
n(2+i)
1 ing x00)
n+l @a=(+) Zn = XP 5
(d) tn =
Use Definition 2 to prove that lim, +14; (62 - 4) = 2+ 61.
Use Definition 2.to prove that lim. 1/z = i.
Use Theorem ! to prove Theorem 2.
Find each of the following limits.
2 ii 243
(a) lim, (2-50)° (b) Tiny iz
reat ai
2 2
2+9
(c) lim, Fj (d) tim pol
rose
242
zo + Azy — 2 lim [2-1
© im © tn eo
Show that the function Arg Z ig discontinuous at each point on the nonpositive real
axis, 10 Analytic Functions
Definition 5. A coniplex-valued function f(z) is said to be analytic on an open
set G if it has a derivative at every point of G.
We emphasize that analyticity is a property defined over open sets, while differen.
tiability could conceivably hold at one point only. Oceasionally, however, we shall Use
the abbreviated phrase “f (z) is analytic at the point Zp)” to mean that fi (2) is analytic
In some neighborhood of zg. A point where f is not analytic but which is the limit of”
points where f is analytic is known as a singular point or singularity. Thus we can
say that a rational function of z is analytic at every point for which its denominator
is nonzero, and.the zeros of the denominator are singularities. If f(z) is analytic on
the whole complex plane, then it is said to be entire. For example, all polynomial
functions of z are entire,
As we shall see in the next few chapters, analyticity is the criterion that we haye
been seeking, for functions to respect the complex structure of the variable z. In fact,
Sec. 5.2 will demonstrate that all analytic functions can be written in terms of z alone
(no x, y. or 2).
When a function is given in terms of teal and imaginary parts as 1 (x, y) +iu(x, y),
EXERCISES 2.3
1. Let f(z) be defined in a neighborhood of 29. Show that finding
lim, [f @o+ Az) ~ Ff (z0)]/Az
is equivalent to finding
Jim Ef (2) ~ Fle) te ~ 20),
2. Prove that if f(2 is differentiable at 2g, then
F(2) = f(z) + f"(aa(z~ 20) + (2) ~ 29),
where A(z} Oasz—> Za.
. f(z) .
tf .
3 Prove that if isd er entiable at 204 then It ig Contr wous at 20. [HINT Use
Some authors use th
lye function" © Words holontornhie og regular t .
nn” Was first used by Marquis de Condoreet (7433 os yt. The terminology “ana- 2.3 Analyticity
(a) Re z (b) Im z (c) |z]
5. Prove rules (5) and (7).
6. Prove that formula (4) is also valid for negative integers n.
7. Use rules (5)-(9) to find the derivatives of the following functions.
(a) f(z) = 62? + 82 +iz+10 (b) f@) = (2 _ ai) °
_9 3
0 fa = (a) f(y = 242)
i+ Oct m (2+izt1)
(e) f(z) = 6 (23 — 1)' (2 +52)!
8. (Geometric Interpreiation of f") Suppose that f is analytic at zo and f'(zo) 4 0.
Show that
lim Lf (z) — F(zo)h =
a |z—20l
|F'(20)]
and
dim larg Lf (2) ~ f (zo)] — arg (z — 29)} = are f'(z0).
Thus, on setting w = f(z) and wo = f (zo) we see that for z near zo, the mapping
f dilates distances by the factor | f’(zo)k: .
jw — wol © Lf'(zo)1 x le — Zal-
Also, f rotates vectors emanating from zo by an angle of arg f’(za):
arg (w — wo) % arg (z — zo) + arg f’ (Z0)-
In other words, for z near zo the mapping w = f (z) behaves like the linear trans-
formation
w= f (Zo) +f (zo) (2 — 20)
=c+el%p(z — 79).
(See Prob, 12, Exercises 2.1)
9. For each of the following determine the points at which the function is not analytic.
l iz? 4 2z
——_—— b
(@) 345i ©) 41
32-1 2 2 2
7 (d) z (227-32 +1
apie ( )
Let f(z) = |zI?. Use Definition 4 to show that f is differentiable at z = 0 but is not
differentiable at any other point. (HINT: Write
\zp + Az —lzol? _ @o-+ Az) ( + Az) ~ 20%
dz 7 Az
10.
2 +01
= %o + AZ 07 2.4 The Cauchy-Riemann Equations 7
Using Theorem 6 and the Cauchy-Riemann equations, one can further show that
an analytic function f(z) must be constant wh i iti
A dome De en any one of the following conditions
Re f(z) is constant;
Im f(z) is constant;
| f(z)| is constant. (1)
The proofs are left as problems.
EXERCISES 2.4
1. Use the Cauchy-Riemann equations to show that the following functions are no-
where differentiable.
(a)w=2Z (b) w = Re z (c) w = 2y —ix
2. Show that A(z) = x° + 3xy® - 3x + iG? + 3x*y — 3y) is differentiable on the
coordinate axes but is nowhere analytic.
3, Use Theorem 5 to show that g(z) = 3x? 4+ 2x —3y* — 1+ i(6xy + 29) is entire.
Write this function in terms of z.
4. Let ,
feo= | eye + ix yA)? +y’) itz #0,
Show that the Cauchy-Riemann equations hold at z = 0 but that f is not differen-
tiable at this point. [HINT: Consider the difference quotient f(4z)/Az for Az + 9
along the real axis and along the line y = x-]
5. Show that the function f(z) = e*'-* [cos(2xy) +/ sin(2xy)] is entire, and find its
derivaiive.
6. If and v are expressed in terms of polar coordinates (r. 9), show that the Cauchy-
Riemann equations can be written in the form
au _1av ay _ tou
arr 06" arr 80°
[HINT: Consider the difference quotient ( f (z)— f Zo))/(@—zo). a8 2 > 20 = roe
along the ray arg z = and along the circle |z| =ro-]
7, Show that if ewo analytic functions f and g have the same derivative throughout a
domain D, then they differ only by an additive constant. [HINT: Consider f — g.]
8, Show that if f is analytic ina domain D and either Re f (2) or lm f(z) is constant
in D, then f(z) must be constant in D.
9. Show, by contradiction, that the function F(z) = |22 - 2| is nowhere analytic be-
cause of condition (7). Analytic Functions
Figure 2.11 Laplace's equation for the region of Example 2.
Solving for A and B we find the solution to be
g(x.) =2 (x=?) = 1. a
This example was clearly contrived. In Chapters 3 and 7 we shall consider more
profound applications of this idea,
EXERCISES 2.5
1, Verify directly that the real and imaginary parts of the following analytic functions
$
satisfy Laplace's equation.
I
(a) f() =2 +22 +1 (b) gt) =~
(c) A(z) = & ‘
. Find the most general harmonic polynomial of the form ax* + bxy + cy”.
. Verify that each given function u is harmonic (in the region where it is defined) and
then find a harmonic conjugate of 1.
(a)u=y (b) « =e" sin y
(Qu=xy—x+y (d) « =sin.xcoshy
(e) # = In \z| for Rez > 0 ()}u=Ime’
» Show that if v(x, y) is a harmonic conjugate of u(x, y) ina domain D, then every
harmonic conjugate of u(x, y) in D must be of the form u(x, y) + a, where a is a
real constant.
Show that if v is aharmonic conjugate for 1, then —n is a harmonic conjugate for v.
. Show that if v is a harmonic conjugate of # ina domain D, then wv is harmonic
in D. 3.2 The Exponential, Trigonometric, and Hyperbolic Functions 15
aud using these formulas one can transform the trigonometric identities (6}+-(11) imo
their hyperbolic versions. For example, replacing z by iz in the identity (8) yields the
familiar hyperbolic identity cosh” z — sinh* 2 = 1.
The four remaining complex hyperbolic functions are given by
tanh z= sinh z coth c t= coshz h ]
~*~ cosh2’ ee inhe) SE cosh 2’ esch z= sinhz*
EXERCISES 3.2
. Show that e? =(1 +’) A/2 if and only if z = (r/4-+ 2kr)i,k = 0.41, 42.0...
, Le f@y=e — (l+24+2/2+27/6), Show tha £90) =0,
. Find the sum S7yoy ek.
Let w (# 0) have the polar representation w = re!. Show that
exp(log r + /@) = w (base ¢ logarithm).
Pw hy
5, Write each of the following numbers in the form a + bi.
exp(1 + 37)
(a) exp(2 + i /4) (b) expC +ix/d
(©) sin(27) (d) cos(1 — i)
(e) sinh(1 + z7/) (f} cosh(iz/2)
. Establish the trigonometric identities (8) and (9).
. Show that the formula e'* = cos z + isin z holds for all complex numbers z.
. Verify the differentiation fornmlas (13).
ec oann
. Find dw/dz for each of the following.
(a) w = exp(srz*) (b) w = cos(2z) + i sin (:)
(©) w = exp[sin(2z)] (d) w = tan’ z "
(e) w = [sinhe + 1P () w = tanhz
Explain why the function f(z) = sin(z’) + e7* + iz is entire.
11. Explain why the function Re (=) is harmonic in the whole plane.
10
12. Establish the following hyperbolic identities by using the relations (14) and the cor-
responding trigonometric identities.
(a) cosh? z - sinh*z = |
(b) sith(z; ++ <2) = sinh z; cosh zg + cosh z1 sinh z2 3.2 The Exponetitial, Trlgonometric, and Hyperbolic Functions
22.
23.
24,
28,
PANES gerne ee
1i7
2-plane
y
w-plane
Figure 3.2. Mapping of a rectangle under w = e7.
Prove that for any m distinct complex numbers’21.29,...., An (he A; fori F J),
the functions ¢4)*, e#2*,..., e%"= are linearly independent on C. In other words,
show that if ee"! + oye? 4... + cne’m= = 0 for all z, then c) = cp = =
¢m = 0. [HINT: Proceed by induction on #7. In the inductive step, divide by one of
the exponentials and then take the derivative]
Below is an outline of an alternative proof that sin? z + cos? z = 1 for alll z. Justify
each step in the proof.
(a) The function f(z) = sin? z+ cos? z is entire.
(b) f’(z) = 0 for all z.
(ce) f(z) is a constant function.
(ad) f(0)=1.
(e) f(z) =1 forall z.
Using only real arithmetic operations, write a computer program that, when given
as input the real and imaginary parts (x,y) of ¢ =x + iy, produces as output the
real and imaginary parts of (a) e°, (b) sin z, and (c) coshz.
The behavior of the function e’/* around z = 0 is extremely erratic; in Sec. 5.6
this point is classified as an “essential singularity.” Find values of z. all located in
the tiny disk [z| < 0.001, where e'/* takes the value (a) i, (b) ~1, (€) 6.02 x 10%
(Avogadro's mouber), (d) 1.6 x 107"? (the electronic charge it Coulombs). 3.3 The Logarithmic Function
123
Example 2
Determine a branch of =] 3 4 .
yO). J (2) = log(z* — 2) thar is analytic at z = 0, and find f (0) and
Solution. The multiple-valued function f (2) isth iti
; ; t @ Composition of the logari
with the analytic funciion g(z) = 23 ~ 2. Thus, by the chain vale, it suffices tone
any branch of the logarithm that is analytic at (0) = —2, In particular, F(z) =
£_/4(8(Z)) solves the problem. For this choice, —o—
F (0) = L_npa(O — 2) = Log2+iz,
F'(0) = £1 pa(2(0 Q) = £0 _
) =r/aC8(0))g°(0) a0) ="
We conclude this section with a word of warning. When complex arithmetic is
incorporated into computer packages, all functions must of necessity be programmed
as Single-valued. The complex logarithm, for instance, is usually programmed as our
“principal value,” Log z. This invalidates some identitites, such as Eq. (6), since it is
not true in general that Log z1z2 = Log z1 + Log z3. (See Prob. 3.)
EXERCISES 3.3
1. Evaluate each of the following.
(a) logi (b) log(! — i)
(c) Log(—#) (d) Log(v3 + i)
2. Verify formulas (6) and (7).
3. Show that if zi =i and 2. =i —1, then y
Log zizz2 # Logz1+ Loga.
4, Prove that Log ¢ = 2 if and only if—z < Imz sz.
5. Solve the following equations.
(a) e = 2i (b) Log(?-1)= % (e*+e*+1=0
6. Find the error in the following “proof” that z = —z: Since z = (—2)", it follows
that 2Logz = 2 Log(—2); and hence Logz = Log(~z), which implies that z =
eB? — ebos(-2) = 2,
7. Use the polar form of the Cauchy-Riemann equations (Prob. 6 in Exercises 2.4) to
give another proof of Theorem 4,
Without directly verifying Laplace's equation, explain why the function Log |z| is
harmonic in every domain that does not contain the origin:
8 Elementary Functiong
6
Figure 3.19 Points ix + (1 —x?)!/? for [x] < 1.
and the formulas
4 cos"! 2) = —a! +1 M1
Fy (eos I= qa (z#+1), (11)
do 1 .
a OTe AH). (12)
Notice that the derivative in Eq. (12) is independent of the branch chosen for tan—! Zz
whereas the derivative in Eq. (11) depends on the choice of the square root used in the
branch. of cos~! z.
The same methods can be applied to the inverse hyperbolic functions. The results
sinh! z=tog[2 + (2 +1)!" (13)
cosh™! z = log [z +2 -1) | , (14)
_ 1 l+z
tanh! z = — Jog — 7% (z 41). (15)
2° °1-2
EXERCISES 3.5
I. Find all the values of the following.
(a) if (b) (~1)7/3 mi
@agnh! @ uti o
2. Show from Definition 5 that if z # 0, then 29 — 1.
3, Find the princi | i i i
follone P Ipal value (‘.e,, the value Biven by the principal branch) of each of the
(a) 412 :
» (oy (+i 3.6 *Application to Oscillating Systems 443
prescription (8) or (9), The complex current response would si
ly then be multipl
by the constant (“phasor”) a, and imply then be multiplied
In conclusion we reiterate the two advantages of using complex notation in ana-
lyzing linear sinusoidal systems. First, the representation of general sinusoids (8) is
compact and leads naturally to a reinterpretation of the sinusoid in terms of amplitudes
and phases, as is evidenced by comparing Egs. (15) and (16). And second, the process
of differentiation is replaced by simple multiplication. It is important to keep in mind,
however, that only the real part of the solution corresponds to physical reality and that
the condition of linearity is of the utmost importance,
EXERCISES 3.6
1. What is the steady-state current response of the circuit in Fig. 3.20 if the power
supply voltage is V; = sin wr?
2. Find a formula for the complex constant (“phasor”) a so that the general sinusoid at
frequency v = w/ (27),
ay cos(wot + y1) + a2 cos(wt + yz) b+ ++ + Am COS(wt + Yin)
+ by sin(wor + 81) + bo sin(wt + 82) + -++- bq sin(wt + 8,)
is expressed as Re ae!”
3. Verify the expression in Eq. (15).
4. Using the techniques of this section, find the steady-state current output J; of the
circuits in Fig, 3.23,
5. In the limit of very low frequencies, a capacitor behaves like an open circuit (infinite
resistance), while an inductor behaves like a short circuit (zero resistance). Draw
and analyze the low-frequency limit of the circuit in Fig. 3.20, and verify expression
15) in this limit.
6. Repeat Prob. 5 for the high-frequency limit. (What are the behaviors of the capacitor
and inductor in this case?)
7, The operation of synchronous and induction motors requires that a rolating magnetic
flux be established inside the motor; that is. if we regard a cross section plane of
the motor to be the complex z-plane, the motor needs a magnetic flux vector which
rotates like the complex number e, Now a solenoid whose coils are wound around
an axis directed along the complex number a produces a magnetic fiux in the interior
of the motor given by 7()a, where /(f) is the real current in its windings, See
Fig, 3.24, Complex Integration
160
(©) the are of the circle |z] = R lying. in the second quadrant, from z = Ri to
c
2=-R
th egment of the parabola y = x2 from the point (1, 1) to the point (3, 9)
(d) thes
ishes i to ensure that smooth
iti t2'(t) never vanishes is necessary
a ee wth co Conse the curve traced by 2(t) = Pip, -1<
curves .
r<1] . |
3, Show that the ellipse x2/a?+yr/b? = lisa smooth curve by producing an admis-
, sible parametrization.
. Kdentify
Show that the range of the function z(f) = p+ ir’, -1 <1 <1, isasmooth curve
even though the given parametrization is not admissible.
the interior of the simple closed contour in Fig..4.13. Is I" positively
oriented?
Figure 4.13 Contour for Prob. 5.
6» Let y-be adirectéd smooth curve. Show thatifz = z(r),¢ <1 < b, is an admissible
parametrization.of 7 consistent with the ordering on y, then the same is true of
bwa, ad~be
d-—c d-e
ain=e( ) (cSt 0 there exists a polynomial P() sich that
\f@)-P@} <¢ forall zon I,
Assuming this fact, prove that if f is entire, then
(@) fr f(2)dz=0 forall closed
contours T’. [HINT: Use the result of Prob. 2.)
(bh). f is the derivative of an entir
& function.
4, qe or false: If f is analytic at each Point of a closed contour’, then fp f(z) dz =
5. Explain why Example 2 Shows that
I the furiction f(z)
In the punctured Plane C \ {0}.
= I/z has-no antiderivative Complex Integra tion
200
‘the To and I) can each be shrunk
in the text: If the contours an each |
2, Prove te tuement nary then Fp can be Continuously deformed into”; in D, (Do
i. Pesume ta To and Pr; are defonnable to the same point.)
not assu
R * le [2 — 31 = 1 traverseq
z| < 5, and let f be the circ 3
* i Se re aivasion stating froin the point z = 4. Decide which of the
in 0 , d zs
following contours are continuously deformable to T in D
(a) the circle |z — 3| = | taversed once in the positive direction starting from the
pointz = 2
(b) the point z= 37 a
(c) the circle |z} = 2 traversed once in the positive direction starting from the
pointz =2
(d) the circle |z + 3] = 1 rraversed once in the positive direction starting from the
pointz = —2
(e) the circle |z — 3| = | traversed twice in the negative direction starting from
the point z = 4
4, Let I be the unit circle {z} = 1 traversed once counterclockwise and then once
clockwise, starting from z = |. Construct a function z(s, t) which deforms Ig to
the single point z = | in ary domain D containing the unit circle, Verify directly
that the conclusion of Theorem 8 ig true for these two contours,
S. Write: down a function 2(s, t) deforming Ip into Ty in the domain D, where Ig is
the ellipse 47/44 y2/9 — | traversed. once counterclockwise starting from (2, 0),T
‘is the circle [z| = 1 traversed once counterclockwise starting from (1, Q) and D is
the annulus 1/2 < [2] < 4; (HINT: Start with the parametrization x(t) = 2cos 2,
Mt) = 3sin2n7,0 <7 < I, for Tp]
Problems 6-8 refer to Sec, 44h,
6. It is well known from Potential theory that if the line integrals of a vector field
VG, y) are independent of path (i.e:, if V isa “conservative” field), then there is a
scalar function of position (x, y) such that VY = 46/8x and Vy = 4@/ay (under
Fens onions we say that ¢ is a potential for V). Apply this result to the vector
ne J (2) and i f (Z) to prove that Property Gii) implies @) in Theorem 7. What is
Telationship between the (analytic) antiderivative F(z) and the potentials?
7. In vector analysis a vector field V~=(V,
nents satisfy ¥2) is said to be irrotationat if its compo-
Vi _ Va.
. ay ax?
itis called solenoidal it
MN avy
ay 212 Complex Integration
where we have written the integrand in each term so as to display the relevant singu-
larity. These integrals along I"; and Fz can be evaluated by using Eq. (14) within = 2
and m = |; the desired value is
Te (22) moni ett) Lagi onic ani.
"G1? |,00
I! dz z
EXERCISES 4.5
1. Let f be analytic inside and on the simple closed contour T. What is the value of
1
_ fF) dz
ani Jr 2-Z
when zg lies outside ['?
Let f and g be analytic inside and on the simple loop T. Prove that if f (2) = g(z)
for all zon, then f(z) = g(z) for all z inside I.
3. Let C be the circle |z| = 2 traversed once in the positive sense. Compute each of
the following integrals.
sin 3z ze~ COsZ
dz dz
@ [es z wf 3 z © f Fea
52° 42244 et sinz
fo e- OL arp Of acrae
4. Compute
zt+i
————. dz,
[ 347%
(a) the circle Jz] = | traversed once counterclockwise.
2
where C is
(b) the circle jz 4-2 —F] =2 traversed once counterclockwise,
(c) the circle jz — 27 | = | waversed once counterclockwise.
5. Let C be the ellipse x7/4 4 y?/9 = | traversed once in the positive direction, and
define
2
~- 2
Gz) = ptt?) (2 inside C}.
(oa ae
Find GU), G'(), and G"(-i).
6. Evaluate
hat
——s dz,
P (2241)
where I js the cirele |z] = 3 Uaversed once counterclockwise, [HINT: Show that
the integral can be written as the sum of two integrals around small circles centered
at the singularities. ] 4.6 Bounds for Analytic Functions
219
Figure 4.58 Graph of [22 + 3z—1| for |z| <1.
EXERCISES 4.6
L. Let f(z) = 1 /(1 —2)?,andlet0 < R< |. Verify that max | f(2) =1f—Ry,
and also show f)(0) = (# + 1)!, so that by the Cauchy estimates
(nt+Di< —
R'(1— RP
2. Suppose that f is analytic in |z| < | and that LF (z)| < 1/1 —lzl). Prove that
!
|F | < WILD Q —5 for all z in D.
Show by example that a harmonic function need not have an analytic completion in
a multiply connected domain. [HINT: Consider Log |z]-]
ple for harmonic functions in an arbitrary do-
ablish a lemma analogous to Lemma !
x
3, Prove the maximum-minimum princi
main. [HINT: Theorem 26 can be used to est
in Sec. 4.6. Then argue as in Theorem 23.]
What is the plrysical interpretation of the maximum-minimum principle in steady-
state heat flow?
> 5.2 Taylor Series
ag
will be recognized as the Taylor series for 4 Sinw, with w =
a well-known trigonometric identity! mi 2z. We have reproduced
Example 5
Find the first few terms of the Maclaurin series for lanz
Solntion. The expressions for the higher derivatives of tan z are cumbersome
so let’s try fo use the Cauchy product. First observe that cos z - tanz = sinz. Now set
tan z = 0329432! for |z| < 2/2. (Why 7/22) The product cos z -tanz then becomes
2 4
zz
(1 G4 G oo) (Cotati tae raat tot)
_ a0 2 a) 3 a2 ao
=a -=— _)- 4
vtace(o-$) 240-2) Be).
3 a) 5.
+ (as att) ee
Identifying this with sin z = z— 2/3! + 2/ 3i—---. we solve recursively and find
, I 2
a9=0, a;=1, a =0, a3 = 3, a4 = 0, as= Fe ete.
Thus 3 5
2 2z
tanga zt+—4eHe..,
an Z tata t
The shrewd reader will observe that we have actually uncovered an indirect method of
dividing Taylor series! 1
In closing this section we would like to point out that the proof of the. validity
of the Taylor expansion substantiates the claim, made in Sec. 2.3, that any analytic
function can be displayed with a formula involving z alone, and not Z. x, or y.
EXERCISES 5.2
1. Using Definition 3, verify each of the following Taylor expansions by finding a
general formula for {4 (zo).
2 3
2 BGO yy EE... =
(a) oS = De 7 Hl-2t5 3 ’ zo =0
oF 2 of
ow gf wg _
= ——=!14+—-4+—+4+°-: zo = 0
(b) coshz b (2j)! 2I At
oo p2ftl 3 2h
te —=ztat¢yte =m =0
(c) sinh = 2 O74! 3! St Series Representations for Analytic Functions
276
EXERCISES 5.5
1. Find the Laurent series for the function 1/(z+-z7) in each of the following dom, sins;
b) 1 < |z|
(a) 0 < |z[/ <1 (
(e)0<|z+1|<1 (d) 1 <|z4+1]
2. Does the principal branch /Z have a Laurent series expansion in the domain C. {0}7
ae z : Phe .
3. Find the Laurent series for the function @+DG@-D in each of the following
domains.
(a) |z| <1 (b) 1 0.
5. Find the Laurent series for * a in0< |z—4| <4,
l\,
6. Find the Laurent series for 2" cos ( =) in |zf > 0.
7. Obtain the first few terms of the Laurent series for each of the following functions
in the specified domains.
1
— for 0 < {z| < 2x
e~]
ellz
(a) zy for |z| > 1 (b)
(c) ese z for0 < {z| Ois given by
where
an
= (~])* I
4A = (D0) re 5 / COs(kO — Asing) do.
0 5.6 Zeros and Singularities
285
as g(z)/(z — 29)” with ¢ analytj
can be written as eeaye - zo) with wei md Menger are en
form exhibits a zero of order lmn| at zo. If m is 2e10 then fh a remove 20% the latter
at 70. 5 as a removable singularity
The only other possibility is that no su
can endow (z ~ 29)" f(z) with a nonzero Ii
(and not worth “civilizing”), it has an ess
numbers as values in any neighborhood o
ch m exists, that is, no power of (z — zo)
mit at 0. Then unless f is identically zero
ential singularity at zo, taking all complex
f 29 (With, possibly, one exception),
EXERCISES 5.6
1. Find and classify the isolated singularities of each of the following functions.
Zt! wpe oe —
2th ze Oa qt® (d) Bol
I sin(3z) 3 I
(e) tan z (f) cos (: -t) me) =
z (g) Z 2 (h) cot z
2. What is the order of the pole of
1
f(Q = ——,,
(2cosz—2 +27)
at 2 = 0? (HINT: Work with 1/f(z).J
3. For each of the following, construct a function f, analytic in the plane except for
isolated singularities, that satisfies the given conditions.
(a) f has a zero of order 2 at z = i and a pole of order 5 at z = 2 — 33.
(b) f has a simple zero at z = 0 and an essential singularity at z = 1.
(c) f has a removable singularity at z = 0, a pole of order 6 at z = 1, and an
essential singularity atz = /.
(4) f has a pole of order 2 at 2 = 1 +i and essential singularities at z = 0 and
z=.
4. Give a proof of Lemma 8.
5. For each of the following, determine whether the statement made is always true or
sometimes false.
(a) If f and g havea pole at zo, then f + g has a pole at zo.
(b) Tf f has an essential singularity at zo and g has-a pole at zo, then f + g has
an essential singularity at Zo-
(c) If f(zy has-a pole of order im at
z=0,
z = 0, then f(z”) has a pole of order 2m at ies Representations for Analyt i
290 Series Rep Yule Funetions
If the pole occurs at z = 00, then f(1/w) has a pole at the origin and can p
expressed in the form
co
] an a—m+-1 a-1 a a
jy o or a, Ww.
fC) wrt + wil w » " (4)
Since f(z) is bounded near z = 0, it follows that f(I/w) is bounded for large [w),
and, as before, we conclude that a, = 0 for n > 0. Hence Eq. (4) becomes
f(2) = am” Hang nt te baz +9; (5)
thar is, f(z) 1s a polynomial in z.
Equations (3) and (5) categorize the totality of all functions possessing one pole in
the extended complex plane,
We note in passing that the theory of Fuchsian equations is based upon consider.
ations of singularities in the extended complex plane, and these have been extremely
helpful in relating many of the so-called “special functions” that arise in mathematical
physics; Ref, [3] discusses this application.
EXERCISES 5.7
1. Classify the behavior at'00 for each of the following functions (if a zero or pole,
give ils order):
(a) e (b) cosh z (e) zal
z+1
& Zi .
(@ 24 (e) (£) esinhz
sing 1
@®— th) = (i) ela Ye
2. Pp; : : . .
Prove that if f(z) is analytic at oo, then it has a seri¢s expansion of the form
wo
f@=y
n=O m
cOnverging uniformly outside some disk,
3. Const seri i i
Oustruct the series mentioned in Prob, 2 for the following functions
—] 2
(a) 27! z
(b) = |
zt+l1 ares Os >
4, State Picard’s theorem ( : :
Verify for o! forem (Sec. 5.6) for functions with ai 6.1 The Residue Theorem
313
Example 6
Compute
3/Z COs z
) ze —-—*
ans | + Az— | dz.
Solution. The given integral can Obviously be expressed as the sum
; 4fz : COs Z
p ze dz+ $ —
t léjes 2(Z a dz,
z)a5 <
which, by the residue theorem, equals
Qi [Res (20%; 0) + Res (a5 Fens 5% 0) +Res (oss n)).
Pq mp
These residues were computed in Examples ] and 4: the desired answer is therefore
EXERCISES 6.1
1. Determine all the isolated singularities of each of the following functions and com-
pute the residue at each singularity.
e ztl cosz z-1\3
ee d
a wt 0% @ (5)
@—, Osi (=) @mz: wi
°) Ge sil 3z z sinz
i) 22/ (1 — 72), where 4/Z denotes the principal branch.
2. Explain why Cauchy’s integral formula can be regarded as a special case of the
residue theorem.
3. Evaluate each of the following integrals by means of the Cauchy residue theorem.
: &
sin Z —— 7 dz
O Qiust—ae © Fes 0-2
a“ gt
(c) 2 tan zdz (d rp ,2e-per
jzl=2zr ; of 32+2 4,
= d 4
he Psinz ieea 2 +1
1
(g) a at
fz|=8 we +1 6.2 Trigonometric Integrals over (0, 2]
317
and so the integrand
a a
wae 1 21) (g—29)
has simple poles at these points. But only z; lies inside C, and the residue there is
given by ,
Res (g3 21) = jim (2 21) g(z) = lim
“>. z
a (< — 22)
__! :
u-2 | 3
Hence from Eq. (5)
a=? ani (b) 2,
i 23) V3
oF a
ae |
V3
EXERCISES 6.2
Using the method of residues, verify each of the following.
, [| _%#_
“Jo 2+sine 3
3 [ 840 ax
. 0 5 +2cosd ~ J21
3 f 46 _ 3aV5
“Jo B+2c080)2 25
wt
af oat
-z | +sin°é
9 i+acosé i-a*
6. [gerd ve), a> |b|>0
0
a+ bcosé be
f do atl) aso
2
0 (a+ sin? 0)” 2 (@?+a)°
me a,b>0
Dae sine 9 of pe cos? 6 ab 6.3 Improper Integrals of Certain Functions over (~00, 60) 395
— p+ dni
pr2n
Y
4
Tp=7; F22+lst+y,
Figure 6.6 Closed contour for Example 3,
again approaching Zero as p > oo Sincea > 0.
As a result, on taking the limit as p 00 we have
eft co at
ki de= ( |. ada . é
im Tape t l—e ) pv. dx. (8)
prow Ip =o 1 +e
Now we use residue theory to evaluate the contour integral in Eq. (8). For each
p > 0, the function e*?/(1 + ¢*) is analytic inside and on I’, except for a simple pole
at z = i, the residue there being given by
az eon
Res(ni) = -————| =p =e (9)
—(1+e*)
dz
z=ni
(recall Example 2, Sec. 6.1). Consequently, putting Eqs. (8) and (9) together we obtain
Co 0 ] . ani
pv. | Tret dx= Toe : (Qi) (-e )
oO
Ont
= evant — eant
x
a
~ sinar
EXERCISES 6.3
Verify the integral formelas in Problems 1-7 with the aid of residues.
% dx
1. py, ——_——- =a
pf ayaee
3 oO x 4 rT
. pv. I TG
~oo (x2 +9) 6 Residue Theory
996 ey
we only have to perform one evaluation of residues, in the upper
ively, Then .
respectively. the real or imaginary parts at the end. However, this shorteut jg
half-plane, and take ‘
not valid for Example 3 since
CO ght
™ cosx
, - dx,
px: f BE ar ere px. fy
cot ti
In fact the left-hand member is pure imaginary. as we have seen.
EXERCISES 6.4
Using the method of residues, verify the integral formulas in Problems [-3,
© cos(2x) a
= di =
1 pw. [. etl 2
co oxsina a .
dx = —,(3cos1+sin!
2. pv. [ x2 —27 +10 . ae ¢ )
co
3, [ 0088 yy
0 (P41)
Compute each of the integrals in Problems 4-9.
co ix
4, pv. / é dx
oot — 28
ela
© x sin(3x) Z
5 pv.
fom +444
oC enix
6. pv, —_—
py [sn dx
°° cos.
7 px. f —____—_
oo (x? +1) (x2 +4) *
8 Lr x? sin(2x)
0 (x41)
oo
9. pv. [ cos(2x) 9
—0 * 3
10. Derive the formula
co .
ps. f COS dx = xiel” if Imw > 0,
~90 Fw —ale7T” if Imw <0, Residue Theory
344
d indent around each of its simple poles, as indicated in Fig. 6.15. Then since fo
nden s |
i lytic jnside the closed contour, we obtain
is ani
+e 2ix
-r I-r2
. +f +f 5 p ox tn try + Jp = 0, (9)
—p —l+r ltr, J I
Jr. Jp are the integrals of f(z) over Sry» Seas CH, Tespectively. Now by
where Jp,
ordan’s lemina we have ;
‘ lim Jp = 0,
poo
and from Eq, (5) of Lemma 4,
,= cin Res(—1) = iz lim &@ + IF (z)
lim Jy,
roo .
at i zerts _ —imze7?!
Se ml ~ 2 ,
and
lim J,, = —iz Res(1) = —rx lim (z — 1) f(z)
r—0* zl
vat i et tet
= 4m =
ia zwlz+l 2
Hence on taking the limits in Eq. (9) we get
fora] Qi Far gab vo at
pv / a dx= 1ze + 176 —Q=ixcos?2. E
-0 x7 — | 2 2
EXERCISES 6.5
1, Compute each of the following limits along the given circular ares.
(a) lim,_,9+ dz, where T, : 2 = rel, 0 <6 < a
. etiz
(b) Km, oe f 3 dz, where rT, iz=] + rei? au <0 +00 or as p > 07] Residue Theory
364
EXERCISES 6.7
1. Which of the following functions are meromorphic in the whole plane?
sin Z
(a)2z+2° (b) Logz © ay
at
(a) elfz (e) tanz () @_3y 7 3)2 +cosz
Let P(2) = ayz” + ayaaZ t+ FZ + 04 where ad, # 0. Explain why for
each sufficiently large value of R
¢ Zz
¢ Pe) dz = 2nzi.
|zl= P(2)
. Evaluate
. 1 § £@ 4
Imi Signs £(2)
2 +\3 02
z(z—iye*
hi z) = ————_—.-
where £2) = 37 aGaz — 18
. Let f(z) be analytic on the closed disk |z| < p, and suppose that f(z) # wp for all
z on the circle |z| = ». Explain why the value of the integral
1 FO,
amt Iizjap F(Z) — wo
equals the number of solutions of f(z) = wo inside the disk.
. Prove that if f(z) is analytic inside and on a simple closed contour C and is one
to-one on C; then f(z) is one-to-one inside C. [HINT: Consider the image curve
F(C).]
. Use Rouché’s theorem to show that the polynomial 26 4 427 — 1 has exactly two
zeros in the disk |z| < I.
7. Prove that the equation z? + 9z + 27 = 0 has no roots in the disk |z| < 2.
8. Prove that all the roots of the equation 26 — 52? + 10 = 0 lie in the annulus I <
10.
11,
\z| < 2.
. Find the number of roots of the equation 6z4 + 2? — 2z2 +2 -—1 = 0 in the disk
jel <1.
Prove that the equation z = 2 — e~= has exactly one root in the right half-plane.
Why must this root be real? .
ihe righ bare polynomial P(z) = z4 +223 + 32? +z +2 has exactly two zeros in
e.right half-plane. [HINT: Write P(iy) = (y? — 2)(y? - iy(1 — 2y*), and
show that (iy) = (y* — 2)(y7 - 1) +0 - 29)
R
fin arg P(iy) -k =0] 374 Conforinal Mapping
“Conformal Image Warping” by Frederick and Schwartz (see Ref. [9]), offers a sorte:
hat whimsical depiction of the mapping. .
" Notice that the upper half-circle, where the unknown function ¢ equals l, is
mapped to the positive imaginary axis, whereas the lower half-circle (where ¢ =~1)
corresponds to the negative imaginary axis. Consequently, by the methods of Sec, 3,4
we find the solution in the w-plane to be
2
yu, v) = ~ Arg(w).
Hence the solution to the original problemi is derived from y by the mapping (7):
2 2 l+z
(x, y) = Vax, y), VOX, 9) = = Ars(f(2)) = x fs ( = *) .
A little algebra results in the expression
(x,y) = = tan? —2¥
2, y) = — tan7 * ——>—_.,
ry x 1—x? — y2
where the value of the arctangent is taken to be between —x/2 and x/2. Note that
(x, 0) = 0, as we would expect from symmetry. 1
With this example as motivation we devote the next few sections to a study of
mappings given by analytic functions. The final two sections of the chapter will return
us to applications, iJlustrating the power of this technique in handling many different
situations. A table of some of the more useful mappings appears as Appendix II, for
the reader's future convenience,
The MATLAB toolbox mentioned in the preface provides an excellent tool for
visualizing most of the mappings studied in the chapter.
EXERCISES 7.1
1. Show that the function w = e® maps the half-strip x > 0, -2/2 < y < 2/2 onto
the portion of the right half w-plane that lies outside the unit circle (see Fig. 7.6).
What harmonic function W(w) does the w-plane “inherit,” via this mapping, from
the harmonic function @(z) = x + y? What harmonic function #(z) is inherited
from w(w) = u + v2
2. Suppose that Eqs. (5) and (6) describe a one-to-one analytic mapping. Let ¢ (x,y)
be arcal-valued twice-continuously differentiable function that is carried over in the
w-plane to the function
VG, v) = O(x(u, v), yl, v)).
(a) The gradient of (x, y) is the vector (9¢/dx, 36 /dy); it corresponds to the
complex number (recall Sec, 1.3) A@/dx +3 (46/ay). Similarly, the gradient 389 Conformal Mapping
EI
The remainder of this chapter will deal with constructing and applying specific
conformal mappings.
EXERCISES 7.2
1, Foreach of the following functions, determine the order m of the zero of the deriya-
tive f’ at zo and show explicitly that the function is not one-to-one in any neighbor.
hood of Zo.
(a) fM=2422+1,29 =-1
(h) f(z) = cosz, 2 = 0, 2, 427,...
(©) f@) =e. 20=0
2. Prove that if w = f(z) 1s analytic at zo and f’ (zo) # 0, thenz = f7}(w) js
analytic at wo = f (zo), and
df!
a0
dz
for w = wo, z = zo. [HINT: Theorem | guarantees that f7'(w) exists near wo
and Theorem 3 implies that f~!(w) is continuous. Now generalize the proof in
Sec. 3.2,]
3. What happens to angles at the origin under the mapping f(z) = 2° fora > 1? For
Q 0, onto the upper half-plane.
tion with the mapping w = z?. Make sure
Figure 7.21 Region for Prob. 11.
12, Find a Mébius transformation that takes the half-plane depicted in Fig. 7.22 onto
the unit disk |w| < 1.
Figure 7.22 Region for Prob. 12.
an electrical circuit oscillating at a frequency w
ch characterizes the voliage-currenl
ice R can take any value from 0
13, (Smith Chart) ‘The impedance Z ofan CON
is a complex number, denoted 4 A A in prael
relationship he ny value from 00 to oo. ‘Thus the usual representation of
0 oo and Bc 7.4 Mébius Transformations, Continued
12.
13.
14,
15.
16.
17.
18.
405
Figure 7.30 w;, w2 symmetric in'R and C.
Use the result of Prob. 11 toshow that for any two nonintersecting circles C; and C2
there always exists a MObius transformation that maps C, and C2 onto concentric
circles. [HINT: Map z, to the origin and z2 to infinity, where zz, <2 are points
symmetric with respect to both circles.]
Let zt, za, and zy be three distinct points that lie on a circle (or line) C. Prove
that z and z* are symmetric with xespect to C if and only if (2, 21.22.23) =
(Z, 21, 22,23).
Show that the distinct points w), wz, w3, and wy all lic on the same circle or line
if and only if the cross-ratio (w). w2, w3. wa) is real. [HINT: Consider the Mébius
transformation defined by
(w, w2, W3, Ws) = (2,0, 1, 00)
and observe that (z, 0,1, 00) = z-]
Verify that any transformation of the form ( 12) maps |z/ < 1 onto |w| <1.
Prove that every Mobius transformation mapping the interior of the unit disk to its
exterior takes the form (12) with |e| > 4.
Find a conformal map of the unit disk onto itself, t
Ou;
aking the point f/2 to the origin.
i i ; = 1,2.3) can be expressed
Show that the Mobius transformation taking (= 1,2.3) p
in determinant form as ew
wy, Z1Wil _¢,
wy 72W2
za W373
fia
a
be Conformal Mapping
SAGE
— . ing the orientation so that the specified domain
indicated in Fig. 7.41, again choosing t t
De ihe wh A left turn of x radians is called for at the corner “near w = —o0” and
ari ht turn of 2/2 radians occurs al w = 0. Selecting x, = -1 and x2 = 1 as the
respective preimages of these points we write, in accordance with Eq. (3),
fO=AgtY te -y?,
Using integral tables, with some labor we arrive at
vl—z—-~v2
— V2 VEL
f(a) = Ai ave V2l0g Gt
The selection of branches is quite involved in this case, so we shall leave it to the
industrious reader (Prob. 6) to verify that with the choice
3 m
logg =Log|t{+iargs, —5% +00, Im f(xy) > | as x > -0,
Re f(x) > —00, Im f(x) + 1 as x (-1)7,
Re f(x) > —oo, Im f@)30 as x— (It,
f(t) =0
Re f(x) > Q, Im f(x) > —oo as x> +00. EF
EXERCISES 7.5
1. Use the techniques in this section to find a conformal map of the upper half-plane
onto the whole plane slit along the negative real axis up to the point —1. [HINT:
Consider the slit as the limiting form of the wedge indicated in Fig. 7.42.]
2. Use the Schwarz-Christoffet formula to derive the mapping w = ./z of the upper
half-plane onto the first quadrant,
3. Map the upper half-plane onto the semi-infinite strip u > 0,0 < v < 1, indicated
in Fig. 7.43.
4, Show that the transformation
v= f° _ a
(1-08)
maps the upper half-plane onto the interior of an equilateral triangle. 130 Conformal Mapping
EXERCISES 7.6
1. Find the electrostatic potenti
in Fig. 7.57.
al @ in the semidisk with the boundary values as shown
-] @=0 [9-0 4
Figure 7,57 Region for Prob, i.
2. Find the clectrostatic potential in the upper half-plane exterior to the unit circle
under the conditions shown in Fig. 7.58.
Figure 7.58 Region for Prob, 2,
3. Find the temperature distribution in Fig. 7.59.
Figure 7.59 Region for Prob, 3, Conformal Mapping
Figure 7.78 Region for Prob. 2.
from the origin. Show that
etia
w(x. y) =Im ez | cosa tisina,/ 1 —
2
<
satisfies these conditions.
3, Find the temperature distribution in the first quadrant under the boundary conditions
indicated in Fig. 7,79.
Insulation
Figure 7,79 Region for Prob, 3,
4, Another feasible approach to Example 1 is to map the shaded region in Fig. 7.80
to the upper half-plane as follows: First use a Mébius transformation to map &
to oc and —R to 0. Argue that the shaded region then maps onto a 90° wedge,
which can be rotated if necessary to coincide with the first quadrant, Squaring
them maps conto the upper half-plane, and taking the imaginary part of the whole
transformation Should solve the problem of finding the stream function. Show that
the implementation of this scheme leads to the mapping
2
w= (25
z—R g.l Fourier Series (The Finite Fourier Transform)
459
_i ie
~ 0 T000-———
I ‘324 — 393;
2 707 ~ 707;
3 383 ~ gpa
4 = 1.000:
5-383 ~ 924;
6 707 ~ 707;
7 924 ~ 3837
8 -1.000
9-924 +,3833
10-707 -+4.707i
11 ~.383 +9247
12 +1.000i
13 383) -+..9247
14 907, -& 7077
Table 8.1: The numerical values of (e~ 7/8 : 7 =9,1.2..... 15}
Tf we could achieve the same savings for 16 values of S,.4¢, the number of multiplica-
tions would be reduced from 167 = 25610 16 x 3 = 48,
The fast Fourier transform (FFT) is an algorithm that systematically exploits these
rearrangements of terms in the evaluation of (27). The emergence of the FFT in the
late 1960s was a major milestone in modern system analysis and signal processing. For
values of N of the form 2", the total number of multiplications required for N values
of Sy.v is reduced to roughly Nm/2 = (N/2)log) N. Codes are readily available.
and small computers can perform. a 4096-point transform in seconds. An outline of
the basic strategy of the FFT is given in Problem i2; applications and error analyses
are discussed in the references.
EXERCISES 8.1
1. Compute the Fourier series for the following functions.
(a) Fr) =sis
t
3
cos" 5
3
() Fine (we
4S
I 2 zy cos2ur 40, a S10,
fe = +5 sin 4n27—1 7 |sint, OSt Bu sinpir
a=]
for F, with coefficients given by
2 x
by = “| F(t)sinnt dt.
Hig
State conditions for the Fourier sine series to converge to F(t) forO <¢ S 7 8.1 Fourier Series (The Finite Fourier Transform)
46]
(b) As in part (a), show tha
t the defini; .
a Fourier cosine series ton F(~2) F(t),
oo
> Oy COS nt
n=
D<: i).
State the conditions for Convergence on (0, sr}
7. Find the Fourier representation for the Periodic solutions of the following equations
dy 4
(a) an taf = sin’ t
Cf ad
(b) “+ + a +f <0, <2 <1 ——— sinat
n
n=l
and ~
x 4 cosnr
2 nr
n=l
roadd
respectively. (See Prob. 6.)
Suppose that we wish to solve the Dirichlet probiem for the unit disk and tat ihe
boundary values of the desired harmonic function for z= e*” are represented by the
series
Ad
of oo
U®@)= Yan cosn6 + yb: sin.
n=) n=1
Argue that the solution to the problem is given by
oo
wo nes
i sinnd,
i) — SY apr" cosnd +) Bar's
«(et)=¥ »
‘er methods ‘in solving partial differential
f ri “yp -
10. As an illustration of the power Oo n heat flow along a uniform rod of length
j i astalic pi
equations, consider the nons'
ture. The temperature T is
intal degrees tempera ’ ee
aintained at 2610 <8 : 7 d fime +. Hf the imitial
ng ve ies of osition x along the rod. (0 <4 S zt) an
now a function o. lL.
The Transforms of Applied Mathematics
(1 = 0) temperature distribution is specified to be f(x), the equations that T musi
satisfy are
aT) — PT)
aC?
TO.) = Tir =0
T(x, 0) = ff)
for 0 0, Assuming the validity of termwise differentiation of Fourier
expansions, show that te
TRON = Yan sinnxe
a=l
solves the equations, where a, is defined by
2 ¢7 .
ay = - | f()sinné dé.
x JO
(HINT: You wilt need the Fourier sine series, Prob. 6.] What is the limiting value of
T(x.) a5 ¢ —> 00? Interpret this.
Another illustration of the power of Fourier methods is provided by the vibrating
string problem. A taut string fastened at x = 0 and x = z is initially distorted into
the shape v = f(x), where w is the displacement of the string at the point x, and
then the string is released. The equations governing the displacement u(x, t) of the
string are
u(x, nN azu(x, 1)
ax? ar?
#(0, ) = u(z, 1) = 0
u(x, 0) = f(x)
du(x, 0) _
a
for 0 0. Again assuming the validity of termwise differentiations of
Fourier expansions, show that
x
ax, j= bn sin mx cos nt
n=l
solves the equations, where b, is defined by
2 7"
b, = =f () sinaé dé.
(HINT: Use the Fourier sine series again,] How would you modify this represenla-
tton if the “initial conditions” were interchanged to read
Hu, 0) =0
du(x.0)
A = FON? 82 The Fourier Transform
473
where M is the bound for |F|. This ceptai
‘ . Ta
integration along y2:t =x —~je, —p inly approaches ze
M
