CHAPTER 1 FLUID PROPERTIES

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INTRODUCTION

Fluid is important in life especially to human because 95% of human body

and 2/3 of earth surface is water. In Fluid Mechanics aspect, it’s involved
in many activities done in our lives like weather and climate, vehicles,
environment, physiology and medicine, and many more. As an engineer,
Fluid Mechanics is important to study in order to properly
design many facilities such as:

i. Water Supply System

ii. Wastewater Treatment Facilities
iii. Dam Spillways
iv. Valves, Flow meters, Hydraulic Shock absorbers and
Brakes
v. Air Craft ,ships ,submarines, and rockets
vi. Windmills ,turbines and pump
vii.Heating and air conditioning, etc.

1.1 WHAT IS FLUID?

Fluid can be defined as:

✔ Material continuum that is cannot to withstand a static shear stress but

instead deforms continuously under the influence of such forces,
irrespective to its magnitude.
✔ Fluid also responds with an irrecoverable flow and unable to retain any
unsupported shape (takes the shape of any solid body which comes
into contact).
✔ Fluids can be appearing to solids when it has a very small deformation
rates when flowing under their own weight such as ice.

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✔ It can be including gases (or vapour) or liquid phases of the physical
forms.
✔ It is also can be categorised into Newtonian Fluid and Non-Newtonian
Fluid.

What are the differences between liquids and gases?

Liquids and gases can be classified as a Fluid. The major differences

between liquids and gases are stated in Table below.

Table 1 The differences between liquids and gases.

Liquids (oil,water,etc) Gases (oxygen,air,etc)

Incompressible – if all pressure Compressible and easily deformed

removed (except its own vapour when the external pressure is
pressure). The cohesion between removed, its tend to expand
molecules holds them together, so indefinitely.
it’s does not expand indefinitely.

Fixed volume Volume is changes respect to

pressure/temperature.

Have free surface if the volume of Cannot form a free surface

container is greater than that liquid

Irrespective of the shape/size of its Completely fill any vessels in which

container it is place.

What is a vapour?

A vapour is a gas where the temperature and pressure it is very

near the liquid phase. Example is steam because its state and
condition is not from that of water. Water vapour is responsible for
humidity. A highly superheated vapour can classified as a gas where its

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state is far removed from the liquid phase. Air is a one of example of
highly superheated vapour and considered as a gas due to its state very
far from the liquid air. Changes in pressure and temperature or both will
affect the volume of gas and vapour and significant changes in
temperature and phase will involve during hot phenomena or known as
thermodynamics.

What are the differences between Fluid and Solid ?

The differences of fluid and solid is state in following table :

SOLID FLUID

It is ‘hard’ and not easily deformed It is ‘soft’ and easily deformed (we
and molecules of a solid are close can readily move through air)
together.

Attractive forces between

molecules are smaller.
Attractive forces
between
molecules large
and tends to retain
its shape

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E.g: steel ,concrete, etc.

An ideal elastic solid deform under Intermolecular cohesive forces in

load and deformation continue as fluid are weak to hold various
long as load applied if not it will elements of the fluid together.
return to original state. E.g : Span , Therefore, fluid can flow under
spring,etc. action of the slightest stress and
continue flow as long as the stress
While for plastic solid, deformation
is present.
will continue under sufficient load
and can prevent from rupture but
after load is removed it does not
return to its original state.

STRESS

E.g : water, oil etc.

1.2 WHAT IS FLUID MECHANICS?

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Fluid mechanics is the study of liquids behaviour and gases at rest and in
motion.Fluid Mechanics can be categories into three classes as following:

Figure 1 Three categories of Fluid Mechanics.

1.3 UNITS AND DIMENSION

In Fluid Mechanics, student will be able to study and understanding the

fluid properties. Therefore, it is important for student to know the various
systems of units and dimension used in Fluid Mechanics and engineering.
There is two unit standards applied in this subjects, include S.I
(International system of units) and British Engineering (or FPS) systems of
units.

International System of Units (S.I)

The basics measurement used in this systems are length (metres, m),
mass (kilogramme, kg), and time (seconds, s).

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British Engineering (or FPS) Systems of Units

Meanwhile in this system, the fundamental mechanical dimensions used

are length (foot, ft), mass (pound, lb), and time (seconds, s).

Basic Dimensions

In order to solving varies problem in Fluid Mechanics, there are three

basic dimension is used which is length (L), time (T) and mass (M).

The common dimensions and systems of units is the basic knowledge

which needs to be remembered by engineering student. Table 2 has listed
the important common dimension and units used in Fluid Mechanics.

Table 2 List of basic dimensions and units applied in Fluid Mechanics.

Dimension SI units To convert FPS units

(MLT system) from SI to
FPS
multiply by

Acceleration LT-2 m.s-2 3.281 ft.s-2

Area L2 m2 1.076E+1 ft2

Density ML-3 kg.m-3 1.940E-3 Slugs.ft-3 or

or 6.243E- lbm.ft-3
2

Energy ML2T-2 N.m or J 7.376E-1 lb.ft

Force MLT-2 N 2.248E-1 lb

Length L m 3.281 ft

Mass M kg 6.852E-2 Slug or lbm

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or 2.205

Power ML 2T-3 N.m.s-1 7.376E-1 ft.lb.s-1

Pressure ML-1T-2 N.m-2 2.089E-2 lb.ft-2

Volume L3T-1 m3.s-1 3.531E+1 ft3.s-1

flowrate

Velocity LT-1 m.s-1 3.281 ft.s-1

Viscosity ML -2T N.s.m-2 2.089E-2 lb.s.ft-2

(dynamic)

Viscosity L2T-1 m2s-1 1.076E+1 ft2s-1

(kinematic)

Specific M.L-2T-2 N.m-3 6.366E-3 lb.ft-3

Weight

Temperature θ °C TF=1.8Tc °F
+32°

(R.Munson, 2006)

Example 1

Determine the dimensions using MLT systems, for:

a) The product of forces times volume

b) The product of pressure times mass divided by area
c) Moment of a force divided by velocity

Solution

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a) Forces x Volume = N x m3
= MLT -2 x L3 = ML4T-2

b) Pressure x mass /area = N.m-2 x kg /m2

= ML-1T-2x M /L2 = M 2L -3T-2

c) Moment of force /velocity = Nm x m3

= ML 2T-2/LT-1 =MLT-1

1.4 FLUID PROPERTIES – DENSITY

1.4.1 Mass Density, ρ (rho)

In Fluid Mechanics , Mass density can be describe as mass per unit

volume :

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ρ (rho)= m /V

= γ /g (kg/m3 )

whereas : ρ = kg/m3 .In international system , a typical values for water is

1000 kg/m3 at 4°c. (See Appendix 1, in Table 1)

1.4.2 Specific Weight ,γ(gamma).

Specific weight is the weight per unit volume, γ(gamma). The

equation for specific unit weight is :

γ = ρg = W/V (N/m3)

whereas ; γ = N/m3. Usually, the values for water is 9.81 x103 N/m3 and
other additional values can be refer in Appendix 1, Table 1.

1.4.3 Specific Gravity (or Relative Density), SG .

Specific gravity or relative gravity, SG is defined as dimesionless ratio

of its mass density t or weight of fluid to the mass density or
weight of a substance taken as a standard. In this matter, solid or
liquid are referred to water as standard at the temperature of 4°C
(39.2°F) which the density of water at this temperature is 1000 kg/m3.

SG of substance = density of substance /density of

water@4°C

= weight of substance / weight of equal

volume of water

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= specific weight of substance/specific weight of
water

Whereas : SG = dimensionless and no unit.The typical values for

water,1.0 ; benzene,0.879 and other substances values can be refer to
Appendix 2, Table 2.

1.4.4 Specific Volume , v.

It can be defined as the reciprocal of the mass density which is can

be described as volume per unit mass .

ν = 1 /ρ (m3/kg)

whereas : ν = m3/kg .However this property is always used in

thermodynamics compare than fluid mechanics.

Example 2

If 4 m3 of oil weighs 27 kN, calculate its specific weight γ, mass density ρ,

and specific gravity .

Solution

Specific weight , γ = ρg = W/V

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=27 kN / 4 m3 = 6.75 kN/m3

Mass density , ρ (rho)= m /V = γ/g

= (6.75 x1000 N/m3)/ 9.81 m/s2 = 688.07 kg/m3

Specific gravity ,SG = specific weight of oil/specific weight of

water

= 6.75 kN/m3 / 9.81 kN/m3 = 0.688

1.5 IDEAL GAS LAW

 Gases are highly compressible in comparison to fluids, with changes

in gas density directly related to changes in pressure and
temperature through the equation p=ρRT.

 The ideal gas equation of state p=ρRT is a model that relates

density to pressure and temperature for many gases under normal
conditions.

 The pressure in the ideal gas law must be expressed as an absolute

pressure which is measured relative to absolute zero pressure.

 The standard sea-level atmospheric pressure is 14.6996 psi (abs) or

101.33kPa (abs).

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EXAMPLE 3

A compressed air tank has a volume of 0.84 ft 3. When the tank is filled
with air at a gage pressure of 50 psi, determine the density of the air and
the weight of air in the tank. Assume the temperature is 70 °F and the
atmospheric pressure is 14.7 psi (abs).

SOLUTION 3

P
ρ= = .... = 0.0102 slugs / ft 3
RT
W = ρg ( volume)
( )( )(
= 0.0102 slugs / ft 3 32.2 ft / s 2 0.84 ft 3 )
= 0.276slug ⋅ ft / s 2 = 0.276lb

PRESSURE VS. WEIGHT

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1.6 FLUID PROPERTIES - VISCOSITY OF A FLUID

What is viscosity of a fluid?

The viscosity of fluid is a measure of the amount of its resistance to a

shear force or extensional stress. There two factors which can affect the
resistance of a fluid from flowing, which is:

a) Cohesive forces between molecules – liquids have stronger cohesive

forces than gases.
b) Molecules interchange between layers of moving fluid – slower
moving fluid layers pulling the faster moving layers and vice versa.

When temperature is increase, viscosities of typical liquids will

decrease and viscosities of all gases will increases. It happens because
force of cohesion will decrease with temperature, predominates with
liquids, while with gases the predominating factor is the interchange of
molecules between the layers of different velocities.

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Figure 2 Dynamic (absolute) viscosity of some common fluids as a

function of temperature.

What is no-slip condition?

The fluid ‘sticks’ to the solid boundaries so their velocities are zero
relative to the solid boundaries and occurs with all viscous fluids.

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How to describe the “fluidity (viscosity)” of the fluid?

The bottom plate is rigid fixed, but the upper plate is free to move. If a
solid, such as steel, were placed between the two plates and loaded with
the force P, the top plate would be displaced through some small
distance, δ a. The vertical line AB would be rotated through the small
angle, δ β , to the new position AB’.

What happens if the solid is replaced with a fluid such as water?

When the force P is applied to the upper plate, it will move continuously
with a velocity U. The fluid “sticks” to the solid boundaries and is referred

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to as the NON-SLIP conditions. The fluid between the two plates moves
with velocity u=u(y) that would be assumed to vary linearly, u=Uy/b. In
such case, the velocity gradient is du / dy ＝ U / b. In a small time
increment, δt, an imaginary vertical line AB would rotate through an
angle, δβ , so that

tan δβ≒δβ ＝ δa / b .Sinceδa ＝ U δt it follows that δβ= U δt / b δβ ?

→δβ＝δβ（P, t）. Defining the rate δ β U du of shearing strain,
γ = lim = =
δt →0 δt b dy
γ , as .

The shearing stress is increased by P, the rate of shearing strain is

increased τ ∝ du / dy in direct proportion,

Figure 3 Linear variation of shearing stress with rate of shearing strain

for common fluids.

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All fluids are viscous, "Newtonian Fluids" obey the linear relationship

given by Newton's law of viscosity. , which we saw earlier. Where

is the shear stress,

Units ;

Dimensions .

is the velocity gradient or rate of shear strain, and has

Units: ,

Dimensions

is the "coefficient of dynamic viscosity" as below.

i. Dynamic Viscosity (or absolute viscosity), µ (mu)- the shear
stress,ζ ,required to drag one fluid layer with unit velocity past
another layer located at unit distanced away.

Units: Newton seconds per square metre, or Kilograms per

meter per second, .

(Although note that is often expressed in Poise, P, where 10 P = 1

.)
Typical values:

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Water =1.14 , Air =1.78 , Mercury

=1.552 ,

Paraffin Oil =1.9 .

ii. Kinematic Viscosity ,ν (nu)

Kinematic Viscosity, , is defined as the ratio of dynamic viscosity

to mass density.

Units: square metres per second,

(Although note that n is often expressed in Stokes, St, where St

=1 .)

Dimensions: .
Typical values:

Water =1.14 , Air =1.46 , Mercury =1.145

Paraffin Oil =2.375 .

Example 3.

The density of oil is 850 kg/m3. Find its relative density and Kinematic
viscosity if the dynamic viscosity is 5 x 10-3 kg/ms.

Solution

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ρ oil = 850 kg/m3 , ρwater = 1000 kg/m3

Therefore, SG oil = 850 / 1000 = 0.85

Dynamic viscosity = µ = 5 x10-3 kg/ms

Kinematic viscosity = ν = µ / ρ

What is Newton’s equation of viscosity ?

 Fluids for which the shearing stress is linearly related to the rate of
shearing strain are designated as Newtonian fluids after I. Newton
(1642-1727).

 Most common fluids such as water, air, and gasoline are Newtonian
fluid under normal conditions.

 Fluids for which the shearing stress is not linearly related to the rate
of shearing strain are designated as non-Newtonian fluids.

 It can be divided into the following categories :

✔ Shear thinning fluids- The viscosity decreases with

increasing shear rate – the harder the fluid is sheared, the less
viscous it becomes. Many colloidal suspensions and polymer
solutions are shear thinning. Latex paint is example.

✔ Shear thickening fluids - The viscosity increases with

increasing shear rate – the harder the fluid is sheared, the
more viscous it becomes. Water-corn starch mixture water-
sand mixtures are examples.

✔ Bingham plastic -neither a fluid nor a solid. Such material

can withstand a finite shear stress without motion, but once

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the yield stress is exceeded it flows like a fluid. Toothpaste
and mayonnaise are common examples.

Figure 4 Variation of shearing stress with rate of shearing strain for

several types of fluids , including common non-Newtonian fluids.

EXAMPLE 4

The velocity distribution for the flow of a Newtonian fluid between two
wide , parallel plates is given by the equation

3V   y 2 
u= 1 −   
2   h  

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where V is the mean velocity. The fluid has a velocity f 0.04 lb·s/ft2. When
V=2 ft/s and h=0.2 in. determine: (a) the shearing stress acting on the
bottom wall, and (b) the shearing stress acting on a plane parallel to the
walls and passing through the centerline (midplane) .

SOLUTION 4

For this types of parallel flow the shearing stress is obtained from

du 3Vy
τ=µ = −µ 2
dy h
du 3Vy
τ bottom wall = µ------------
= −µ 2 = 14.4lb / ft2
dy h y = − eqn
h
(1)
du 3Vy
τ m idplane = µ = −µ 2 =0
Thus, if the velocity distribution u = u(y)
dy h y = 0 is known, the shearing stress can

be determined at all points by evaluating the velocity gradient, du/dy. For

the distribution given

du 3Vy
τ =µ = −µ 2
dy h
du 3Vy
τbottom wall =µ = −µ 2 =14 .4lb / ft 2 -------eqn (2)
dy h y =−h

du 3Vy
a) Along the bottom wall
τmidplane = µ
dy
y= −
=µ -h
h2
so that
=0 (from eqn 2)
y =0

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dudy = 3V h

And therefore the shearing stress is

τ bottom wall = μ 3Vh= 2 N.sm23(0.6ms)(5 mm)(1 m /1000mm)

= 720 N/m2 (in

direction of flow)

This stress creates a drag on wall . Since the velocity distribution is

symmetrical , the shearing stress along the upper wall would have the
same magnitude and direction .

b) Along the midplane where y = 0 it follows from eqn 2 that

dudy = 0

And thus the shearing stress is

τmidplane = 0

PROBLEM 1

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The velocity distribution of a viscous liquid (dynamic viscosity  = 0.9
Ns/m2) flowing over a fixed plate is given by u = 0.68y - y2 (u is velocity in
m/s and y is the distance from the plate in m).

What are the shear stresses at the plate surface and at y=0.34m?

PROBLEM 2

Explain why the viscosity of a liquid decreases while that of a gas

increases with a temperature rise.

The following is a table of measurement for a fluid at constant

temperature.
Determine the dynamic viscosity of the fluid.

du/dy (s-1) 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

t (N m-2) 0.0 1.0 1.9 3.1 4.0

Using Newton's law of viscocity

where m is the viscosity. So viscosity is the gradient of a graph of shear

stress against vellocity gradient of the above data, or

1.7 COMPRESSIBILITY OF FLUIDS

1.7.1 Bulk Modulus

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 Liquids are usually considered to be incompressible, whereas gases
are generally considered compressible.

 Compressible of the fluid?

 A property, bulk modulus Ev, is used to characterize compressibility

of fluid.
dp dp
Ev = − =
dV / V dρ / ρ

 The bulk modulus has dimensions of pressure. FL-2.

1.7.2 Compression and Expansion of Gases

 When gases are compressed or expanded, the relationship between

pressure and density depends on the nature of the process.

 For isothermal process, pρ=constant

>> Ev=p
 For isentropic process, pρk=constant

>> Ev=kp

Where k is the ratio of the specific heat at constant pressure, cp, to the
specific heat at constant volume, cv.

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cp – cv=R=gas constant .

Example 5

A 0.03 m3 of air at an absolute pressure of

101.3 kPa is compressed isentropically to
0.015m3 by the tire pump .

What is the final pressure?

Solution

For an isentropic compression

piρik= pfρfk

Where the subscript i and f refer to initial and final states, respectively.

Since we are interested in the final pressure, pf , it follows that

pf = ρfρik pi

as the volume , ∀ , is reduced by one half, the density must double , since
the mass , m = ρ∀, of the gas remains constant. Thus , with k = 1.40 for
air

pf = (2)1.40 ( 101.3 kPa) = 267 kPa. (abs)

1.8 VAPOUR PRESSURE

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 If liquids are simply placed in a container open to the atmosphere,
some liquid molecules will overcome the intermolecular cohesive
forces and escape into the atmosphere.

 If the container is closed with small air space left above the
surface, and this space evacuated to form a vacuum, a pressure will
develop in the space as a result of the vapor that is formed by the
escaping molecules.

 When an equilibrium condition is reached, the vapor is said to be

saturated and the pressure that the vapor exerts on the liquid
surface is termed the VAPOR PRESSURE, PV.

 Vapor pressure is closely associated with molecular activity; the

value of vapor pressure for a particular liquid depends on
temperature.

 Boiling, which is the formation of vapor bubbles within a fluid mass,

is initiated when the absolute pressure in the fluid reaches the
vapor pressure.

 The formation and subsequent collapse of vapor bubbles in a

flowing fluid, called cavitation, is an important fluid flow
phenomenon

After completing this chapter, student should be able to:

✔ Determine the dimensions and units of physical quantities.

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✔ Identify the key fluid properties used in the analysis of fluid
behaviour.
✔ Calculate common fluid properties given appropriate information.
✔ Explain effects of fluid compressibility
✔ Use the concepts of viscosity, vapour pressure, and surface tension.

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