Physics

SPM 2013

Chapter 8: Electromagnetism

CHAPTER 8: ELECTROMAGNETISM
8.1

Effect of a Magnet on a Current-carrying Conductor

8.1.1 Straight Wire

Magnetic fields are circular

Field is strongest close to the wire
Increasing the current increases the
strength of the field

To determine the direction of the circular

magnetic fields, use the right hand rule

Remember: X
marks the spot!

Labeling of direction of current

Circular Coil

Solenoid

The magnetic field is similar to two straight

lines carrying current in opposite directions
The magnetic field between the wires are
straight lines whereas the ones near the wire
are circular

When the number of turns on a coil is

increased, it becomes a solenoid
The magnetic fields are similar to a bar
magnet, i.e. magnetic poles on either end

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 Physics

Chapter 8: Electromagnetism

SPM 2013

To determine the polarity of the solenoid:

Method 1:
Observe the directions of the current flow on either
end

8.1.2

Method 2:
Right-hand grip rule
(Thumb point towards North)

Electromagnet

An electromagnet is a magnet made by

winding a coil of insulated wires around a
soft iron core, so that a magnetic field is
produced when a current passes through
the coil
To
increase
the
strength
of
the
electromagnet:
Increase the current
Increase the number of turns on the coil
Insert a soft iron core in the middle of the solenoid

8.1.3 Applications of Electromagnets

Electromagnetic lifter

Circuit breaker

Electric bell

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 Physics

8.2

SPM 2013

Chapter 8: Electromagnetism

Electric relay

Ticker timer

Telephone earpiece

Cassette recorder

Interaction Between Current-carrying Conductor and the

Magnetic Field

8.2.1 Interaction of magnetic fields of a current-carrying conductor and

permanent magnets
Permanent magnet

Current-carrying conductor

Catapult field

8.2.2 Determining the direction of the induced force

The force is increased if:

Current is increased
A stronger magnet is
used
The length of wire in
the field is increased

Flemings Left Hand Rule

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Right Hand Slap Rule

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SPM 2013

Chapter 8: Electromagnetism

8.2.3 D.C. Motor

Motor

Elastic field

EXTRA INFORMATION
Alternating Current Motor
Unlike DC motors which use permanent magnets, alternating current
motors use electromagnets. The polarity of the electromagnet changes at
the same frequency as the alternating current, so there is no change in
the direction of rotation of the motor.

8.2.4 Applications

Moving coil meter

Used to measure direct current only

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Moving coil loudspeaker

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8.3

SPM 2013

Chapter 8: Electromagnetism

Electromagnetic Induction

8.3.1 Inducing e.m.f. and current

E.m.f and current can be induced by:

Moving a magnet bar in and out of a solenoid

Moving a conductor across a magnetic field

E.m.f. and current can only be induced when there is relative motion between a conductor and
magnetic fields that are perpendicular to each other.

8.3.2 Determining the direction of the induced current

8.3.2.1

Single wires
Force

Field

Curren
t

Flemings Right Hand Rule

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Right Hand Slap Rule

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8.3.2.2

SPM 2013

Chapter 8: Electromagnetism

Lenzs Law

Lenzs Law states that the direction of the induced current is such that the change producing it will be opposed.

The solenoid will always resist any movement of the magnet relative to the solenoid.
When the bar magnet is inserted into the solenoid, the solenoid will try to repel the bar magnet.
Therefore, the polarity of that end of the solenoid will be the same as the bar magnets.
When the bar magnet is removed from the solenoid, the solenoid will try to attract the bar magnet.
Therefore, the polarity of that end of the solenoid will be the opposite of the bar magnets.
Based on direction of current flow observed at the either
end of the solenoid

Using the right-hand grip rule

8.3.3 Determining the magnitude of the induced current

(Faradays Law)
Faradays Law states that the magnitude of the induced e.m.f. is directly proportional to the rate of
change magnetic flux through a coil or alternatively the rate of the magnetic flux being cut.
If there is no relative motion between a magnet and a solenoid, there is no electromagnetic induction.
To increase the e.m.f. and current:
Increase the relative motion
Increase the number of turns on the coils
Increase the magnetic strength
Increase the cross-section area of the wire
Insert a soft iron core in between the coils of the wire

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Chapter 8: Electromagnetism

SPM 2013

8.3.4 Direct Current & Alternating Current

D.C. Generator

A.C. Generator

Factors that affect the magnitude of the induced current in the generators:
Magnetic field strength
Number of windings on the armature
The presence of an iron core in the armature
The speed of rotation of the armature
Area of the armature

8.3.4.1

Root mean square voltage and current

When two identical light bulbs are connected to a direct current and an alternating current of the same e.m.f.,
it is found that the light bulb connected to the d.c. shines with brighter intensity.
This is due to the changing values of alternating current.
The overall effective voltage of the alternating The overall effective current of the alternating
current can be calculated, and is known as root
current can also be calculated, and is known as
mean square voltage.
root mean square current.

Vrms
where

V peak

I rms

Vrms = root mean square voltage [V]

Vpeak = peak voltage [V]

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where

I peak
2

Irms = root mean square current [A]

Ipeak = peak current [A]

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Chapter 8: Electromagnetism

SPM 2013

8.3.5 Operating Principles of Current-measuring Devices

Moving coil meter

Built on the principle of

electromagnetism
When current flows through
the
coil,
the
mutual
interaction between the
magnet and the coil forms a
rotating force that turns the
coil and hence deflects the
indicator.
Sensitivity can be increased
by:
Using
a
stronger
magnet
Increasing the windings
on the coil
Increasing the area of
the coil
Using a recovery spring
with smaller spring
constant
Using a lighter indicator
Only for measuring direct
current

8.3.5.1

Hot wire meter

Built on the principle of

heating effect of electric
current
When
current
flows
through the wire AB, the
wire
heats
up
and
expands.
This causes the thread to
be taut and the pulley
turns causing the indicator
to deflect
The rate of heating is not
directly proportional to the
magnitude of the current,
therefore a non-linear
scale is used.

For measuring
direct
current and alternating
current

Built in the principles of

electromagnetism
When current flows through
the solenoid, the solenoid is
magnetized, causing iron
rods P and Q to be
magnetized with the same
polarity.
Therefore both rods repel
each other and Q rotates,
causing the indicator needle
to deflect.
For measuring direct current
and alternating current
Only can measure large
magnitudes
of
current
because small currents are
unable to induce a magnetic
field strong
enough
to
magnetize the two iron rods
For measuring direct current
and alternating current

Modifications to a moving coil meter

To an ammeter

Moving iron meter

A shunt resistor (very low R)

Added in parallel

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To a voltmeter

A multiplier (very high R)

Added in series

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8.4

Chapter 8: Electromagnetism

SPM 2013

Transformer

8.4.1 Basics of a transformer

Transformers are used to change the potential difference of an alternating current (AC) source.

V s Ns

Vp N p
where Vp = primary voltage / input voltage [V]
Vs = secondary voltage / output voltage [V]
Np = number of turns on primary coil
Ns = number of turns on secondary coil

Symbol of a
transformer

8.4.2 Operating principle of a transformer

Input circuit must be connected to a.c.

D.c. is uniform in magnitude and has a fixed direction. Therefore the induced e.m.f. is not
produced in the secondary coil which depends on change in the magnetic flux.
A.c. always has changing direction and magnitude. Therefore the direction and magnitude of the
induced magnetic field in the primary coil also changes, inducing e.m.f. in the secondary coil.

8.4.3 Types of transformers

Step-up transformer
Increase the potential difference
Number of turns in the secondary coil is
greater than in the primary coil
Current in primary coil is greater than in
secondary coil

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Step-down transformer
Reduce potential difference
Number of turn in the secondary coil is less
than in the primary coil
Current in primary coil is less than in
secondary coil

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Chapter 8: Electromagnetism

SPM 2013

8.4.4 Efficiency

Efficiency

Output power
100%
Input power

Because P = IV,

Efficiency

Vs I s
100%
Vp I p

where Vp = primary voltage / input voltage [V]

Vs = secondary voltage / output voltage [V]
Ip = current in primary coil [A]
Is = current in secondary coil [A]
If the transformer is said to be ideal, the efficiency = 100%.
Therefore,
VpIp = VsIs

8.4.5 Factors that affect the efficiency of a transformer

Factors
Heating effect of current in coil
2
Power lost as heat P = I R

Heating effect of induced eddy currents*

Eddy currents are generated within the iron core

Magnetization of the iron core

Energy used in the magnetization and
demagnetization of the iron core everytime the
current changes its direction is known as
hysterisis. This energy is lost as heat which
subsequently heats up the iron core.
Flux leakage
Some of the induced magnetic flux from the
primary coil is not transferred to the secondary
coil

Methods to increase efficiency

Use thicker copper wires of low resistance
Use coolant to decrease the temperature of
the transformer
Use a laminated iron core where each layer
is insulated with enamel paint to prevent flow
of eddy currents
Use a soft iron core that is easily magnetized
and demagnetized

Secondary coils are intertwined tightly with

the primary coils
Iron core should resemble a closed loop

*Eddy currents: circulating electrical currents that are induced in electrically conductive elements when
exposed to changing magnetic fields, creating an opposing force to the magnetic flux

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8.5

Chapter 8: Electromagnetism

SPM 2013

Transmission of Electricity

8.5.1 Transmission of electricity

To reduce power lost through transmission, electricity is sent at very high voltage through thick
cables of low resistance
When voltage increases, current decreases
2
Based on P = I R, when current decreases, power loss decreases

Power station
P = IV

Power lost
through cables
2
P=I R

Current, I

8.5.2 National electricity grid system

END OF CHAPTER

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