GET-6462A

Application Guide
AC Pilot Wire Relaying System
SPD and SPA Relays

CONTENTS
Summary of Features.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Description & Operating Principles-SPD Relay .......................
Settings & Characteristics ..........................................
Application ........................................................
Calculation of Settings .............................................
Ground Sensor Connection ........................................
Description & Operating Principles-SPA Relay .......................
Pilot Monitoring ...................................................
Transfer Tripping ..................................................
Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Protection of Pilot Wires .............................................
Ground Potential Rise .............................................
Induced Voltages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lightning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Elements of Pilot Wire System .......................................
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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AC PILOT WIRE RELAYING SYSTEM

SPD AND SPA RELAYS
SUMMARY OF FEATURES
Type SPD Relay 1. High-speed Static Pilot Wire Relay
- Protection for phase or ground faults.
- No ac potential source required.
- Insulating transformer internal.
2. Applicable on Two- or Three-Terminal Lines
3. Excellent Sensitivity on Short Lines.
4. Provision for Sensitive Ground Fault Detection.
- Input from ground sensor CT.
- Ideal for resistance grounded systems.
5. High Speed
- 15 m.s. on heavy faults.
- 25 m.s. or less on light to moderate faults.
6. Permits High-speed Reclosing.
7. Neutralizing Reactor and Drainage Reactor Available.
8. Case Fully Drawout.
Type SPA Relay 1. Complete Monitoring of Pilot Circuit.
- Detects open, shorted, grounded or reversed pilot.
- LED indication.
2. Transfer-trip Feature Available.
- One-way or two-way.
3. Complete Isolation of DC Supply.
- Prevents SPD misoperation from battery ground.
- Prevents grounded pilot from operating station dc ground monitor.
4. Case Fully Drawout.

APPLICATION GUIDE
AC PILOT WIRE RELAYING SYSTEM
SPD AND SPA RELAYS
INTRODUCTION
The Type SPD relay provides selective high-speed
clearing of all faults on a protected line, using a
pilot wire circuit to compare line currents at all terminals of the line. Simultaneous clearing at all
terminals minimizes damage, permits high-speed
reclosing and improves the transient stability of
the system.

settings of other relays or by changes in the system.

The scheme operates on current alone and requires
no potential transformers or channel equipment. A
separate input to the sequence network can be fed
from a ground sensor current transformer to provide
sensitive ground fault protection on resistancegrounded systems.

Since the pilot wire system circulates a current

that is a function of the line current, it is similar to
current differential relaying. The scheme is easily
applied, requires a minimum of system data, and
being inherently selective is not affected by the

The Type SPA static auxiliary relays provide continuous monitoring of the pilot wire circuit to detect
open, shorted, reversed or grounded pilot wires.
Models are also available to provide for transfer trip
in addition to the monitoring function.

DESCRIPTION AND OPERATING PRINCIPLES

TYPE SPD RELAY
The Type SPD relay is a high-speed static pilot
wire relay which provides both phase and ground
fault protection for two- or three-terminal transmission or distribution lines. The relaying scheme,
which operates on the circulating current principle, is represented by the simplified schematic
diagram in Figure 1 for a two-terminal line. The
principal functions included in the Type SPD relay,

and shown in the schematic diagram, are a phase

sequence network, a voltage limiting circuit, a restraint circuit, an operate circuit, and an insulating
transformer. In the following paragraphs each of
these functions is discussed, and the operating
principles of the circulating current scheme are
described.

-F-----PHASE SEIQUENCE
NETWORK
I

SATURATING
TRANSFORMER

I
II

RESTRAINT
C I R C U I T

1 PHASE SEQlJiiCE

PILOT WIRE
- - - - - -

RESTRAINT---?=

I-

C--_______D
INSULATING

TRANSFORMERS

SATURATING
TRANSFORMER

Figure 1. Simplified Functional Diagram of the SPD Relay System

PHASE SEQUENCE NETWORK

The phase sequence network is connected to the
current transformers in the three phases as illustrated in Figure 1. This network converts the three
phase currents from the line current transformers
into a single-phase voltage which is applied to the
relay circuits via the saturating transformer.
VOLTAGE LIMITING CIRCUIT
The voltage limiting circuit, which consists of the
saturating transformer and zener diodes, limits the
relay output voltage that is applied to the pilot circuit
via the insulating transformer. This circuit limits the
instantaneous peak value of the sequence filter output voltage to 15 volts, and the pilot wire voltage to
60 volts. Thus, for light currents the output of the
voltage limiting circuit will be a sine wave, for moderate currents on the order of five times the openended pickup of the relay the output will be a clipped
sine wave, and for heavy fault currents the output
will approach a square wave.
OPERATING AND RESTRAINING CIRCUITS
The sensing circuit responds to a voltage proportional to the current flowing into the pilot wires as
a restraining quantity, and to the resulting voltage
across the pilot wire pair as an operating quantity.
The relative position in the circuit of these restraining and operating functions is shown in the simplified diagram of Figure 1. Pickup for the open pilot
wire condition is 3.25 volts across the operate circuit, or 13 volts on the pilot wire side of the insulating
transformer.
For the two-terminal line application shown in
Figure 1, the relay circuits at the two ends are connected so that during an external fault the voltages

applied to the pilot pair at opposite ends are equal

in magnitude but reversed in polarity. The voltages
are thus additive around the pilot loop, a relatively
large current will circulate, and the voltage across
the operate circuit will below. The relays will restrain
with this condition of high pilot wire current and low
pilot wire voltage.
During an internal fault the voltages applied to the
pilot pair, although not necessarily equal in magnitude, are essentially in phase and oppose current
flow around the pilot loop. Consequently there will
be a relatively large voltage and a small current; the
static circuitry is designed to operate for this condition.
INSULATING TRANSFORMER
The insulating transformer, which is mounted inside the SPD relay case, acts as an impedance
matching device between the relay circuit and the
pilot wires. The primary winding is connected to
the restraint and operate circuits; the two secondary
windings are connected in series across the pilot
wires as shown in the functional diagram in Figure 1.
The turns ratio is one to four from the relay side of
the transformer to the pilot wire side.
STATIC LEVEL DETECTOR LOGIC
Also included, but not shown in Figure 1, is a level
detector logic which is part of a printed circuit card.
The voltage and current measuring functions are
also on this printed circuit card.
The level detector logic consists of a summation
amplifier, level detector and timer. The output voltage signals from the restraint and operate circuits
are applied to the summation amplifier, as shown in
the functional block diagram in Figure 2. The sum-

WIRE CURRENT)

SUMMATION

LEVEL
DETECTOR -

- OUTPUT

(DERIVED FROM PILOT

WIRE VOLTAGE)

Figure 2. Functional Block Diagram of SPD Pilot Wire Scheme

mation amplifier output is applied to the level detector, the operating point of which is determined
by the pickup biassetting. Thesummation amplifier,
level detector and timer determine whether the
operate quantity exceeds the restraint quantity by
more than the pickup bias setting for a time interval
longer than the timer setting. When this occurs the
5/5 timer will initiate a trip output. The timer designation 5/5 defines operate and reset times of 5
milliseconds.

The 5 milliseconds time-delay following the level

detector provides added security during external
faults, where conditions might not be ideal because
of unequal saturation of the CTs at opposite ends
of the line, or because of a phase angle shift between
the operate and restraint quantities caused by
charging of the shunt capacitance in the pilot wires.
GENERAL
Additional functions included in the Type SPD
relay are a regulated dc power supply, an electromechanical output relay, and a target seal-in unit.
These and the other functions noted above are
shown on the functional block diagram in Figure 3.

Assuming ideal conditions, the output of the

restraint circuit always predominates during external faults, whereas during internal faults the
output of the operate circuit always predominates.

_-_-_-ON PRINTED CIRCUIT CARD

n-

le
TO
CURRENT
TRANSFORMERS ,c

THREE
PHASE
PICKUP
AMPERES

TO
PILOT
WIRE
VOLTAGE
MEASURING
UNIT

CURRENT
MEASURING
UNIT

ISOLATION
TRANSFORMER

RESTRAINT
TAP
l
HI

_-

I
L____

I
i,

o
LO

I
I

RESTRAINT

t,
TARGET
AND

II

SUMMING
AMPLIFIER

DETECTOR

Figure 3. SPD Relay Block Diagram

SETTINGS AND CHARACTERISTICS

CURRENT TAPS
The sensitivity of the relay for the various types of
faults is determined by three tap block settings, as
well as by the pilot wire length and the number of
line terminals. The three tap settings, which can be
made from the front of the relay as is apparent from
the photograph in Figure 4, are the three-phase
pickup tap, the phase-to-phase tap and the ground
tap.
6

The three-phase pickup taps, which are 4,5,6,7,8,

10 or 12 amperes, determine the basic pickup level of
the relay. Relay pickup values expressed as multiples of the three-phase pickup tap setting are listed
in Table 1 forthevarious phase-to-phaseand ground
tap settings with three-phase, phase-to-phase or
phase-to-ground faults. The values in the table
apply for the theoretical condition of single-end feed

and the pilot wires disconnected at the relay terminals. With single-end feed and pilot wires connected to relays at both ends of a two terminal line,
the factors in the table would be doubled, neglecting
the effect of the pilot wires. The information in Table
I, as well as the effect of the pilot wires on relay
pickup, is discussed in more detail in the section on
APPLICATION.
Table I shows that the phase-to-phase tap position C provides the best sensitivity (lowest pickup)
for phase faults, and also the closest agreement
between the pickup currents for three-phase and
phase-to-phase faults. Since it is true in most cases
that the positiveand negativesequence impedances
are equal, fault current for a phase-to-phase fault
will be 86 percent of the current for a three-phase
fault at the same location and with the same system
conditions. Thus, use of the C tap assures that the
relay will operate for the minimum expected phaseto-phase fault if it operates for the minimum threephase fault at the same location.
If the three-phase pickup tap is set below maximum possible load with the C tap setting, the relay
may operate on some load conditions if the pilot

Figure 4. Type SPD Relay, Front

View, Removed, From Case

Table 1
Relay Pickup in Multiples of Three-Phase Pickup
Tap Setting*

Phase-Phase

*Available three-phase pickup taps are 4, 5,6, 7,8, 10 and 12 amperes. Relay pickup forsingle-end feed with the pilot wires disconnected from the relay terminals can be found by multiplying the three-phase current tap setting in amperes times the factor in the
table for the particular fault type and the phase-to-phase & ground tap settings.
**When the A tap is used the relay will not respond to balanced 3-phase faults.
#When the F ground tap is used the relay will not respond to the zero sequence component of fault current, but will respond to the
positive and negative sequence components, resulting in the pickup multiple shown in the table.
Refer to Instruction Book GEK-49794 and Apparatus Handbook Section 7278 for further information on the SPD relay.

wires are open circuited. This may be an acceptable

risk if the desired three-phase fault sensitivity is to
be realized, since the monitoring equipment described in a later section will sound an alarm on an
open pilot.

will respond to the positive and negative sequence

components, resulting in the pickup listed in Table I.

Another approach is to use the B phase-to-phase

tap setting, which doubles the pickup for threephase faults while retaining nearly the same phaseto-phase and ground fault sensitivity, and to utilize
other relaying to insure that all three-phase faults
are cleared. One possibility is a zone-packaged
first-zone distance relay at each end of the line,
connected to trip the local breaker and transfer trip
the remote breaker via the transferred trip scheme
to be described later in the section on the SPA relay.
For this scheme to be acceptable, the protected line
must be long enough so that the first zone distance
units can be set to underreach the remote terminal
but overlap the reach setting of the remote distance
relay, and an ac potential source must be available.
The three taps F, G and H determine the relay
sensitivity to ground faults. On the H tap, which is
the most sensitive, pickup is approximately oneeighth the three-phase pickup tap setting. On the
G tap, pickup is approximately one quarter the
three-phase pickup tap setting. On the F tap the
relay is insensitive to zero sequence current, but

On some resistance grounded systems, neither

the G or H tap will provide adequate sensitivity. For
such cases an additional input to the sequence network is provided which can be fed from a ground
sensor current transformer, as illustrated in Figure 5.
With the F tap setting the current pickup with this
supplementary ground connection is approximately
0.5 ampere into the relay for the single-end feed
condition and an open pilot. The turns ratio of the
ground sensor CT must then be selected to provide
the desired sensitivity without causing excessive
current transformer saturation. This is discussed in
more detail in the section on APPLICATION.

PROVISION FOR SENSITIVE GROUND

FAULT PROTECTION

DC CONTROL VOLTAGE TAPS

A movable dual link is provided on the upper tap
block. It can be set for either 48 or 125 volts dc.
RESTRAINT TAPS
Restraint taps, identified as HI and LO, are provided in the middle of the lower top block, as shown

GROUND
SENSOR CT

GROUND
SENSOR CT
PROTECTED LINE
_-----~

NETWORK

SATURATING
TRANSFORMER

c________s
INSULATING TRANSFORMERS

SATURATING
TRANSFORMER

Figure 5. Simplified Functional Diagram of the SPD Relay System With Ground
Sensor CT Connection for Resistance Grounded Systems

OPERATING TIMES
Pickup time of the Type SPD relay, expressed as a
multiple of pickup, is shown in Figure 6. With heavy
fault currents of four times pickup or more, the
pickup time will be 15 milliseconds or less.
Dropout time, expressed in terms of fault current
prior to the clearing of a fault as a multiple of relay
pickup, is shown in Figure 7.

in Figure 4. The normal setting is the HI tap and all

discussion in this bulletin are based on the use of
this tap. The LO tap is available for special applications requiring increased sensitivity. Use of the L O
tap may result in lower overall security because the
ratio of the restraining quantity to the operating
quantity will be lower for any system condition.

10
1

J
1.5

I
2

CURRENT PER UNIT OF PICKUP

Figure 6. Pickup Time of the SPD Relay Vs. Multiple of Pickup Current
50

40 B
5
0 30#
5
d
5
Ft
F
5 20 0
B
5

10

CURRENT PER UNIT OF PICKUP

Figure 7. Dropout Time of SPD Relay

10

APPLICATION
The ac pilot wire system using the type SPD relay
provides selective high-speed protection for phase
and ground faults on two- or three-terminal lines of
short to medium length. The basic scheme requires
one SPD relay at each terminal of the protected
line and an interconnecting pilot wire pair. Application limitations and determination of relay settings
are discussed in the following paragraphs.
THE PILOT WIRES
The pilot is a twisted pair of wires connected between the two (or three) terminals of the protected
transmission line. The SPD circuit will impose no
more than 60 volts peak on the pilot pair, so the
insulation capability of the pilot should be based on
the maximum induced voltages that may occur in
the pilot circuit, with the proper protection installed.
(See section on protection of the pilot).
The limitation on pilot length is determined by
the acceptable magnitudes of the loop resistance
and the shunt capacitance. For two-terminal lines it
is recommended that the series resistance of the
pilot loop, including the neutralizing reactor windings if present, not exceed 2000 ohms and that the
shunt capacitance be less than 1.5 microfarads. For
three-terminal lines the pilot circuit must be in the
form of a T connection as shown in Figure 8. It is
recommended that the two-way resistance of each

STATION A
RELAYS

leg of the T not exceed 500 ohms, including the

neutralizing reactors if present. The resistance of
the three legs should be matched as closely as
possible by padding one or two of the legs with
additional resistance. Resistance matching within
one percent or less is desirable. Any mismatch will
reduce the security of theschemefor external faults.
For example, a mismatch of five percent can produce a signal in one or more of the relays which is
25 percent of that required to cause a misoperation.
It is recommended that the total shunt capacitance
of the pilot circuit for three-terminal applications
be less than 1.8 microfarads. If the value of pilot
wire resistance or shunt capacitance exceeds the
recommended limitsforeithertwo-orthree-terminal
lines, application of the SPD relay may still be possible but the factory should be consulted.
Pilot loop resistance can be based on information
supplied by the communication utility if the pilot is
leased, or it can be calculated knowing the wire size
and length of the pilot run, using dc resistance data
published in wire tables. Pilot loop resistance can
also be determined by direct measurement from one
end with the remote end shorted for two terminal
lines, or from each terminal to a short at the junction
of the T for three terminal lines. This should be a
dc measurement since the shunt capacitance will
influence an ac measurement.

CENTER
TAP

STATION B
RELAYS

1
STATION
C RELAYS

Figure 8. Pilot Wire Connections for Three Terminal Lines

10

The shunt capacitance can be determined either

by calculation or measurement. However, measurement is preferred unless the pilot is under the complete control of the user, since it is sometimes the
practice of communication utilities to tap an existing
pilot wire. This practice can result in an open section
of pilot wire beyond one or both stations that will
add to the shunt capacitance, as illustrated in Figure
9. If the value of shunt capacitance is supplied by
the communication utility it must be the total shunt
capacitance, including the effects of any open
sections beyond either terminal.
Pilot wire resistance in excess of the values noted
above will reduce the current flowing in the pilot,
and hence in the restraint circuit of the SPD relays.
In the limit, the condition of an open-circulated pilot
would be approached where the relays will operate
on external faults, or heavy load if it is above the
3-phase pickupsetting. Shunt capacitance in excess
of the listed values tends to reduce the relay sensitivity, and in the limit would approach the shortcircuited condition where the relays will not operate.

unit of the three-phase tap setting is given in Table I

for the different phase and ground tap settings and
various types of faults, with single-end feed and the
pilot wires disconnected from the relay terminals.
In the following discussion it is assumed that
operation of the relay on load flow with an open pilot
is not acceptable, and that the scheme should detect
all three-phase faults on the protected line. If the
SPD relay is to be secure against operation with an
open pilot and maximum load flow, with margin, the
relay three-phase current pickup from Table I should
be at least 1.25 times the maximum expected balanced load current. If the SPD relay is to operate
for any fault on the protected line, with margin, the
minimum fault current for each type of fault should
be at least 1.33 times the relay pickup for the particular type of fault. The following discussion is based
on the use of the high-restraint (HI) tap setting. As
previously noted, a low-restraint tap is also available
for special applications requiring increased sensitivity, but use of the LO tap may result in lower
overall security.
The following setting procedure is suggested:

RELAY SENSITIVITY AND SETTINGS

The sensitivity of the SPD relay for the various
types of faults is determined by the three-phase
pickup tap setting, phase-to-phase tap setting and
ground tap setting, as well as by the pilot wire length
and number of line terminals. The relay pickup in per

A. If it is assumed that it is desired to trip for all

three-phase faults as well as all unbalanced faults
on the protected line, the C phase-to-phase tap
should be selected.
B. Determine the value of IT from equation 2,

PILOT WIRE
SECTION WHOSE
CAPACITANCE MAY
NOT BE INCLUDED IN
POWER LINE
PILOT
WIRE

TE

PILOT WIRE

TAP TO COMPLETE

TION

TAP TO COMPLETE

PILOT WIRE SECTION

WHOSE CAPACITANCE MAY
NOT BE INCLUDED IN
CALCULATION

Figure 9. Typical Situation Where Pilot Wire Capacitance

May Be Greater Than Calculated Value.

11

assuming it is desired that the relay not trip with

an open pilot and maximum load:
IT = 1.25
where:

[]
lL
M

If the current tap T determined in B satisfies equation (3), proceed to step D below. If the selected
current tap T does not satisfy equation (3), the relay
as set may not detect the minimum three-phase fault
on the protected line. The user then has two options:

IT = m i n i m u m t h e o r e t i c a l t h r e e - p h a s e
pickup tap; use next higher available
three-phase pickup tap (T).

(a) Reduce the T tap setting until equation (3)

is satisfied, recognizing that an open pilot may
now cause the relay to trip with load flow near
maximum.

IL = maximum load current

M = multiplier for phase-to-phase tap (1.0
for C tap from Table 1)

(b) LeaveT at the setting determined in B, and

resort to other relaying to protect for the possible minimum three-phase fault.

C. Check that the three-phase pickup tap T

determined in B satisfies equation (3):
T I 0.75

[_]
lF
MNP

(3)

where:
T = three-phase pickup tap setting (determined in B)
lF = minimum 3-phase fault current at fault
location, sum of contributions from all
terminals
P = factor from Figure 10 for total capacitance of pilot wire (near-end curve)
M = multiple for phase-to-phase tap (1.0 for
C tap)
N = number of line terminals

As suggested previously, if the line impedance is

sufficient and a potential source is available, zone-l
distance relays could be used as the other relaying
in conjunction with the transferred trip feature of
the SPA relays. In either case, proceed to step D,
using the T tap finally selected.
D. Check that the T tap finally selected satisfies
equation (4), assuming that the G ground tap
setting is used:
T I 0.75
where:
T = three-phase pickup tap setting
IS = m i n i m u m i n t e r n a l single-phase-toground fault current, sum of contributions from all terminals

2.0

PICK UP
PER U N I T
PER RELAY

1.0
EQUALS 1333 TIMES
CAPACITANCE IN MFD)
.5

PILOT WIRE SHUNT CAPACITANCE (MFD)

Figure 10. Effect of Pilot Wire Shunt Capacitance On SPD Pickup

12

(4)

B = multiplier from Table I for the phase and

ground tap positions, and B0/ fault

phase fault current, and there will be little difference

between the minimum and maximum ground fault
currents.

P = factor from Figure 10 for actual capacitance of pilot wire (use near-end
curve)

A current transformer of relay accuracy may be

used as the ground sensor. The turns ratio should
be selected so that the current into the relay is at
least 2 amperes with minimum ground fault current
and no more than 12 amperes with maximum ground
fault current. The SPD static relay is well suited for
application with CTs typically used as the ground
sensor. For example, calculations have shown that
with the 50/5ground sensor used in General Electric
Power/Vac switchgear, the SPD relaying system will
perform correctly for secondary ground fault currents within the 2 to 12 ampere limits noted above.
Other CTs from available ratios of 100/5, 200/5
400/5 or 800/5 may also be used as the ground
sensor to provide a secondary current in the 2 to 12
ampere range.

N = number of line terminals

If
tap,
still
use

equation (4) is not satisfied with the G ground

check again using the H tap. If equation (4) is
not satisfied, refer to the following section on
of the ground sensor connection.

The three-phase pickup amperes tap, the phaseto-phase tap, the ground tap and the restraint tap
must be set in the same position in the relays at all
terminals of the protected line.
GROUND SENSOR CONNECTION
On applications where the required sensitivity on
single-phase-to-ground faults is not realized, the
ground sensor CT connection shown in Figure 5
should be considered. This condition will typically
be encountered on resistance grounded systems,
where the ground fault current is primarily determined by the grounding resistor. In such cases the
ground fault current is substantially less than the

Relay pickup with this ground sensor input will be

approximately 0.5 amperes into the relay, for the
4 ampere three-phase pickup tap position and the
open pilot condition noted in Table I. When the
ground sensor is used the ground tap must be in
the F position.

DESCRIPTION AND OPERATING PRINCIPLES

TYPE SPA PILOT MONITORING RELAYS
the other terminal, or terminals, of the pilot circuit.
Models of the SPA are also available to provide a
direct transfer trip feature, either unidirectional or
bidirectional, in addition to the pilot monitoring
functions. The four available SPA models are listed
in Table II. Descriptions of each model and the
schemes are included in the following paragraphs.

The Type SPA relays are static pilot wire auxiliary

relays designed primarily for use with the SPD pilot
wire system to provide continuous monitoring of the
pilot wire circuit for the detection of open, shorted,
reversed or grounded pilot wires. The basic pilot
monitoring installation requires a master, or transmitting, relay at one terminal and a receiving relay at

Table II

SPA1 28

*Refer to Instruction Book GEK-65512 and Apparatus Handbook Section 7278 for further information on the SPA relays.

13

FEATURES
In the transmitting or sending end relays, solid
state detection circuits operate undercurrent (UC),
overcurrent (OC) and ground (GND) units, each with
output contacts and associated light emitting diode
(LED). In the receiving end relays the solid state
circuit operates an undercurrent unit with alarm
contacts and LED. Powerforthesolidstatedetection
circuits and monitoring current is provided by an
isolated dc power supply. This isolation of the dc
source prevents a ground in the battery supply from
beingreflectedintothepilotwirecircuitandpossibly
causing a misoperation of the SPD scheme.
PILOT MONITORING
A typical installation of the pilot monitoring
scheme is illustrated by the simplified functional
diagram in Figure 11. This scheme requires a transmitting end relay, model SPA11A, and a receiving
end relay, model SPA12A. The scheme operates by
circulating a low-level current of approximately
0.75 milliamperes dc through the pilot wire circuit.
This current is initiated by the power supply in the
transmitting end relay and circulates through the
relay circuit at the receiving end. It provides the
reference to determine whether the pilot circuit is

SPD

open or shorted. With normal pilot wires the undercurrent units in both the transmitting end and receiving end relays will be held in the operated position by the 0.75 ma circulating current. This normal
circulating current is not sufficient to cause operation of the overcurrent unit in the transmitting end
relay.
Since the transmitting and receiving end monitoring relays are effectively in series with the pilot
wire loop, it is necessary to provide a low-impedance
bypass for the ac current circulated between the
SPD relays at each end. This system-frequency
bypass is provided by capacitors mounted internally
in the SPA relays and connected in parallel with the
relay circuit, as shown in Figure 11.

OPEN PILOT
An open circuited pilot wire will cause the monitoring current to fall to zero. The undercurrent units
(UC) in both the transmitting and receiving end
relays will drop out, the UC contacts will close, and
the LED indicators for the UC function will light.

SHORTED PILOT
A shorted pilot loop will result in an increase in
the monitoring current at the transmitting end, and a

NEUTRALIZING
REACTOR

NEUTRALIZING
REACTOR

SPD

r
I
+

____

+
-_-----mm
J;--l
ISOLATION

7r

,I

_-----(IF LINE IS
THREE-TERMINAL)
SPAlPA
RECEIVING END

i 13-l
!

?-I
ALARM

BLOCK
SPD
SPAl2A

SPD

RECEIVING END

SPA11A
SENDING END

Figure 11. Simplified Functional Diagram - SPA Relays, Monitoring Only

14

decrease in the current at the receiving end. The

increase in current at the transmitting end will result
in operation of the overcurrent unit and the associated LED. The current at the receiving end will decrease to zero for a short circuited pilot, causing the
undercurrent unit to drop out. A short circuit on the
pilot is the extreme case for the overcurrent condition. The overcurrent unit in the transmitting end
relay will pickup for circulating currents of 1.35
milliamperes or more.
GROUNDED PILOT
The ground indicating unit in the transmitting end
relay is normally dropped out. A ground on either
pilot wire, below 10,000 ohms, will causetheground
unit to operate and the ground LED to light.
REVERSED PILOT
A polarity sensitive circuit in the receiving end
relays provides indication of a reversed pilot wire.
For the reversed pilot condition sufficient current
is bypassed around the undercurrent detection circuit to cause the UC unit to drop out. Furthermore,
as a result of the decrease in resistance at the receiving end, the monitoring current increases sufficiently to operate the overcurrent function at the

transmitting end. These indications are the same as

would occur during a shorted pilot.
TRIP BLOCKING
The SPA relays for both the transmitting and receiving ends include contact circuits for the optional
supervision of the SPD trip circuit. At the transmitting end, this consists of normally closed contacts of the OC and ground units, and a normally
open contact of the UC unit, all connected in series.
At the receiving end a normally open contact of the
UC unit is used. At user discretion, these contacts
can be connected in series with the SPD trip circuit
to block that circuit when an abnormal pilot condition is detected.
TRANSFER TRIPPING
On some applications the user may wish to use the
pilot circuit to send a transfer trip signal in one or
both directions. Table II lists the SPA models required when transfer tripping is involved. These
relays include all the monitoring functions previously described for the transmitting and receiving
end relays. In addition they include a transfer trip
initiating auxiliary unit (TTA) and a receiving auxiliary unit (TT).

NEUTRALIZING
REACTOR

NEUTRALIZING

ISOLATION

u
l-l

1I
STATIC

,CTCPTlnU

iI

L---L_I
lmSAME CONNS. ASI
RIGHT HAND
I
T E R M I N A LI
(IF LINE IS
THREE-TERMINAL)

\
INITIATE
TRANS.
TRIP

BL;ICKTTRIP
SPD

SPA110

TRIP
SPA12B

Figure 12. Simplified Functional Diagram - SPA Relays,

Monitoring and Two-Way Transferred Trip

15

A typical installation of the pilot monitoring

scheme, with two-way transfertripping, is illustrated
by the simplified functional diagram in Figure 12.
The transfer trip signal is initiated by energizing the
coil of the TTA auxiliary unit. Closure of the TTA
contacts reverses the polarity of the dc voltage applied to the pilot wires. Reversal of thevoltage polarity causes operation of the receiving auxiliary unit
(TT) in the SPA relays at both the local and remote
terminals of the pilot wire.
The same SPA models are used in a one-way
transfer trip application. Referring to Figure 12, the
TT unit contacts are not used at the initiating end
and the TTA unit coil circuit is not connected at the
receiving end.

relays to realize these operating characteristics.

The only settings required at the time of installation are the dc voltage selectors, 48 or 125 volts,
the target seal-in unit tap setting when transfer
tripping is involved, and the selector in the receiving
end relays for two- or three-terminal lines.
OPERATING TIMES
The operating times of the undercurrent, overcurrent, and ground detection circuits are intentionally made slow to override transient disturbances.
The times will vary depending on conditions on the
primary system and the severity of the abnormal
condition on the pilot wire. Thevalues listed in Table
IV are approximate:
Table IV
Operating Times

THREE-TERMINAL LINES
Application of the monitoring/transfer trip
schemes to three-terminal lines is represented by
the dashed connections in Figures 11 and 12, which
show the addition of the third terminal. The only
difference in the circuit is that a link in the receiving
end relays must be placed in the three-terminal
position.
CHARACTERISTICS
Detection levels of the undercurrent units (UC) in
the transmit and receiving end relays are listed in
Table III:

For transfer trip installations, the operating time is

defined as the time between energizing theTTA unit
at one end and the closure of the TT unit contact at
the other end. This time will vary slightly with the
length of the Pilot wire, as listed in Table V.

Table Ill
UC Unit Detection Levels

Relay

Line
Terminals

UC Level

SPA1 1A or -B

0.53 ma or less

SPA11A
A or-B

0.43 ma or less

SPA1 2A or -B

0.53 ma or less

SPA12A
A or-B

0.21 ma or less

Operating current of the overcurrent unit (OC) in

the transmit end relay is 1.35 ma.
The ground unit in the transmit end relay will
operate, and the GND LED will light, when the
resistance to ground from either conductor of the
pilot pair falls below 10,000 ohms.
No field adjustments are necessary in the SPA
16

In Table IV detection time of each unit is the time

to close its contact after the occurrence of the pilot
condition listed in the table. The restore time is the
time to reopen the contact after the condition listed
in the table is removed and normal circuit conditions
are restored.

Table V
Transfer Trip Times
Pilot
Resistance
0 Ohms
2000 Ohms

Operate*
Time

Reset*
Time

4 cyc.
5 cyc.

6 Cyc.
6 Cyc.

*60 Hz base.

The transfer trip operating times are virtually

independent of station battery voltage variations.

PROTECTION OF THE PILOT WIRES

AND ASSOCIATED EQUIPMENT
The most likely source of difficulty in an ac pilot
wire relaying scheme is the pilot circuit itself. Because the pilot circuit extends over a considerable
distance it is exposed to a number of hazards which
can interfere with the proper operation of the
scheme, or can cause damage to the pilot circuit and
the associated equipment. The more common
hazards are:
1. Rise in station ground potential.
2. Induced voltages.
3. Lightning.
The sources of thesevoltage disturbancesand the
various devices available to minimize their effects
have been described in a continuing series of technical papers, guides and standards, listed in the
bibliography. The user should review these references for a more comprehensive discussion of pilot
wire protection.
GROUND POTENTIAL RISE
A substantial voltage rise can occur at the substation ground mat relative to the remote ground
potential. This voltage rise can cause excessive
insulation stresses on the pilot wire relay, the pilot
wire monitoring relay, the pilot wires, and between
the pilot wires and other conductors in the same
cable.

STATION A

I
I
I
I

The diagram in Figure 14 represents a typical

voltage profile of the potential difference between
the pilot cable and ground during a single-phase-toground fault. As is apparent from the plot, the potential of earth near the pilot wire cable tends to be
at the remote ground potential for most of the length
of the pilot run. Hence, if the cable is not grounded
it will assume a potential near that of the remote
ground because of the capacitive coupling. Thus the
potential rise of the station ground mat results in a
significant voltage difference between the station
ground mat and the pilot cable with its connected
station equipment. If this voltage difference be-

RELAY
J CASE

r - - - - - - - l
I

As illustrated in Figure 13, the typical condition

resulting in ground potential rise is a single-phaseto-ground fault on the power system. With ground
current flowing through the Station A ground mat,
there will be a voltage difference between this mat
and the remote ground potential. The magnitude of
this voltage will depend on the magnitude of the
current and on the impedance between the station
ground and the remote ground. The value of the
ground current is usually available from system
fault studies. The determination of the impedance
between the mat and the remote ground has been
the subject of a number of papers listed in the bibliography which describe means of determining the
impedance by either calculation or test.

PILOT
SHEATH

RELAY
CIRCUIT

PILOT
WIRES

3 IO (TOTAL FAULT CURRENT

FROM REMOTE GROUND FAULT)

Figure 13. Situation Causing Station Ground Mat Potential Rise

17

4
POTENTliL OF
STATION GROUND MAT
I

the transverse signal is opposed only by the leakage

reactance of the neutralizing reactor windings.

VOLTAGE PROFILE IN
/ VICINITY OF SUBSTATION

On the other hand, a common mode voltage difference, as a the result of the station ground potential rise, will attempt to force current through
the two windings in the same direction and will
therefore be opposed by the magnetizing impedance of the neutralizing reactor. The capacitors
connected to ground at the midpoint of the SPD
insulating transformer and the stray capacitance to
ground of the pilot wires complete the path for the
reactor magnetizing current resulting from the potential difference between station ground and remote ground. Since most of the voltage drop from
this circulating magnetizing current will appear
across the reactor windings, the relays and pilot
connections on the station side of the reactor will
be elevated in potential to essentially the same level
as the station ground mat, as illustrated by the voltage profile in Figure 15.

A______&_

c REMOTE GROUND
POTENTIAL

PILOT WIRES & RELAY

CIRCUIT AT THIS
POTENTIAL

Figure 14. Typical Ground Potential Profile

During A Single-Phase-to-Ground Fault
comes too great, there is danger to personnel and
the possibility of damage to the pilot wire relays, the
connected equipment and the pilot wire itself. If this
voltage difference exceeds 600 volts, protection of
the pilot wires is usually necessary since this is the
continuous voltage insulation level of theconnected
relays, terminal boards, panels and standard telephone cables.
The usual method of protecting against excessive
station ground potential rise is to install a neutralizing reactor in the pilot wire circuit as shown in
Figure 15. The windings of the neutralizing reactor
present a low impedance to the normal circulating
current of the wire pilot scheme (i.e., transverse
voltage signals) since the currents in the two windings will flow in opposite directions. Consequently,

The voltage profile also reveals that the neutralizing reactor itself and a section of the pilot wire cable
adjacent to the station may still be subjected to
excessive voltage stresses during a station ground
potential rise. For this reason a neutralizing reactor
that can withstand the full ground potential rise

NOTGROUNDED

NEUTRALIZING
REACTOR

l--P
SPA

,STATlON

GROUND POTENTIAL DURING GROUND FAULT

POTENTIAL OF RELAY AND

CONNECTIONS TO
NEUTRALIZING REACTOR I__
NEUTRALIZING
REACTOR

.
.
REMOTE GROUND
POTENTIAL

VOLTAGE PROFILE

Figure 15. Typical Application of Neutralizing Reactors, With Voltage Profile

18

should be selected. A neutralizing reactor with a

4kV withstand capability, including the capacitors
and resistors for the ground connection, and an
ungrounded gaseous discharge tube, is available
from General Electric. The purpose of the gaseous
discharge tube is explained in a following section
on lightning effects. If the expected potential rise
exceeds the withstand rating of standard pilot wire
cable, then a pilot wire with a higher voltage rating
should be installed from the neutralizing reactor to a
splice point outside the zone of influence of station
ground potential.

TRANSVERSE MODE INDUCED VOLTAGES

Since a voltage resulting from the transverse mode
of induction is between the two wires of the pilot
pair, it appears as an operating voltage to the SPD
relays. If it exceeds the voltage required to operate
the SPD, which is 13 volts with no restraint current
present, an incorrect trip can result. Consequently
it is essential that transverse mode induced voltages
be held to a minimum. An effective means of minimizing transverse mode induced voltage between
the wires is to use a twisted pair for the pilot.

INDUCED VOLTAGES

Coupling between the pilot pair and an adjacent

power line carrying fault current may result in a
common mode (or longitudinal) induced voltage.
Generally this induced voltage results from a ground
fault and can usually be determined with sufficient
accuracy by multiplying the maximum ground fault
current by the zero sequence mutual impedance
between the power circuit and the pilot circuit. The
neutralizing reactor, described in the section on
ground potential rise and shown in Figure 15, will
protect the relays, terminal blocks, and pilot wires
up to the reactor from damage by such induced
voltages. If it is determined that the common mode
induced voltage on the other side of the neutralizing
reactor can exceed the insulation capability of the
pilot wires, a mutual drainage reactor with gaseous
discharge tube can be installed as shown in Figure
16. If it is deemed necessary to provide a mutual

Disturbances from induced voltages usually have

their source in the power circuits themselves, either
during faults on the line being protected by the pilot
wire scheme, or on adjacent lines. This inductive
coupling can result in induced voltages in the transverse (or differential) mode, or in the common (or
longitudinal) mode.
If the magnetic flux of the faulted line links one
wire of the pilot pair less than the other, then an
induced voltage in the transverse mode will appear
as a voltage between the two wires. If the flux links
both wires of the pilot pair and not theground return
path, then the induced voltage is known ascommon
mode and results in a voltage from both wires to the
common ground reference plane.

COMMON MODE INDUCED VOLTAGES

MUTUAL
DRAINAGE
REACTOR
GAS TUBE
NEUTRALIZING
REACTOR

SPD

REMOTE
It- GROUND

\ PILOT WIRE
TO OTHER
TERMINAL

STATION GROUND MAT

Figure 16. Typical Use of Mutual Drainage Reactor and Gas Tube

19

drainage reactor, as well as the neutralizing reactor,

then the gas tube associated with the drainage
reactor should be remotely grounded at a point
outside the zone of influence.
If the pilot pair is in the same cable as other communication circuits, care must be taken that the
intercircuit withstand voltages are not exceeded.
An effective method of minimizing intercircuit voltages is to protect each circuit in a similar manner at
the same location, thus assuring that at no point will
there be significant voltage differences.

needed as typified by Figure 17. The protection provided by the arresters should coordinate with the
insulation withstand capability of the neutralizing
reactor and the pilot pair. It is essential that the
arresters reseal with nominal ac and dc currents
flowing in the pilot pair. It is for this reason that
lightning arresters rather than carbon blocks are
recommended. The arresters should be remotely
grounded outside the zone of influence so that they
do not operate on a ground potential rise, since the
neutralizing reactors protect against this condition.

LIGHTNING
Control equipment in substations is generally so
well shielded against severe voltage surges caused
by lightning that direct protection may not be necessary. The pilot wire system differs from other
control equipment in that it runs over a considerable
distance from one substation to another and hence
is exposed to lightning. Lightning induced voltages
may exceed the pilot insulation capability, and if this
is possible, lightning arrestors may be applied as

As shown in Figure 17, a gas tube is usually connected from wire to wire of the pilot pair when arresters are used. The purpose of this gas tube, which is
supplied with the neutralizing reactor, is to short
the two wires together should one arrester fire and
not the other. This will prevent a high voltage between the pilot pair which could cause a false trip
by the SPD relay during arrester discharge. It is
essential that the gas tube be left ungrounded so
that it does not provide a path to the ground.

STATION
GROUND
SHIELD

STATION
GROUND
SHIELD

GAS TUBE
r (NO GROUND) ,

1
NEUTRALIZING
REACTOR

PILOT
WIRES

NEUTRALIZING
REACTOR
rm

SPD

TL

SPD

LIGHTNING
ARRESTERS

El
SPA

Figure 17. An Illustration of Possible Surge Protection

ELEMENTS OF THE
PILOT WIRE SYSTEM
The elements of the ac wire pilot scheme and
their functions, which were discussed in detail in
earlier sections. are summarized in Table VI. As is
apparent from the table the major components of
the system, some of which are supplied by the user,
are the following:
1. Pilot wire relay, type SPD, and associated
equipment.
20

2. Pilot pair and surge limiting equipement.

3. Pilot monitoring relay, Type SPA
4. Neutralizing reactor and associated equipment.
5. Mutual drainage reactor.
Of these five elements the first two, the pilot wire
relay and pilot pair, are of course essential to the

operation of the basic scheme. The pilot monitoring

relays, while not essential to the operation of the
scheme, are usually included because of their value
in detecting open, shorted, grounded or reversed
pilot pairs. The neutralizing reactor should be used
when data is not available to verify that ground
potential rise and/or common mode induced voltages on the pilot pair are within the insulation capability of the pilot wires and connected equipment.
The mutual drainage reactor is used when protection beyond that provided by the neutralizing
reactor is required to protect against common mode
induced voltages.
The SPD-SPA pilot wire relaying system is designed to keep to a minimum the number of units
that must be ordered and mounted. The SPD11A
relay includes, in addition to the relay itself, an external test switch, ammeter, and meter rangechanging transformer, thus providing the facilities
required for the basic pilot wire relaying scheme
and for the ac testing of the system. The pilot wire
pair, and lightning arresters for surge protection,
are supplied by the user.
The SPA relays, one per line terminal, provide
the transmitting or receiving functions for pilot
monitoring, and can be supplied with or without
transferred trip capability. The relay type numbers

for these various functions are listed in Table II.

Each of these relays includes the auxiliary units and
resistors to provide the specified functions, as well
as an internally mounted capacitor to bypass the ac
circulating pilot current around the dc circuits. In
previous schemes this ac bypass capacitor, as well
as a number of resistors and contacts for transfer
trip, required separate mounting.
The neutralizing reactor available from General
Electric includes the gas tube and mounting, as well
as the resistors and capacitors, with mounting plate,
to provide the return path for the reactor magnetizing current. The mutual drainage reactor available
from General Electric includes the gas tube with
mounting plate.
These various components, which are shown in
the photographs in Figure 18 and 19, can be combined to provide a number of schemes which differ
in whether or not the sensitive ground connection is
used, whether pilot monitoring is used alone, or
with transferred trip, and whether two-terminal or
three-terminal lines are involved. The schematic
diagrams in Figures 1 and 5 describe the basic
scheme, while the elementary diagrams in Figures
11 and 12 cover the monitoring and transferred
tripping applications.

Table VI
Items Included in SPD Pilot Wire Scheme
ORDERED ITEM

INCLUDED

SPDllA
Test Switch
Ammeter & Transformer

FUNCTION

REMARKS

REQUIRED OR OPTIONAL
Required

Pilot wire relay

Check of AC connections
in Pilot wire circuit.

SPA11A

Pilot Monitor

Transmit End

Optional

:AllB

Pilot Monitor &

Transfer Trip

Transmit End

Optional

SPAIZA

Pilot Monitor

Receive End

Optional

SPA128

Pilot Monitor &

Transfer Trip

Receive End

Optional

Neutralizing
Reactor
(0257A9787G3)

Neutralizes ground potential

rise or common mode
induced voltage
Provides exciting current
path for neut. reactor

Required if calculations
indicate insulation
withstand capability
will be exceeded.

Limits common-mode induced

voltage, pilot wires to
ground

Optional

Or

Capacitor & Resistor

Assem.
Ungrounded Gas Tube
Mutual Drainage
Reactor
(0257A9787G4)

Grounded Gas Tube

21

SPD
Relay

Milliameter

Meter
Range-Changing
CT

Test
Switch

SPA Relay
(See Table II)

Figure 18

Mutual
Drainage
Reactor

Neutralizing
Reactor
Figure 19

22

Excitation
Assembly

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Committee Report, Application and Protection of Pilot Wire Circuits for Protective
Relaying. Sponsored by the Pilot Wire Subcommittee, AIEE Relays Committee, July,
1960 (Publication S-117).
2. Committee Report, The Isolation Concept for Protection of Wire Line Facilities Entering
Electric Power Stations. Sponsored by the Power System Communications Committee,
IEEE Power Engineering Society. IEEE Trans. (Power Apparatus & Systems) 1976,
pages 1216-33.
3. Committee Report, The Neutralizing Transformer Concept for Protection of Wire Line
Facilities Entering Electric Power Stations. Sponsored by Power System Communication Committee, IEEE Power Engineering Society. IEEE Trans. (Power Apparatus &
Systems) 1977, pages 1256-79.
4. A Guide for the Protection of Wire Line Communications Facilities Serving Electric
Power Stations, IEEE Standard 468 published 1980.
5. J. F. Laidig and F. P. Zuper, A Practical Ground Potential Rise Prediction Technique for
Power Stations. Presented at IEEE-PES Winter Meeting, 1979.

23

*(3RZHU0DQDJHPHQW
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Markham, Ontario
Canada L6E 1B3
Tel: (905) 294-6222
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