Introduction of the Chapter

(Note: Upto Africa was already covered in previous [World

History] Articles, you may start from Americas directly.)
THE term `imperialism means the practice of extending the power,
control or rule by a country over the political and economic life of
areas outside its own borders. This may be done through military or
other means, and particularly through colonialism or the practice of
acquiring colonies by conquest or other means and making them
dependent It may be remembered that occupation of or direct rule
over a country or people by another country is not always an essential
feature of imperialism The essential feature of the relations between
an imperialist country and the country over which it has established its
control or the colony which it has acquired, is exploitation, with or
without direct political control. This means that the imperialist country,
or metropolis (literal meaning mother country), as it is sometimes
called, subordinates the colony or the country which the metropolis
indirectly controls to serve its own economic and political interests.
Most countries of Asia, including India, and Africa, and many other
parts of the world were until recent years under the control of one
imperialist country or another. These included countries which were
not directly/ruled by the imperialist countries but were exploited by
them more or less in the same way as countries over which direct
imperialist rule had been es tablished In the present-day World, when
almost all countries of the world are politically independent, imperialist
control over other countries has not come to an end The practice of
exploitation, particularly economic exploitation and domination of
independent but economically less developed countries, is often
called neocolonialism .
The first phase of the imperialist control and colonization of Asia,
Africa and the Americas began in the sixteenth century. During the
period from the sixteenth to the eighteenth century, as you have read
in Chapter 6 (Vol. 1), the voyages of discovery were followed by the
founding of vast colonial empires by Portugal, Spain, Holland,
England and France In the Americas, Spain occupied most of South
America (excluding Brazil which was occupied by Portugal), Central
America, Mexico, West Indies and parts of what is now the United
States of America. England and France occupied parts of North
America Many people from these countries of Europe went to settle in
these colonies permanently During this period, the European control

in Africa extended only to about one fifth of the continent, mainly in

the coastal areas. This was the period of slave trade The European
slave traders enslaved and transported about 5000 Africans to the
Americas every month during the seventeenth century In Asia, the
Europeans came mainly with the purpose of trade The traders from
Portugal, Holland, England, France and other countries, with the
backing of their respective governments, set up their trading posts
and tried to establish their monopoly of trade with the countries of
Asia, and each tried to exclude the others through war and by
extending their political influence and control. The Portuguese who
controlled the trade with Asia were ousted from that position by the
Dutch and the English who extended their control over Indonesia and
India, respectively. Generally speaking, the first phase of imperialism
and colonization came to an end by the close of the eighteenth
century. The British conquest of India which had started in the middle
of the eighteenth century, was completed by about the middle of the
nineteenth century. In the meantime, the imperialist penetration of
China had begun.
The period between the sixteenth to the eighteenth century was a
period of naked plunder by European colonial powers In Chapter 7
(Vol.1), you have already read about the role which this plunder
played in the growth of the capitalist system and in the Industrial
Revolution
During the initial period of the Industrial Revolution, the pursuit for
colonies had slowed down The pursuit for colonies and colonial
rivalries reemerged in the last quarter of the nineteenth century This
new phase of imperialism, which began in about 1875 and continued
till 1914, is often described as New Imperialism It was the result of the
economic system that had developed as a result of the Industrial
Revolution During this phase, a few industrialized capitalist countries
established their political and economic control and domination over
almost the rest of the world The forms of control and domination
including direct colonial rule, spheres of influence and various types of
economic and commercial agreements The power of some of the
imperialist countries such as Spain and Portugal declined during this
period, and new countries emerged which played an increasingly
important role during this phase of imperialist expansion and rivalries.
Besides the old imperialist countries Britain and France which
continued to be powerful and expand, the new imperialist countries

which emerged during this period were Germany, Italy, 13e1 glum, U
S A and, later, Japan.

CONDITIONS THAT HELPED THE GROWTH OF

IMPERIALISM
If you study the conditions that existed in the world in the nineteenth
century, you will find that these conditions favoured the growth of
imperialism The imperialist countries took full advantage of these
conditions and easily justified any and every conquest that served
their interests. In fact, the more pow erful nations made imperialism
seem necessary and natural
Demands Created by the Industrial Revolution
As you have read, the Industrial Revolution resulted in a very great
increase in the production of goods It also created the capitalist
system of production. Under capitalism, maximum profit for the
capitalist was the primary purpose of production Capitalists followed
two courses to make big profits more and more production and
minimum wages to workers The production of goods was far in
excess of the demand at home. Low wages meant low purchasing
power of the majority of the population and this also restricted their
demand at home. So capitalist countries had to find new markets and
buyers for the goods their industries were producing.
The possibilities of one industrialized country selling its manufactures
to another industrialized country were also limited. With the spread of
the Industrial Revolution to all the countries of Europe, each country
tried to protect and stimulate its new industries To do this, as you
learned in Chapter 7, all the European nations began to follow a
protectionist policy. That is, each country put a heavy tariff or tax on
goods imported from other countries.
European countries could find markets for their surplus goods in Asia
and Africa where the Industrial Revolution had not taken place. Selling
was made easier through political domination of these areas. Then
each country could protect its market from other European rivals and
also eliminate any competition from goods produced locally.
In addition to markets, European countries needed new sources of
raw materials. As industries grew, more and more raw materials were
needed to fee those industries. And all that was needed could not be

had internally, at any rate not enough of it. India and Egypt were good
sources of cotton, Congo and the East Indies, of rubber Other
products needed were food grains, tea, coffee, indigo, tobacco and
sugar. To obtain these, it was necessary to change the pattern of
production in the countries where they could be grown. Sometimes,
goods produced in one country were sold in another country to pay for
the goods from that country For example, the English promoted the
cultivation of opium in India, they smuggled the opium from India into
China and in this way paid for the goods that they bought in China. In
some countries, the imperialists forced the cultivation of only one or
two crops which they needed as raw materials for their industries
Coal, iron, tin, gold, copper and, later, oil were other resources of Asia
and Africa that European countries wanted to control.
Towards the end of the nineteenth century, imperialist countries
began looking upon Asia, Africa and South Africa as good places to
invest their capital The abundance of raw materials in Asia and Africa,
and the number of people who could be made to work for lower
wages made the two continents very attractive to investors. Capital
invested in Europe would fetch only 3 or 4 per cent profit, in Asia or
Africa, it was as high as 20 per cent From about the end of the
nineteenth century, export of capital for investment in other countries
began to become more important than the export of goods. This
happened as a result of the growing influence and power of the
financial institutions such as banks. They exercised control over
industries by giving them credit The investment of capital in the
colonies was not made with a view to industrializing the colonies, it
was to promote industries which would produce goods mainly for
export, such as in mining, or which would further strengthen the
imperialist countrys control over the colonys economy, such as the
railways But, as in the case of markets and raw materials, political
domination was often necessary Investments might not be safe
without political domination, Europeans reasoned. An uprising that a
weak government could not control, or a change in government, could
mean a loss of profits or even of the whole investment, they argued
This was how Morocco in North Africa, for example, became French
Morocco, after French investors appealed to their government to
annex it.
Improvement in Transportation and Communication

Changes in transport and communication that came with the Industrial

Revolution made the spread of imperialism easier. Steamships could
carry goods between home countries in Europe and the acquired
territories in Asia and Africa much faster than old sailing vessels With
cheap labour, imperialist countries built railroads and inland
waterways in conquered area. On these they could get raw materials
out of the interior of the continents and send their manufactured
products into new markets. Thus every area of the world was brought
within easy reach of the industrialized countries
Extreme Nationalism : Pride and Power
The later part of the nineteenth century was a period of intense
nationalism. Germany and Italy had just succeeded in becoming
unified nations. Nationalism in the late nineteenth century came to be
associated with chauvinism Many nations developed myths of their
superiority over other peoples Each one felt that it, too, must have
colonies to add to its prestige and power. Imperialism became the
fashion of the age. Writers and speakers in England, France and
Germany opened institutions to promote the idea of imperialism, and
took great pride in calling their territories empires. Imperialist countries
took over some places in Asia and Africa because of their military or
strategic importance. For example, England needed Port Said, Aden,
Hong Kong, Singapore and Cyprus not to protect England but to
protect her conquered lands and trade route to India from rival
nations. At these places she established naval bases and coaling
stations to strengthen her overseas power Rival nations got similar
bases elsewhere, as you will see. Acquiring a colony also had a chain
reaction If a county acquired a colony, it needed another to protect it
and so on
Overseas possessions were also useful because they added to an
imperialist countrys manpower Some of the people of the colonized
countries were taken into the army, often by force, for use in wars of
conquest, others were contracted to work on plantations and mines in
some other colonial possession for a specified number of years. The
manpower of the colonies was alsoused in the administration of the
colonies at lower levels.
The Civilizing Mission: Men and Ideas
In the minds of many Europeans, imperialist expansion was very
noble. They considered it a way of bringing civilization to the

backward peoples of the world The famous English writer, Rudyard

Kipling, asked his countrymen to shoulder what he called the white
mans burden Jules Ferry, in France, said, Superior races have the
duty of civilizing the inferior races .
Christian missionaries, dedicated to spreading Christianity, also
played their part in promoting the idea of imperialism. Usually they
went alone into unknown areas in a spirit of duty. Very often they were
followed by profiteering traders and soldiers. Wars often took place to
protect the missionaries. All this seemed quite natural to most
Western people who considered it their nations destiny to civilize and
Christianize the peoples of Asia and Africa President McKinley of the
United States summed up the reasons for annexing the Philippines in
these words There was nothing left to do but to take them all, and to
educate the Filipinos and uplift and civilize and Christianize them as
our fellow men for whom Christ also died.
Explorers and adventurers
They also helped in spreading imperialism. They went into unknown
or little known territories and brought back reports that often indicated
opportunities for trade and development. On the basis of such reports,
a trading post would first be set up; next, gradually the explorers
home government would arrange to take over protection of the entire
area around the trading post Then this government would proceed to
claim the entire territory The work of explorers and adventurers was
particularly important in Europes taking over of Africa.
Conditions that Favoured Imperialism in Asia and Africa
The most important condition favouring the imperialist conquest of
Asia and Africa was that the Industrial Revolution had not come to this
part of the world. The craftsmen produced goods of fine quality that
Westerners admired and desired. But they relied entirely on hand
tools which meant production on a small scale In comparison with the
production of Western countries in the nineteenth century, Asian and
African methods were backward. Also, because of the lack of
knowledge that the Industrial Revolution had brought to the West, the
two continents were militarily unable to stand up to the armed might
and power of Europe.
The governments of the countries of Asia and Africa were very weak
in the nineteenth century, though in ancient and medieval times

powerful empires had existed there. In the nineteenth century, the old
ways of governing were still followed, even though they had outlived
their usefulness. Strong nationstates in the modern sense had not
developed. The peoples loyalties were still to local princes as in
feudal times, or to tribal chieftains. These rulers cared little for the
welfare of the people. These conditions help to explain how small
bands of Westerners succeeded in gaining power and, finally, with the
backing of their governments, in conquering entire countries.

THE CONQUEST OF ASIA: The British in India

The decline of the Mughal empire in India gave the British and the
French, who had come to trade, an opportunity to conquer India. The
English East India Company, formed in 1600, was victorious in its
conflict with France, which ended in 1763. Beginning with Bengal,
almost the entire country came under the rule of the English East
India Company. After the Revolt of 1857, the British government took
over direct control of India. Many princely states survived but they
were free more in name than in fact. Britains conquest of India was
complete.
The conflict between the English East India Company and the French
was over establishing a monopoly of trade. After the English company
gained control, the countrys vast resources fell into its hands. There
was no longer any need to bring money from England to buy Indian
goods. These were purchased with the money made from British
conquests in India and sold in England and Europe Fortunes were
made by the officers of the Company India was known as the
brightest jewel of the British empire. With the coming of the Industrial
Revolution in England, British goods poured into this country. This
ruined Indian handicraft industries. Millions of pounds were drained
out of India to England in the form of profits and as payment to the
British government as direct tribute and Home Charges. Indias
interests were subordinated more and more to British interests. In
1877, the British queen took the title Empress of India, like the one
used earlier by the Mughals.
The British conquest led to many changes in the Indian social and
economic life. To extend Indian markets for British goods and to make
use of Indias natural resources railway construction was started on a
large scale British rulers gave special privileges to their own planters,
and within a short time a number of tea, coffee and indigo plantations

grew up In 1883, all import and export duties were waived Indian
resources, both human and material, were used to promote the
interests of British imperialism in China, Central Asia and Africa. To
prevent opposition from the Indian people, the British imposed laws to
stifle the expression of public opinion They excluded Indians from
responsible positions in government, and discriminated against them
in other institutions and in social life.
Imperialism in China
Imperialist domination of China began with what are known as the
Opium Wars Before these wars, only two ports were open to foreign
traders British merchants bought Chinese tea, silk and other goods,
but there was no market for British goods in China. Then British
merchants started smuggling opium into China on a large scale. The
illegal opium trade was profitable to the British traders but did
immense physical and moral damage to the Chinese. In 1839, when a
Chinese government official seized an opium cargo and destroyed it,
Britain declared war and easily defeated the Chinese. The Chinese
were then forced to pay heavy damages to the British and to open five
port cities to British traders The Chinese government also agreed that
in future, British subjects in these ports would be tried for any crimes
in English rather than in Chinese courts This provision, which other
Western countries copied, came to be known as extraterritorial rights.
The Chinese government was no longer free to impose tariff on
foreign goods The island of Hong Kong was turned over to Britain.
Soon France entered into similar unequal treaties with China. On the
pretext that a French missionary had been murdered, England and
France fought another war with China. China was defeated and was
forced to grant more privileges to her conquerors. The next important
stage in the growth of imperialist control over China came after the
wai with Japan This came about when Japan tried to increase her
influence over Korea which was under Chinese overlordship. China
resented this rind the two countries went to war, which ended in
victory for Japan China gave Korea her independence and ceded
Formosa and other islands to Japan. She was also forced to pay
Japan heavy war damages amounting to about 150 million dollars.
France, Russia, Britain and Germany gave loans to China to help her
to meet this payment. But not for nothing 1 These western countries
then divided China into spheres of influence, which meant that each
country had certain regions of China reserved exclusively for its

purposes Foi example, in its sphere of influence, a country might have

the right to build railways or work mines. Germany got Kiaochow Bay
and exclusive rights in Shantung and in the HwangHo valley. Russia
took Liao tung Peninsula, along with the right to build railroads in
Manchuria, France received Kwangchow Bay and extensive rights in
three southern provinces of China Britain got WeihiWei in addition to
her sphere of influence in the Yangtze valley
Open Door Policy
The United States feared that China would be completely parcelled
out in exclusive spheres of influence and that its trade with China
would be shut off. The United States, therefore, suggested the policy
known as the Open Door. This policy is also described as Me too
policy According to this policy, all countries would have equal rights to
trade anywhere in China Britain supported the United States thinking
that this policy would discourage the annexation of China by Japan
and Russia, the two countries that could mast easily send their armies
to the mainland
The scramble for privileges stopped in China after an uprising against
the foreign powers known as the Boxer Rebellion. But the foreign
powers were victorious and levied heavy damages on China as
punishment Imperialism continued, with the cooperation of Chinese
warlords. These military commanders were supported by the loans
which they got from foreign powers in exchange for more privileges.
Though China was not conquered and occupied by any imperialist
country, the effects of these developments on China were the same
as in areas which had been colonized In a period of a few decades,
China had been educed to the status of an international colony. The
division of China into spheres of influence has often been described
as the cutting of the Chinese melon
Imperialism in South and SouthEast Asia
South and South East Asia includes Nepal, Burma, Sri Lanka,
Malaya, Indonesia, IndoChina, Thailand and the Philippines Even
before the rise of the new imperialism, many of these countries were
already dominated by the Europeans Sri Lanka was occupied by the
Portuguese, then by the Dutch, and later by the British England
introduced tea and rubber plantations, which came to form 7/8th of Sri
Lankas exports. The Dutch lost Malaya to the British, including
Singapore, lying at the tip of the Malaya peninsula. The conquest of

Malaya and Singapore meant control of all the trade of the Far East
that passed through the Straits of Malacca. Indonesia and the
surrounding islands were under Dutch control After 1875, Holland
extended her control over a group of islands known as the Moluccas.
IndoChina
The area in SouthEast Asia once called Indo-China consists of Laos,
Cambodia and Vietnam. When England was fighting China over the
opium trade, France was trying to extend her commerce in IndoChina.
In a series of planned steps which included threats of war, France
became the master of IndoChina and the separate states were
grouped together under a
French governor general. Frequent revolts against French rule
followed, but they were suppressed or, as the French said, pacified.
Burma
In 1880, the king of Burma gave France the right to build a railway
from Tonkin to Mandalay The French were trying to dominate all of
SouthEast Asia. The British government, fearing French expansion,
started a war with Burma. The Burmese king was captured and sent
to India Burma was annexed and became a part of Britains empire in
India in 1886.
Thailand, or Siam, remained an independent state, though
sandwiched between the French conquests in IndoChina and of the
British in Burma But France and England exercised much power and
authority over its affairs
Philippines
The United States joined in the race of imperialist expansion in
SouthEast Asia in the late nineteenth century A revolt of the Cubans
in the Caribbean against Spanish rule led the United States to a war
with Spain. There was a revolt of the Filipinos against Spanish rule
and the United States occupied Cuba and the Philippines The
Filipinos revolted against the American occupation but were
suppressed and the Philippines became an American possession The
United States paid 20 million dollars to Spain for the Philippines.
Imperialism in Central and Western Asia

England and Russia were rivals in the struggle to control Central Asia,
Iran (Persia), Afghanistan and Tibet The Russian empire succeeded
in annexing almost all of Central Asia in the second half of the
nineteenth century The conflict between England and Russia came to
a head over Iran and Afghanistan Besides some minor economic
interests in these countries, Britain was mainly concerned about
defending her conquests in India against the expansion of Russia in
Central Asia. Russia and England set up banks in Iran to obtain
economic control In 1907, England and Russia reached an agreement
according to which southern Iran became Britains sphere of influence
and northern Iran the Russian sphere of influence. The central part of
Iran was neutral and open to both Meanwhile, the struggle was on
between Britain and Russia for mastery over Afghanistan and Tibet
Finally in 1907, Britain and Russia reached an agreement over these
two countries and Iran Both powers agreed not to interfere in Tibet
Russia agreed to recognize Afghanistan as being outside her
influence and Britain agreed not to annex Afghanistan as long as her
ruler remained loyal to her The division of Iran into three zones has
already been mentioned This meant the establishment of joint AngloRussian supremacy over Iran. After the Russian Revolution broke out
in 1917, the new Soviet government denounced the old Anglo
Russian agreement and gave up her rights in Iran However, Iran was
occupied by British troops Meanwhile, oil had been found in Iran and
British and American oil interests became powerful Iran remained
nominally independent but was increasingly under the domination of
foreign oil companies the Standard Oil Company of the United
States and the AngloPersian Oil Company of England. After the
overthrow of the monarchy in China in 1911, Tibet increasingly
passed under British influence.
Germany, during these years, was extending her influence over
Turkey and the Asian possessions of the Turkish empire. A German
company obtained a concession to build a railway from
Constantinople to Baghdad and the persian Gulf. Through this
railway, Germany hoped to promote her economic interests in this
region, and on to Iran and India France, England and Russia opposed
this, but an agreement to divide the region was reached between
Germany, France and England. The First World War, however,
changed the situation. Germany and Turkey, allies in the war, were
defeated Syria, Palestine, Mesopotamia (Iraq) and Arabia were taken
away from Turkey and they passed under the control of England and
France Thus, Germany as an imperialist nation was completely

eliminated from Asia and other parts of the world. Soon, oil and the
concessions to control oil resources became the major objectives of
the imperialist countries in Western Asia American oil companies, in
partnership with England and France, got oil concessions in Arabia
Japan as an Imperialist Power
Japan started on her program of imperialist expansion in the last
decade of the nineteenth century Western countries had tried to
establish their foothold there In 1853 American warships under
Commodore Perry had, after a show of force, compelled the
Japanese to open their country to American shipping and trade This
was followed by similar agreements by Japan with Britain, Holland,
France and Russia. However, Japan escaped the experience and fate
of other Asian countries. In 1867, after a change in government,
known as Meiji Restoration, Japan began to modernize her economy
Within a few decades, she became one of the most industrialized
countries of the world But the forces that made many of the Western
countries imperialist were also active in the case of Japan. Japan had
few raw materials to support her industries. So she looked for lands
that had them and for markets to sell her manufactured goods
China provided ample opportunities for Japans imperialist designs.
You have already read of the war between China and Japan over
Korea, in 1894 After this, Japans influence in China increased The
Anglo Japanese Treaty of 1902 recognized her as a power of equal
standing with the great European powers. In 19045 she defeated
Russia. As a result of this war, the southern half of Sakhalin was
ceded to Japan. Japan also gained control of the southern part of the
Liaotung Peninsula with Port Arthur which was leased to her In 1910,
Korea became a colony of Japan. When the First World War began in
1914, Japan could look back with some pride at her record of the last
fifty years. She had become a great power and could expand further
at the cost of China if the Western powers would only allow her to do
so
However, her own record was, if anything, worse than that of Western
imperialists. In fact, Japans rise as an imperialist power helped to
show that imperialism was not limited to any one people or region
Rather, it was the result of greed for economic and political power
which could distort the policy of any country regardless of its race or
cultural claims.

To sum up, almost all of Asia had been swallowed up by the

imperialist countries by the early years of the twentieth century.

IMPERIALISM IN AFRICA
You have already read in Chapter 4 (Vol.1) about the emergence of
civilization and the formation of states, kingdoms and empires in
different parts of Africa You have also read about the contacts which
African cultures and civilizations had with the rest of the world since
ancient times From the time of European explorations in the later part
of the fifteenth century, a new phase began in the history of some
parts of Africa
Besides the establishment of commercial relations with some parts of
Africa, this phase was characterized by slave trade As mentioned
earlier, till about the last quarter of the nineteenth century, European
control over Africa extended over about one-fifth of the territory of the
continent. However, within a few years almost the entire continent
was partitioned among various European imperialist countries though
it took them much longer to establish their actual effective occupation
Slave Trade
The European penetration of Africa from the late fifteenth century
onwards was confined for a long time mainly to certain coastal areas
However, even these limited contacts led to the most tragic and
disastrous consequences for the people of Africa, One of the first
results of these contacts was the purchase and sale of people the
slave trade. The Spanish rule in the Americas had resulted in the
large-scale extermination of the original inhabitants of the Americas
The Portuguese had established a slave market in Lisbon and the
Spaniards bought slaves from there and took them to their colonies in
the Americas to work there. African villages were raided by slave
traders and people were captured and handed over to the European
traders Earlier, the Arabs had dominated the slave trade,
Subsequently, some African chiefs also took part in the slave trade by
trading slaves in exchange for firearms which the European traders
sold to them .The Europeans themselves also raided the villages and
enslaved the people, who were then transported. When the demand
for slaves in America increased, they were sent directly from Africa by
the traders.

The trade in African slaves was started by the Portuguese. Soon the
English took over. In 1562, Sir John Hawkins, a rich English
merchant, who was known to be very religious, went on his first
voyage to Africa to bring slaves in a ship called Jesus The reigning
English monarch, Elizabeth I, received a share of the profits that
Hawkins made in selling the slaves that he had brought In the
seventeenth century, a regular company received a charter from the
King of England for purposes of trade in slaves Later, Spain gave the
monopoly of slave trade with her possessions in America to England
The share of the king in the profits from slave trade was fixed at 25
per cent
Up to about the middle of the nineteenth century this trade continued.
Millions of Africans were uprooted from their homes Many were killed
while resisting the raids on their villages by the traders. They were
taken in ships as inanimate objects and in such unhygienic conditions
that the sailors on the ships often revolted Lakhs of them died during
the long journey. It is estimated that not even half of the slaves
captured reached America alive. The inhuman conditions under which
they were forced to work on the plantations cannot even be imagined
today Extreme brutalities were inflicted on those who tried to escape.
The person who killed a runaway slave was given a reward by the
government. Slavery had become an integral part of the colonial
system established by European countries during this period.
By early nineteenth century, trade in slaves lost its importance in the
system of colonial exploitation Slavery was also a hindrance if the
interior of Africa was to be opened to colonial exploitation In fact,
some colonial powers used the pretext of abolishing slave trade to go
to war against African chiefs and kings to expand their territorial
possessions. In the meantime, exploration of the interior of Africa had
begun and preparations made by the European powers to impose
another kind of slavery on the continent of Africa for the direct
conquest of almost entire Africa.
Scramble for Africa
The interior of Africa was almost unknown to the Europeans up to
about the middle of the nineteenth century, The coastal regions were
largely in the hands of the old trading nations the Portuguese, the
Dutch, the English and the French They had set up their forts there
There were only two places where the European rule extended deep

into the interior. In the north the French had conquered Algeria. In the
south the English had occupied Cape Colony to
safeguard
their commerce with India. It had earlier been a
Dutch colony where a number of Europeans, mainly the Dutch, had
settled. These settlers, known as Boers, had taken to farming. This
was the only part of Africa where a large number of Europeans were
settled Within a few years, however, a scramble for colonies begat
and almost the entire continent had been cut up and divided among
European powers
Explores, traders and missionaries
They played their respective roles in the conquest of Africa, The
explorers aroused the Europeans interest in Africa. The missionaries
saw the continent as a place for spreading the message of
Christianity. The interests created by explorers and missionaries were
soon used by the traders. Western governments supported all these
interests by sending troops, and the stage was set for conquest. Even
though the European powers met with stiff resistance from the
Africans and it took them a long time to establish effective occupation
of their colonies, the speed with which the European powers
conquered Africa is without a parallel. It is necessary to understand
the reasons for this. The external factors have been broadly
mentioned in an earlier section of this chapter. The economic might of
the imperialist powers was much greater than the economic resources
of the African states The latter did not have the resources to fight a
long war In terms of military strength, the imperialist countries were far
more powerful than the African states The Africans had outdated
firearms which had been sold to them by the Europeans They were no
match for the new rifles and guns which the Europeans used The
couplet of an English poet is often quoted to bring out this superiority.
Whatever happens we have got,
The maximgun and they have not.
The Maximgun was a fast firing new gun which was used against the
Africans who often fought with axes and knives Politically, like Indian
states in the eighteenth century, the African states were not united
There were conflicts between states and within states and the rulers
and chiefs often sought the support of the Europeans against their
rivals. As a result of these conflicts, the boundaries of the African
states were often changing. As against this, the imperialist countries

participating in the scramble for Africa were united The scramble had
created serious rivalries among them. In fact, the scramble to grab the
maximum of African territory in the shortest possible time was the
result of these rivalries. Many a time during the scramble wars
between these countries were imminent. But in every case, war was
avoided and agreements reached between them as to who will get
which part of Africa. For example, the Anglo-German rivalries in East
Africa were resolved in 1890 when Germany agreed to concede
Uganda to Britain in exchange for Britain giving away Heligoland to
Germany In 1884-85, there was a Congress in Berlin where a group
of European states met and discussed how to share out Africa among
themselves No African state was represented at this Congress.
Treaties were signed between European powers to settle disputes
over claims to African territories between themselves. Treaties were
also signed between African rulers and chiefs, and the
representatives of European governments or European companies
and individuals which were later sanctioned by their respective
governments. These treaties were often fraudulent and bogus In the
cases where these were genuine, they were misrepresented in
negotiations with other European countries and the wrong
interpretations put on them were recognized by other European
powers. For example, if an African ruler signed a treaty with a
European country to seek the latters support against a rival, that
European country in seeking approval of other European countries
interpreted it to mean that the African ruler had agreed to make his
state a protectorate of that European country. This interpretation was
then accepted by other European powers and the process of
occupation began without any hindrance from them In this way, the
partition of Africa was nearly completed by the end of the nineteenth
century. This position is generally referred to as paper partition as,
the actual partition took much longer and was accomplished by the
use of the superior military might of the European powers to suppress
the resistance by the Africans A look at the map of Africa after
partition will show how the continent of Africa was partitioned on
paper in conference rooms in Europe About thirty per cent of all
boundaries in Africa are in straight lines. It will be easier to understand
the conquest of Africa by European powers if we study it region by
region. We must remember, however, that occupation did not take
place in the order described here
West and Central Africa

In 1878, with the financial assistance of King Leopold II of Belgium, H

M. Stanley founded the International Congo Association which made
over 400 treaties with African chiefs They did not understand that by
placing their marks on bits of paper they were transferring their land
to the Congo Association in exchange for cloth or other articles of no
great value Stanley acquired large tracts of land by these methods. In
1885 some 2.3 million square kilometres, nch in rubber and ivory,
became the Congo Free State with Leopold as its king.
Stanley called the occupation of Congo (the present Zaire) a unique
humanitarian and political enterprise, but it began with brutal
exploitation of the Congo people They were forced to collect rubber
and ivory Leopold alone is said to have made a profit of over 20
million dollars The treatment of the Congolese people was so bad that
even other colonial powers were shocked To give an example of the
brutality, soldiers of the Congo Free State chopped off the hands of
the defiant villagers and brought them as souvenirs. In 1908, Leopold
was compelled to hand over the Congo Free State to the Belgian
government, and it became known as Belgian Congo Gradually,
Congos gold, diamond, uranium, timber and copper became more
important than her rubber and ivory. Many of the countries, including
England and the United States, joined Belgium in exploiting these
resources The company which controlled the copper resources of
Katanga province (present Shaba) was one of the biggest copper
companies in the world. This company, jointly owned by English and
Belgian interests, played a very big role in Congos political affairs.
Locate the Niger river, the second great river of western Africa, on the
map The control over the Niger meant the control over the land with
rich resources The British had occupied a part of this legion called
Nigeria, to get slaves for export to their plantations in America The
British company took the initiative in the conquest of Nigeria. For a
time there was a sharp rivalry with a French company, but in the end
the British company was able to buy out the French and became the
ruler of Nigeria After a few years the British government declared
Nigeria a protectorate of Britain In West Africa, Britain also occupied
Gambia, Ashanti, Gold Coast and Sierra Leone.
French Congo
When Stanley was carving out the empire for King Leopold in Congo,
a Frenchman, de Brazza, was active north of the Congo river

Following the methods of Stanley, de Brazza won the area for France,
this area became what was until recently called the French Congo
with its capital town named Brazzaville, after de Brazza. On Africas
west coast, Senegal and been occupied by France earlier Now
France set out to extend her empire in West Africa. Soon she
obtained Dahomey (pi esent Benin), the Ivory Coast and French
Guinea By the year 1900, the French empii e extended further into the
interior. More territories were added to the West African conquests
after 1900 and French West Africa came to include present Senegal,
French Guinea, the Ivory Coast, Dahomey, Mauritania, French Sudan,
Upper Volta and Niger Territory. The French conquest resulted in
brutal exploitation of the people everywhere in Africa. For example, in
a period of only 20 years, the population of the French Congo was
reduced to one-third of its former size.
After 1880, Germany also got very interested in possessions in Africa
First she occupied an area called Togoland on the west coast; soon
after, the Cameroons, a little farther south. Still farther south, the
Germans established themselves in South-west Africa where, to
suppress local rebels, more than half of the population was
exterminated. But these conquests did not satisfy Germany; she
wanted the Portuguese colonies of Angola and Mozambique and
Congo for herself Before the First World War started, England and
Germany agreed to partition Angola and Mozambique between
themselves, but the war shattered Germanys dreams. After the war,
when the German colonies were given to the victorious powers,
Togoland and the Cameroons were divided between England and
France, and German South-west Africa was given to South Africa.
Spain had only two colonies on the western coast of Africa Rio de
Oro (Spanish Sahara) and Spanish Guinea. Portugal possessed
valuable regions of Angola and Portuguese Guinea. Thus, with the
exception of Liberia, the whole of West Africa was divided up among
the Europeans Liberia was settled by slaves who had been freed in
America. Though she remained independent, she came increasingly
under the influence of the United States, particularly the American
investors in rubber plantations.
South Africa
In South Africa, the Dutch had established the Cape Colony, which
the British took over in the early nineteenth century. The Dutch

settlers, known as Boers, then went north and set up two states, the
Orange Free State and the Transvaal. By 1850 both these states
were ruled by the Boers.
Rhodesia
The English adventurer, Cecil Rhodes, came to south Africa in 1870,
made a fortune in mining diamond and gold of this region and gave
his name to an African colony Rhodesia. (Northern Rhodesia is now
independent and is called Zambia. Southern Rhodesia which became
an independent nation in April 1980 is Zimbabwe.) Rhodes became
famous as a great philanthropist who founded the Rhodes
scholarships, but lie was first of all a profiteer and empirebuilder.
Pure philanthropy, he said, is very well in its way, but philanthropy
plus five per cent is a good deal better. Rhodes dream was to extend
the British rule throughout the world, and he certainly succeeded in
extending the British empire in Africa. The British occupied
Bechuanaland, Rhodesia, Swaziland and Basutoland. They plotted
the overthrow of the Boer government of Transvaal which was rich in
gold This led to the Boer War (1899-1902) in which the Boers were
defeated though they continued to remain there.
Soon after this, the Union of South Africa was formed consisting of the
Cape, Natal, Transvaal and Orange River Colony. This Union was
ruled by the white minority Boers, Englishmen, and a few settlers
from other European countries The South African government later
declared itself a republic.
East Africa
Except for the Portuguese possession of a part of Mozambique, East
Africa had not been occupied by any European power before 1884. In
that year a German adventurer, named Karl Peters, came to the
coastal region. Using bribery and threats, he persuaded some rulers
to sign agreements placing themselves under German protection
Since France and Britain also had plans in this area, an agreement
was signed by which France got Madagascar, and East Africa was
divided between Germany and England. The ruler of Zanzibar who
claimed East Africa as his property got a strip of coast land, 1600
kilometres long and 16 kilometres deep The Northern half of this strip
was reorganized as a British sphere of influence, and the southern
part. Tanganyika, a German sphere of influence. These were later
occupied by England and Germany But the Africans rose in revolt

again and again because the Germans had taken land from them
without making any payment. During a rebellion in 1905, 120,000
Africans were killed in this German colony In 1890, there was an
agreement between Germany and England according to which
Uganda was reserved for England. In exchange Germany was given
Heligoland In 1896, Uganda was declared a British protectorate
Germany also gave up her claims to Zanzibar and Pemba island, Witu
and Nyasaland (present Malawi), but made more conquests in the
interior. The Portuguese colony of Mozambique was fo be shared out
between Germany and England, but the First World War stopped the
plan and Germany lost all her colonies. German East Africa was given
to England after the war and was renamed Tanganyika. (Tanganyika
and Zanzibar now form the republic of Tanzania) British East Africa
was renamed Kenya. The German possession of Ruanda-Urundi was
given to Belgium.
Italy-Ethiopia
Like Germany, Italy entered the colonial race late. The Italians
occupied two desert areas in what is called the horn of Africa
Somaliland and Eritrea. The country of Abyssinia, now known as
Ethiopia, was an independent state. Italy wanted to declare Abyssinia
its protectorate and invaded her. The king of Abyssinia rejected Italys
claim and in 1896 defeated the Italian invading army Unlike other
African states, Abyssinia had been able to get arms from France. This
historic battle in which an African state had defeated a European
states army is known as the Battle of Adowa. So the Italians had to
withdraw Italy made another attempt to conquer Abyssinia in 1935,
before the Second World War Except for a brief period during those
years, Ethiopia, except Eritrea, was able to maintain her
independence.
North Africa
Algeria, on the north coast of Africa, was conquered by France in
1830, but it took her about 40 years to suppress the Algerian
resistance. It was the most profitable of Frances colonial
possessions, providing her a vast market for French goods To the
east of Algeria is Tunisia which was coveted by France, England and
Italy According to an agreement in 1878, England gave France a free
hand in Tunisia in return for British occupation of the island of Cyprus,
and a few years later Tunisia became a French possession.

Morocco
Morocco is situated on the north coast of Africa, just south of
Gibraltar. Thus it is very important to the western entrance of the
Mediterranean Both France and Italy wanted to claim it as their
territory The two countries agreed, in 1900, to the French occupation
of Morocco and to the Italian occupation of Tripoli and Cyrenaica, to
the east of Tunisia In 1904, France and England signed an agreement
which gave Morocco to France, and Egypt to England. After these
agreements had been signed, France proceeded with her plans of
conquest of Morocco. Germany had been ignored when England,
France and Italy were signing agreements to partition North Africa
She threatened to oppose the French occupation Spain had been
promised Tangier in return for French occupation of Morocco. So it
became necessary to appease German ambition in North Africa There
were many international crises and it appeared as if war would break
out. The German Foreign Minister said, You have bought your liberty
in Morocco from Spain, England, and even from Italy, and you have
left us out. But who should occupy Morocco was decided, as in other
cases, in Europe. The people of Morocco were never consulted.
Ultimately, France agreed to give Germany 250,000 square
kilometres of French Congo. Spain was further appeased by giving
her a small part of Morocco In 1912 France established her
protectorate over Morocco However, it took the French many years
after the First World War to suppress the rebellions there.
As you have seen earlier, Italy had assured herself the support of
European nations in her claims over Tripoli and Cyrenaica, which
were the possessions of the Turkish empire. Italy then declared war
against Turkey and occupied the two provinces, which were given the
old Roman name of Libya.
Egypt
Egypt was a province of the Turkish empire when the scramble for
colonies began in the nineteenth century. It v as ruled by a
representative of the Turkish Sultan, called Pasha Since the time of
Napoleon, France had been interested in Egypt A French company
had gained a concession from Ismail Pasha, the Governor of Egypt, to
dig a canal across the isthmus of Suez. The canal was completed in
1869 and aroused British interest in the area Disraeli, the British
Prime Minister, bought a large number of shares of the canal from the

Pasha to make sure of keeping the route to India safe The canal was
described by Disraeli as a highway to our Indian empire.
The financial troubles of the Pasha led to increased joint AngloFrench control over Egypt When the Pasha tried to resist, he was
forced to abdicate and anew governor was appointed In 1882, there
was a revolt against the Anglo-French control and, in suppressing the
revolt, the British armies conquered Egypt Restoration of law and
order and protection of the Suez Canal were the reasons given for the
military intervention in Egypt. England announced that she would
withdraw her troops as soon as order was restored After the revolt
was suppressed, Egypt came under British control. In 1914, when the
First World War started, England announced that Egypt was no longer
a Turkish province but a British protectorate. The Egyptians never
reconciled themselves to the British conquest. After the war was over,
leaders of Egypt started for the Paris Peace Conference to plead the
case of Egypt, but they were arrested. In 1922, though she still
retained her rights over the Suez and many other concessions, Britain
was forced to recognize Egypt as an independent sovereign state
Sudan, or what was earlier known as Egyptian Sudan, was jointly
exploited by Egypt and Britain. A Sudanese leader who had
proclaimed himself the Mandi had succeeded in overthrowing
Egyptian and British control over Sudan. His army had defeated
Egyptian and British troops In 1898, British and Egyptian troops
succeeded in recapturing Sudan after a long and bloody war in which
20,000 Sudanese troops, including the successor of the Mandi, were
killed. Sudan came under British rule. The French at this time tried to
occupy southernparts of Sudan but were forced to withdraw by the
British France, however, was given a free hand to extend her control
over wha t was known as western Sudan and the Sahara France
occupied these areas after a long war of conquest. With these gains,
France was able to connect her equatorial conquests with her west
and north African conquests.

THE AMERICAS AND THE PACIFIC

You have already read about the colonization of the Americas by
Spain, Portugal, Britain, France and other European countries, and
the emergence of the United States of America as an independent
nation. The freedom movements in some of the countries of South
America and the Caribbean have also been briefly mentioned. By

1820s, almost all countries of the Americas had gained their

independence from Spain and Portugal. Only a few colonies ruled by
European countries were left in this part of the world. Among these
were Cuba and Puerto Rico which were still under Spanish rule and a
few others under British, French, Dutch and Danish rule.
The United states in the nineteenth century emerged as the biggest
power in the Americas. She had extended her territories through war
with Mexico and purchase of Louisiana Florida and Alaska from
France, Spain and Russia, respectively. Within a short period after the
Civil War (1861-65) which ended in the abolition of slavery, the United
States emerged as a major industrial and military power in the world.
By 1900, her naval strength was third in the world The forces that had
led to the emergence of imperialism in Europe and later in Japan also
led to the emergence of the United States as a major imperialist
power by the later half of the nineteenth century. You have already
read about the treaty which the United States signed with China in
1844 on the lines which some European countries had forced on
China after the Opium War. Commodore Perrys show of force in
Japan in 1853 has also been mentioned. After the U S. Spanish
War, the Philippines had become a U.S. colony. USA had also taken
Puerto Rico and Guam (in the Pacific) from Spain, and Cuba, though
independent in name, had in fact become an appendage of USA.
When the scramble for colonies began, the leaders of USA declared
that she must not fall out of the line of march. They also claimed, like
the European imperialist countries, the right to civilize the backward
countries of the world and, of course, to interfere in the affairs of other
countries to protect their markets and investments.
Monroe Doctrine
During the period from the 1890s to the early years of the twentieth
century, the United States spread its control, direct and indirect, over
South America and the Pacific In 1823, the President of the United
States had proclaimed the Monroe Doctrine which warned the
European powers against any attempt to extend their power in the
Western/ Hemisphere In 1895, the Monroe Doctrine was given a new
meaning. There was a territorial dispute between British Guiana (now
Guyana) and Nicaragua, and the British threatened to send troops
against Nicaragua. The US government forced Britain not to send her
troops and declared that Today the United States is practically

sovereign on this Continent. A new corollary was added to the

Monroe Doctrine in 1904 by the then U.S. President, Theodore
Roosevelt Britain and Germany had imposed a naval blockade of
Venezuela as she had failed to repay the loan which she had taken
from them. Theodore Roosevelt forced Britain and Germany to lift the
blockade and declared that the United States alone had the right to
intervene in the affairs of her neighbouring countries if they were
unable to maintain order on their own. The United States took control
of the finances of the Dominican Republic which she retained for three
decades and occupied that country in 1916 for eight years. In 1906,
American troops were sent to Cuba and remained there for three
years to protect Cuba from disorder. In 1909, American troops were
sent to Nicaragua in support of a revolt which had been inspired by an
American mining company. The United States secured from the
government which had been installed there the ugh t to intervene in
that country to protect American interests In 1915, American troops
Were sent to Haiti and remained there till 1934.
Mexico
In Mexico, where the United States had huge investments, Fransisco
Madero, a popular leader was deposed with the support of the United
States The intervention by the United States in Mexico continued for
many years.
Big Stick Policy/Dollar diplomacy
The policy of the United States was described as the Big Stick policy
and one of an international policeman . The extension of the U S
influence through economic investments in the region is known as the
Dollar diplomacy. The economic and political domination of South
America was facilitated by the absence of strong governments in the
countries of South America. Many of these countries were ruled by
caudillos, or crude and corrupt military leaders with armed gangs.
They floated loans for ready cash and sold concessions to foreign
companies to exploit the natural resources of their countries. They
served as markets for manufactures, and sources of raw materials for
industrialized countries, particularly the United States, as well as
avenues for investment of capital from these countries. Most of the
countries of South America, though political independent, came under
the economic and political control of the United States.
Panama Canal

One of the major acquisitions by the United States in this period was
the Panama Canal. A French company had started the construction of
the canal in the Isthmus of Panama in Colombia (Central America).
The canal which would link the Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans was of
great economic interest In 1901, the United States decided to
undertake the canal project alone.
She paid $40 million to the French company and entered into an
agreement with the government of Colombia. According to the
agreement, Colombia was to give the United States perpetual rights to
a six mile wide canal zone across her territory in exchange for ten
million dollars plus $ 250,000 as annual rent. The agreement was
completely against the interests of Colombia and Colombias
Parliament refused to ratify it. In 1903, the United States financed and
organized a revolt in Panama and landed her troops there. Soon after,
the United States recognized Panama as an independent state The
government of Panama signed a new agreement with the United
States according to which the amount of compensation remained the
same but instead of the six mile wide canal zone, ten mile canal zone
was granted to the United States. The canal was opened in 1914 and
the canal zone has remained under the occupation of the United
States since then.
Hawaii
The United States also extended her control in the Pacific during this
period The islands of Hawaii had been important for American

shipping and for trade with China The United States economic and
commercial influence gradually increased in these islands and with
the settling of Americans there, particularly as sugar planters, these
islands became closely tied to the economy of the United States The
United States had secured the exclusive use of Pearl Harbor as a
naval station. In 1893, the American residents in the Hawaii islands
revolted against the queen of Hawaii and, asked for the annexation of
the islands by the United States. By 1898, Hawaii had been annexed
by the United States. Later, it became one of the states of the United
States.
The United States also extended control over other islands in Pacific.
There was rivalry among the US Britain and Germany over these
lands. In 1899, Germany and States divided these islands bets selves
and as compensation given islands elsewhere in the Pacific.

EFEECTS OF IMPERIALISM
By 1914, almost all parts of the non-industrialized world had come
under or indirect control of a few industrialized countries. Most
countries of Africa had Lost their political freedom and were ruled by
one or other country. The economies of all countries as well as of
those which were politically independent were control imperialist
countries to serve rests. All parts of the world were brought together
under a world economic control which was based on the exploit
colonies. Since 1946, most Asia can colonies have become free and
independent. You will read about it later. But the effects of imperialism
in the life of the people in these country are still evident.
Economic Backwardness
The most important and lasting consequence of imperialism and
colonization was the economic backwardness of the colonies as well
as of those countries indirectly controlled by the countries Imperialism
led to destruction of local industries. For example, India for centuries
an exporter of textiles. During imperialist rule, Indias indigenous
textile industry was destroyed and she became an importer of British
cloth. The natural resources of the colonies came under the control of
the imperialist countries and were exploited for their own benefit. The
industrialization of these countries was prevented. Where industries
were started, these were subordinated to the interests of the
industries of the imperialist countries or for making profits for the
companies of the imperialist countries. The modern industries in the

colonies had little impact on the life of the people there. The patterns
of agriculture in the colonies were also changed to meet the
requirements of the industries of the imperialist countries. In some
countries, the entire agriculture was reduced to the growing of one or
two crops For example, Cuba was reduced to the position of a sugar
producing country and little else. There was also naked plunder of
natural resources, and exploitation through high demands of revenues
and taxes. Some of the best lands in the colonies were taken over by
the European planters Imperialism further aggravated the economic
backwardness of the non-industrialized countries of the world. The
subordination of the economics of these areas to those of the
imperialist countries was so complete that even after political
independence, most of these countries found it difficult to develop
their economics to suit their own interests. The impoverishment of the
people of the colonies and of other non-industrialized countries is a
continuing consequence of imperialism.
Racism
Imperialism also bred racial arrogance and discrimination. The idea of
the superiority of the white race whom God had created to govern the
world, was popularized in the imperialist countries. In their colonies,
the white rulers and settlers discriminated against the local inhabitants
who were considered inferior to them. In most European colonies,
there was no intermixing with the local population and the Europeans
lived in areas exclusively reserved for them. The worst example of
racism was South Africa where intermixing of whites and blacks was
made a criminal offence. It is interesting to know that when Japan
emerged as an imperialist power, the Japanese were excluded from
being branded as belonging to an inferior race. In fact, South Africa
gave the Japanese the status of what they called honorary whites
Struggle Against Imperialism
At every step, the imperialist powers met with the resistance of
peoples they were trying to enslave. Even when the conquest by arms
was decisive, foreign rule that ensued was never peaceful for the
rulers. The conquered peoples organized movements not merely to
overthrow foreign rule but also to develop their countries into modern
nations. In a sense, these movements against imperialism were
international in character People striving for freedom in one country
supported the cause of peoples in other countries.

Generally speaking, the imperialist countries retained their colonial

possessions up to the Second World War But within two decades
after the end of the War, most of the countries succeeded in regaining
their independence.
Most of the nineteenth century and the first quarter of the twentieth
century were the years in which the nations of the western world held
Asia and Africa as their colonial possessions. In the later years of this
period of imperialism, about two thirds of the worlds population was
living under the rule of one foreign government or the other. The
empires acquired by the European nations were the largest in world
history.
Imperialism is a story of deception, brutality, and armed might. The
imperialist powers, however, Justified their enslavement of other
nations and peoples in the name of spreading civilization.
Getting possession of new markets and raw materials and
establishing industries to be worked by cheap labour created many
small wars and two world conflicts. Despite the gentlemens
agreements, there was a continuous effort among the western
powers to redivide the world as between themselves but never with
any consideration for the welfare of the people to whom the territory
really belonged.

EXERCISES
1. Explain why the Industrial Revolution led to the emergence of
imperialism
2. Describe the steps, giving examples, by which the imperialist
countries took over most of Africa.
3. Why were Asian and African countries so easily dominated by
the Western powers?
4. How did nationalism help to make imperialism popular in
Europe?
5. Describe the emergence of the United States of America as an
imperialist power Give examples
6. Describe the imperialist expansion of japan up to 1914
7. Explain the meaning of the following terms, with examples:
Sphere of influence, exploitation, extraterritorial rights,
protectorate, Monroe Doctrine, Dollar diplomacy.

8. Prepare maps of Asia and Africa showing the colonies and

spheres of influence of the various imperialist powers before the
First World War
9. Study the developments that have taken place in Africa after the
revolution in Portugal in April 1974
10.
Write an essay on Slavery and Slave Trade and the
Struggle for their Abolition
11.
How did the empires of the nineteenth and twentieth
centuries differ from the empires of ancient times for example,
those of the Mauryas, the Romans and of Alexander?
12.
Discuss the differences between the imperialist expansion
during the sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries and 1870 to I
914
13.
Name and discuss some of the big problems faced by
newly independent countries Why are their problems also the
problems of all countries?
14.
Discuss the long-term impact of imperialist control on the
countries of Asia, Africa and South America