& Ha#F

K. Giridhar
rf,:w:,;s ard Radar Microwave
Diodes- Transferred
ElectronDevices

:i-,:upersCri pt regionwith a constantvelocity'Do'of about107cm/sec

for siliconreaddiode.Thefield remains
::.;! :Sapplied constantat about5 KV/cm throughoutthe spacechargeregion.The transit-timefor holesin
:;i .i--the thin drift regionof lengthL is given by
rc":: :enefated
li:.: l,lllafd p+ ,=LD d .....( 3.6)
i space-charge
:-: ;:!ri e cavity, The avalanchemultiplicationfactoris givenby
:-,: .rpedance
9:"-p o \ \ ' e r b y I
M .....( 3.7)
1- (v/vo)"
where V = appliedvoltage
VD.= avalanchebreakdownvoltage

where r\/ r - Pnltn €. lE-"^lt

I v,l
' D'
-
2
.....( 3.8)
n = variesfrom 3 to 6 for siliconwhichdependson dopingof n*pjunction
pn = resistivityof semiconductor
Fn = electronmobility
e. = dielectricconstantof semiconductor
E_u* = maximum electricfield intensity at breakdown

3.8 IMPATTDIODE
Impatt diodes are manufacturedhaving different forms such as n*pip*, p+nin*,p*nn*
abruptjunction and p* i n* diodeconfiguration.The materialusedfor manufaitureof
----*I these
diodesareeitherGermanium,Silicon,GalliumArsenide(GaAs)or Indium phosphide(In p).
Out of thesematerials,highestefficiency,higheroperatingfrequencyandlowernoiseis obtained
with GaAs'But the disadvantage with GaAsis complexfabricationprocessandhencehigher
cost.Figure3.10 showsa reversebiasedn* pi p* diodewith electricfield variation,doping
concentration versusdistanceplot, the microwavevoltageswing andthe cuffentvariation.
Principle of operation

-__-* JI--l
Whena reversebiasvoltageexceedingthebreakdownvoltageis applied,a high electric
field appearsacrossthe n+p junction.This high field intensityimpartssufficientenergy
to the
holesandalsoto valenceelectronsto raisethemselves into theconductionband.This results
in avalanchemultiplicationof hole-electronpairs.With suitabledopingprofile design,
it is
possibleto makeelectricfield to havea very sharppeakin the closeuicinity of thejunction
3{::t- than the
resultingin "impact avalanchemultiplication". This is a cumulativeprotessresulting
-t --:- . -h the in
^ rapidincreaseofcarrier density.To preventthe diodefrom burning,a constantbiassource
: - -:.rJtionas is
used to maintainaveragecuffent at safe limit Io. The diode currentis contributedby
: :- ihis high the
conductionelectronswhichmoveto then* regionind theassociated holeswhichdrift throush
r ,: :o the p+

.._-*
B*

Microwaves and Radar llicrowave Dio&lii

lower but steadyelectricfield' thesteadyfid

i-spacechargeregionto the p* region,undertheinfluenceof a influenceofQ
The drift time is given bY very small, cd
t " "1(:'q) avalanche.D{
'o=% and the osciQ
the drift region' field, the hob4
whereVo is the drift velocity of the holesand 'l' is the length of
zeto.
During {
circuit whichi
corresPonrlin
tI phaseshift H
resistancefci
I angle0 givell
I
I
Electric
Field Combii

Voltage
Swing
(v*)

:3

+ The rer{
high power{
'{
&
II CONSTRT
Doping
concentration
'{
IhId -
I

lr
---{ -
E
i jg*,"-al Elecron currentI"(t) \ -tr
\TNN

""1",
i ,11
f\\U
*1
RNN
\\ t\\\\
I\\\T
\. N\\\t
16r,12412a1 tTnmrrt
]TTIJIII.4

Figrrre 3.10 : IMPATT diode doping prohle and operation

nl
MECHANISMOF OSCILLATIONS
at varyingamplitudes'wlgn a biased
Noiseconsistsof variousfrequencycomponents at a
FigureS
di"d;;;";;Jil;" a resonatolthenanynoisevoltagespikecantriggeroscillations simplified q
frequencyofth" t"tonut* Th"t" oscillations by
aresustained
frequency equalto theresonant
t|es and Radar MicrowaveDiodes- TransferredElectronDevices

lec-.nc field. thesteadyfield anda.c.field. Thediodeswingsinto andout of avalanche conditionsunderthe

influenceof thatreversebiassteadyfield andthea.c.field. Dueto thedrift time of holesbeing
very small,carriersdrift to theendcontactsbeforethe a.c.voltageswingsthediodeout of the
.....(:.q) avalanche. Due to buildingup of oscillations,the a.c.field takesenergyfrom the appliedbias
andthe oscillationsat microwavefrequencies aresustainedacrossthe diode.Due to this a.c.
field, the hole currentgrowsexponentiallyto a maximumand againdecayexponentiallyto
zefo.
During this hole drifting process,a constantelectroncurrentis inducedin the external
circuitwhich startsflowing whenholecurrentreachesits peakandcontinuesfor half cycle(t)
corresponding to negativeswing of the a.c. voltageas shownin figure 3.10. Thus a 1800
phaseshift betweenthe externalcurrentand a.c. microwavevoltageprovidesa negative
resistance for sustainedoscillations.The maximumnesativeresistance occursat drift transit
angle0 given by
0 = (ot o = ? r .....( 3.10)
(3.9)and(3.10),we get
Combiningequations
o/
=t
vo
2nfl
= tt
Uo-

t = Y ;t . .. . .( 3 . 1 1 )

The resonatoris usuallytunedto this frequencyso that the IMPATT diodesprovide a

high powercontinuouswave (CW) andpulsedmicrowavesignals.

CONSTRUCTIONAND EQUIVALENTCIRCUIT

Gold Copper
ribbon stud

Alumina Multi-section
Quarter-wave
GaAs Transformer
chip

Figure 3.11 : (a) IMPATT diode construction (b) Equivalent circuit of IMPATT diode
fhen a biased
cillationsat a Figure3.11(a) showstheconstructional detailsof IMPATTdiodeandfigure3.11(b), the
l sustainedby simplifiedequivalentcircuit of IMPAIT diode.The resistance
R, is the combinedresistance
 _.,.;:i l

Microwavesand Radar

of seriesresistanceandthediodenegativeresistance. Thecapacitance C,represents thejunction E r a m p l r3

capacitance,Lo the packagelead inductanceand Co the packagecapa"citance.
The diodemountis so designedthatby controllingthepackageleadinductancethetotal
reactance of theentirecircuitis madezetoatresonance. At resonance, thepowerdissipatedin
thepositivercsistanceis compensated by thepowerin thea.c.field. For achievingthis condition
the total resistancemustbe zero.
The diodechip impedanceis given by
1
^
ZJ.=-l R, .lL+,
j to C i
....(3.r2)
If the load impedance
Z r=R r+j X ,
then Zr = -Zi
= l\l-# =l\l+-!
R ,+ jX,
Equatingreal and imaginaryparts Solution:
Rr = l\l ....( 3.13) "
F:-:
I
and x L=oq ....( 3.14)

The resistance R, is dependenton both biasand signalcurrents.Hencefor a given bias

andloadimpedance, dustainedoscillationsareobtainedwhenlR;l= RL.The powerdissipated
in the load is determinedfrom the peak RF current.Figure 3.11 (b) showsa multisection
quarterwavetransformerfor impedancematchingbetweendiode circuit and load. This
transformeris requiredbecausethe total negativeresistancein the circuit will be very low of
the orderof a few ohms
Example 3.2 : An IMPATT diode has a drift length of 2 pm. If the basic semi conductor
materialis silicon for which the drift velocity is 107cm/sec,determine(a) the drift time of the
carriers,(b) the nominal frequencyof the IMPAT:I diode. ! :- i
- - -
|

So lu ti on :Given,V a=107cm/sec, l=2l t m, (a ) t o -? @)f = ?

(a) The drift time to of the carriersis given by
I 2x10- 6
i -=-
'd - V
=
l0-7x10-2
Na=2x10-llsec
(b) The nominal frequency is given by equation(3.11)as i --: ,r.L

r- vo 107x 10-2
I -
-- -
2 t2 x2x10 -6
f = 25G}Jz
F:?1at'es and Radar
LlicrowaveDiodes - TransferredElectronDevices 225
tar.- thejunction
Example3.3 : An IMPATT diodehasthe following parameters:
Carrier drift velocity Vo = 2 x I07 cm/sec
nlc:mce the total
n:: Cissipated in Drift regionlength/ = 10 pm
m,E-,hiscondition Maximum operatingvoltage = 100volts
Maximum operatingbiascurrent = 60 m Amps.
Junctioncapacitance =
C: 0.42pF
PackageleadinductanceLo = 0.6 nH
....(3.r2)
Packagecapacitance C, = 0.25pF
RF peak.uo"ni = 700 m Amps.
Diode JunctionResistance = -Z.S O
\
Find (a) Nominal frequency
(b) resonantfreqlrencyof oscillations
(c) efficiency
Solution:
. . . (3.1
. 3) (a) From equation(3.11),the nominalfrequencyis given by

....(3.r4) r = 3 - ? xlg ? x1 0 ]= r o GHz

21 2 x l0 x 1 0 -o
t":r . eiven bias (b) At nominal frequencyof 10 GHz, we have
n,;;r ,Jissipated
olo = 2nf Lr=2nx 10 x 10ex 0.6x l0-e
r ; ::l'.:ltisection
= 37.7{2
r::: ioad. This
! !e i ery'low of rrl C p R L= r Col\l= Znf Cel\l
= 2nx 10x 10ex 0.25x IVtz x2.5
*e:l conductor
= 0.039f)
&:: rime of the Sinceto LD>> tDCoR'L theexactresonant frequencydependson thecombination
of L_
v ' P
C,givenbf
"
I
,-
'- zrltrn
I
2", , [ f f i
f = 10.03GHz
(c) The outputrms poweris calculatedas

/ RF peat<current\2
P^ = | ---- /^ - | (loadresistance)
'\'1 2 )
 210

Microwavesand Radar I
|
i ^/ -
-
.
Jit at = ^ ^ -
-
-
-r

(toox 1o-,)'
t-----F-- | (2.5) sinceR, = lRf
\J2)
.D
' 0 - 0.6125 watts
Thed'c' inputpower= Pin= (Maximum
operatingvoltage)x (maximumoperating
biascurrent)
= (100)(60 x 10r)
= 6 watts

Efficiencyn = xt{|To
3r in

0.612s
x 100 %o
Vorl = 10.21 Vo
Applications of IMPATT Diodes 3.10
(i) Usedin the final power stage
of solid statemicrowavetransmittersfor
purpose. communication
(ii) Usedin rhetransmirterof TV
system.
(iii) Usedin FDM/TDM sysrems.
(iv) used as a microwavesource
in raboratoryfor measurement pulposes.
3.9 TRAPATT DIODES
silicon is usuallyusedfor themanufacture
of TRAPATTdiodesandhavea configuration
of p* nn* as shownin figure 3.r2. Thep-N junction
is reversebiasedbeyondthe breakdown
region'sothatthecurrentdensityis larger.
This decreases theelectricfield in thespacecharge
region and increasesthe carriertrans=it
time. Due to this, the frequencyof operation
loweredto lessthan 10 GHz. But the gets
efficiencygetsincreaseddueto lorv power
dissipation.
Insidea co-axialresonator,the TRAPATT
diodeis normallymountedat a point where
maximumRF voltageswingis obtained.
when thecombineddc biasandRF voltage
breakdownvoltage,avalanche exceeds
occursanda plasmaof holesandelectrons
getstrapped.when theexternalcircuit are generated which
cuffentfl9*,r, thevoltagerisesand,n",rupp"l!ffi;
getsreleasedproducingcurrentpulse
acrossthedrift space.ttre totattransittime
thedrift time andthedelayintroducedby is thesumof
th3releaseof thetrappedplasma.Due to
transittime'theoperating thislonger
frequency is limitedto 10GHz.Because
with low voltage,the powerdissipation thecurrentpulse is associated
is row resultingrniigh", efficiency.
Thedisadvantages of TRAPATTarehigh noisefigureunJg"ne.ation
due to shortdurationof the cuffentpulse. of strongharmonics

diodefinds applicationin s-bandpulsed

transmitersfor pulsed arrayradar
,rrr"ffilt*T
I 3 A i , es and Rad a r MicrowaveDiodes - Transferred
ElectronDevlces
227

:.9 :tas cunent)

Voltage, V
Cunent, I

Figure 3.12: TRApATT diode

3.10 BARITT DEVIES(BARRIER

INJECTIONTRANSITTTME DEVICES)
BARITT devicesarean improved
lf--llunication versionof IMpATT devices.IMpArr
impactionizationtechniques devicesemploy
*tti"h is too noisy.Hencein orderto
impact ionizationis avoidedin BARRITT achievelow noisefigures,
devices.rt. injectionis providedby
punch-throughof the intermediate
region.(depletion,egion;.
-l""r1yThe processis
lower noisethanimpactionization tasically of
*rpr"]9F f"^t i" an IMpATT.
obtainedon accountor iire drift of @;;j..ri"n The negative
the injeciJJr,ot"sto the collectorend
;:;HA:s of the
Figure 3'13 showsthe construction
of a BARITT deviceconsistingof
:r:::-guration intermediateor drift or depletedregion emitter,base,
andcoilector.An requirement
e ::33kdown device is thereforethat the int"ti-t"oiaie for theBARITT
"rr.ntiul
drift region ue .ntLty depletedto causepunch-
i:;,e Charge theemitter-base junction *itttout causingavalanche
breakdownof thebase-collecror
E:.1:tOngets ilr:"lr-"T
::-::rpatiOn.
ForwardBias
:'- -nt where
:3:: eKceeds
3r;t3d rvhich
l:eJ plasma
:,i:h3 SUmof
r rhis longer
:-.a-ssociated

I harmonics

array radar

Figure 3.13: BARITT Diodeand

electricfield distribution.
 r
228
Microwavesand Badar
The efficiencvof BARITTs are
lower thanIMPATTsbut the noise
performanceis better.
primari Ivusedforamp
ilffi,liiT:;rTi,"Ii:,:,*:.;;G"4";;l*,15 dBgain
havebeen
obtained.
BARrrrs are
Iifiers
rath
er,n
;, **ilfi :# J:"#,:T:.""?i?:Tf;
disadvantages
arelow poweroutput& rerativery
narrowbandwidth.
,lf+ilffi:
3.11 VARACTORDIODE
varactors(variable-capacitor)
havenonJinearityof capacitance
follow microwaves'varactordioo" which is fastenoughto
ir u *.iconductor di"dJ; which
canbe variedas a functionof reverse thejunctioncapacitance
uotrug"of the di;;. i;rres in
will be.almostnegligible.Varactor this non_linear
element
iioJ., are usedas harmo
Iownoise
ampliriers
(parametric
ampririers),
purse
widely useddevicesoi at genera,t"l'i,,?lilll"||;li"llil,llltli;
devices.
Operation -i.ror"uuJ.".nr.onou.tor
Any semiconductor diodehasa junctioncapacitance
diodehasmicrowavecharacteristicsin"n varyingwith reversebias.If such
it becomesa varactordiode. a
Fl .

with a reversebias'thejunction is ',..

depletedof mobilecarriesresurting
i'e'' the diodebehavesas a capacitance in a capacitance *,
-
, : -"j

wiih tne3un.tionu"rrngu. a dierectric -: _-_

two conductingmaterials'The betweenthe _--*tr_| :,l

width of the o"pr"tion iut". i^: --

capacitance rn increaseswith reversebias r-ii-]- t.

decreases ut dr" r"u"rse bias in.reo."s
as shown in figure 3.14(b) i^1- I
\o^'n"
o tn" avalancheregionis never
l"'t.j ;,,l' usedas it is Iikery to destroythe
device. Charac
'-::

,!:--,

Co -+ thejunction
nce under E q u i ra I
no biascondition. n _i:
Saturated :i.

(a)
(b)
(cl
Figure 3.14 : (a) I-V characteristics
(b) Capacitance variation
with bias (c) Biasingof p-n junction
Varactor Construction rPl rl
-
_:

diodeencapsulation
containselectricalleadsattached
, th.
and to the semiconductor
a low lossceramiccaseasshown wafer -.J _
in figure3.15. -.-
JLiL- i-_--
n:\i: , as and Radar MicrowaveDiodes - TransferredElectronDevices

:-:",--eis better.
"E are
-RITTS

T
:-:. Themajor
Gold plated
molybdenum
stud

i ::): enoughtO Gold-plated

5.3 mm
::: -3pacitance wlre
---:::.1relement CeramicTube
-:-: lnversion,
r.-_: They are

Figure 3.15: Varactor construction

e: They
'.Ifsucha Diffusedjunction mesasilicondiodesarewidely usedat microwavefrequencies.
arecapableof handlinglargepower andlarge breakdown
reverse They
voltages. have relative
: . ::lacitance
independence of ambienttemperatureand low noise.Frequencylimit of Si rangeupto 25
:: ::irt'eenthe
GHz. Varactorsmadeof gallium arsenide(GaAs)have high operatingfrequency(over 90
'.:: ::'' efSebiaS techniques
GHz) andbetterfunctioningat thelowesttemperature.Howeverthemanufacturing
-- : -r: 3.14(b)
areeasierfor silicon.
:; ---e. Characteristics and Requirements
Varactorsare normallyusedbetweenthe reversesaturationpoint to a point just above
variationandthe reversevoltageswingarelimited to
the avalancheregion.The capacitance
betweenthe operatingregionmentionedabove.
Equivalent Circuit of Varactor Diode
waferis shownin figure 3.16(a)consisting
The equivalentcircuit of the semiconductor
of,

C, e Junctioncapacitance (functionof appliedvoltage) RJ

n., Junctionresistance (functionof appliedbias)
& R, --+ Seriesresistance includingbulk resistance of the
-
wafer andresistance of ohmic electricalleads
(functionof appliedbias)
At microwave frequencies,junction resistance
p-n junction R, (= 10 MQ) is neglectedas comparedto the capacitive Figure 3.16(a): Wafer
re!actance. Equivalentcircuit

Encapsulation of thevaractoraddparasiticresistances
,:-iuctor wafer and reactancesto the semiconductorwafer.
 230 Microwavesand Radar
Microwane I

C"J Capacitanceof ceramiccase

cr + Fringingcapacitance
\- > Lead inductance

is neglectedas tt at microwavefrequencies.
\ \ # I

Figure 3.16(b): EquivalentCircuit and

EncapsulatedVaractorDiode
The parasiticsshouldbe kept as low as possible.The equivalentcircuit dependson the
type of encapsulationand mounting make. For many applications,there shouid be a large
capacitancevariation,small value of minimum capacitanceand seriesresistanceR".
The cut off frequencyat a specifiedbias (V) is given by

" = (r)
t."
[z"np"J
f" for silicon diodesrangeupto 250 GHzandfor Gallium Arsenidediodesupto 900 GHz.
Operationis normally limited to f./10 125GHzfor Si and 90 GHz for GaAsl. Frequency
T"he
of operationbeyond (f"/10) leads to increasein R,, decreasein efficiency and increasein
peali a.:$
noise.
sigral trEl
3.12 PARAMETRICAMPLIFIERS One 1
The parametricamplifier is an amplifier using a device whose reactanceis varied to Omti :hru
produceamplification.Varactordiode is the most widely usedactiveelementin a parametric trequen{lr
amplifier. It is a low noise amplifier becauseno resistanceis involved in the amplifying uf
ulr
f
-

process.There will be no thermal noise, as the active element used involved is reactive
rf f I
(capacitive).Amplification is obtainedif the reactanceis varied electronicallyin some
predetermined fashion.
Due to the advantageof low noise amplification,parametricamplifiers are extensively
usedin systemssuchaslong rangeradars,satellitegroundstations,radio telescopes,artificial
satellites,microwavegroundcommunicationstations,radio astronomyetc.
Basic Parametric Amplifier
A conventionalamplifier usesa variableresistanceand a d.c. power supply.For a
parametricamplifier, a variablereactanceand an ac power supply are needed.
Pumpingsignal at frequencyfn and a small amplitudesignal at frequency are applied
{
simultaneouslyto the device(varacior).The pump sourcesuppliesenergyto the jignal (at the
signal frequency) resulting in amplification. This occurs at the active device where the
capacitivereactancevariesat the pump frequency.
u€..:s and Radar
MicrowaveDiodes - TransferredElectronDevices

{ --+ Signal input voltage

Kt
/\
>. 1
.+ i
at
--r- (- ,
together
I

- -f-r

-*Pumping voltage

r!,{ Circuit and

cldu Diode PlatesApart

ftnds on the
m :e a large
ER.. -) Output voltagebuildup

Parametricamplifi cation
with squarewave pumping.
..(3.15)

r: 900GHz.
Figure 3.17 : parametric Amprification with Square
wave pumping
l. Frequency The voltageacrossthevaractoris increased
I ;ncrease
in by thepumpingsignalat eachsignalvoltage
peakasshownabovei'e., energyis takenfrom
thepu-p ro*"" andaddedto thesignalat the
signalfrequency'With an input circuit and loadconnected,
amplificationresults.
' One port non-degenerateamplifier is the most commonly used parametricamplifier.
i; i aried to only threefrequenciesareinvolvea- tn" pump,the signalandtheidler frequencies.
f."q11:v is fo,rhesignalfrequency If pump
r Psrametric is r.,itrenior",rrJqu"nffi, f, _ fo_ ^
: rnplifying If f. = f then t
, it is calledDegenerate
amplifier and
I rs reactive if f, * f , thenit is non-degenerate
amplifier.
llr in some

e.\rensively
e:. artificial

ppiy. For a

are applied
ignal(at the
$'herethe
Figure 3.18: Simplified BasicAmplifier Circuit
 Microwavesand Radar l,'l:crou;a,.'e
I :-t

L, C, -+ tunedcircuit at signalfrequencyf Equ.'"::

L, C, -+ tunedcircuit at idler frequencyf, (Rumpfrequencytunedcircuit is not shown). ,L-
tilC ^^,,
PLt\1
--
::
-.
The output can be takenat idler frequencyf,. rnto th: :-:-
Gainis possiblewith this typeof amplifier.Becausethepumpsourcegivesmoreenergy
to the tankcircuit thanit takesout on an averase.

G ain=*=T ( 3.16)
......

In non-degeneratetype,usuallyf, > f, resultingin gain.The idler circuit permitsenergy

to be takenfrom the pump source.This energyis convertedinto signalfrequencyand idler
frequencyenergyand amplified output can be obtainedat either frequency.
MANLEY-ROWE RELATIONS
For the determinationof maximum gain of the parametricamplifier, a set of power
conservationrelationsknownas(6Manley-Rowet'
relationsarequiteuseful.Figure3.19shows
.]':..:I

::- J U 3 :.-
-.1--...---

, ....': .
-i1! J, -: *

- Jjg r:

Figure 3.19: Illustrating Manley-RoweRelations

two sinusoidalsignalsfo and{ appliedacrossa losslesstime varyingnon-linearcapacitance
C, (tl. et the outputof this varyingcapacitance,harmonicsof the two frequenciesfo andf are
generated.
Theseharmonicsare separatedusing band-passfilters having very narrow bandwidth.
The power at theseharmonic frequenciesare dissipatedin the respectiveresistiveloads as
shownin figure3.19.
From the law of conservationof energy,we have ", - : -- a

ii -nt'"
+ mfo
-=o . . . . .(3 . 1 7 )
^u-nt|onf, 1T

ffi P * -r
in =o . . . . .(3 . 1 8 )
,3 "Z-"t;;4
whereP_n = averagepower at the output frequencies *
l("f.+ mfe)i
tes and Radar MicrowaveDiodes- TransferredElectronDevices

Equation(3.I7)relaticjnsarecalled"Manley-Rowe"powerconservation unuurronr.When
oot shown). thepoweris suppliedby thetwo generators, is positive.In this case,powerwill flow
thenP,nn
into the non-linearcapacitance.If it is the otherway,thenP.n is negative.
llore energy

-_. . (. .3 . 1 6 )

rrnits energy
11'and idler

rt of power
Figure 3.20: Illustrating output power flow at only sum frequency
r3.19shows
As an example,let us considerthecasewhenthepoweroutputflow is allowedat thesum
a
frequencyf" * t only as shownin figure 3.20,with all the remainingharmonicsbeingopen
the quantities'm' and 'n' cantakeon falues -1, 0 and
circuited.With the aboverestructions,
1 eachrespectively. With thesevaluesof 'm' and 'n', equations(3.17)anO(l.tS; become

?.4ft=o .....(3.1e)

,& 0,+fri
and &' =0 ....(3.20)
o
,,
wherePo, = Power suppliedby generatorvsat freqdency!
P,d = Power suppliedby generatorvo at frequencyfo
r capacitance
rf psandf are P,, = Power output flowing from the non-linearcapacitanceinto the
resistive
load at sum frequencyfo + fr.
r bandwidth.
dve loads as The powersPn,andP,oareconsideredpositive,whereasP,, is considerednegative.
.'. The powergain definedasthe poweroutputfrom the non-linearcapacitordelivered
to the load at sum frequencyto that power receivedby it at a frequencyf, is given by
P,, f" + f"
Go= (formodulator) .....(3.2r)
.. . ..( 3 . 1 7 ) #=T
Thus the power gain is the ratio of output to input frequency.This type of parametric
deviceis called"sum-frequency parametric amplifier" or "up-converter".
.. . ..( 3 . 1 8 )
On the otherhand,if the signalfrequencyis fo + { andoutputfrequencyis {, then

c. = (fordemodulator) .....(3.22)
,) #
 Microwaves and Radar Itkngrorl

This type of parametricdevicewill now

be called '6parametric down-conyerter,,
the power gain becomespower attenuation. and h fr
Jr'estr d
3.13 PIN DIODE AND tTS APPLICATIONS nUS;:g fi
The PIN diodeis a p-type,intrinsic,n-type :roc. mp
diodeconsistingof a narrowlayerof p-type
semiconductorand u narro*luyer of n-type naauemr
semiconductor,with a thicker region of intrinsic
n-doped semiconductoi
material
sandwiched
between
ttre,irasshownin
[Jr:tl l?ltlv
Metallic contact
Silicon is the semiconductor normally used N- type
b::uu:: of its power handlingcapability I
and it silicon
offershighresistivityfor theinirinsicregi,on. Intrinsicsilicon rcl
But,
now-a-daysGalliumArsenide(GaAs)is (slightly N-doped)
ilso being
used.As shownin figure 3.21, metallayers P+ype
are silicon z
attachedforcontactpurposes.Its mainappiications Metallic contact
arein microwaveswitchingand moduiation.
Figure 3.21 : P-I-N Diode construction
PIN diodeactsas a moreor lessordinary
diodeat frequencies upto about100MHz. At
high frequencies, it ceasesto rectify andthenactsasa uuriufi.
circuitshownin figure(3'22)anda iesistance-voltage resistance with an equivalent
characteristics as shown in figure(3.23).

t
In the equivalentcilcujt, Lo and co represent
the packageinductanceand capacitance
respectively'R. is thebulk seiliconduttor
layerandcontactrEsistance. R, andc, represent
respectivejunction resistance the
and capacitance of the intrinsiclayer.wtien the'biasis varied
on the PIN diode,its microwau",.rirtun"e.R
changesfrom a typical valueof 6 Ka under
negativebiasto perhaps5 Q whenthe bias Idee!
is u"rrro*n in figure (3.23).Thus,if the
diodeis mountedacrossa 50 c2co-axialline, fositiv"e in the OFF
it ril noi rig"ificuntty load this line when
back-biased'so thatthe powerflow will not it is ON stater
be interferediuith. Ho*"ver, if thediodeis now
forwardbiased,its resistance dropssignificantlyto 5e, so thai mostof thepower Similar!1',I
and hardlyany is transmitted;th; di;e is is reflected Becaused
acringas a switch.
diode can I
cannotmd
Forrr
behaveaso
shownin d

+v
Figwe3.22: FIN Diodeequivalentcircuit
Figure 3.23: Resistancevariation with bias
voltage
APPLICATION OF PIN DIODE AS SINGLE-POLE
SWITCH
A PIN diodecanbe usedin eithera seriesor.a
shuntconfigurationto form a single-pole,
single-throwRF switch.Thesecircuitsareshown
in figure z i+ioand (b) with biasnetworks.
rves and Radar MicrowaveDiodes- TransferredElectronDevices

rverterrt and In the seriesconfigurationof figure 3.24(a),theswitch is ON when the diode is forward
biasedandOFFwhenit is reversebiased.But, in shuntconfiguration of figure3.24(b),forward
biasingthediode"cuts-off'thetransmissionandreversebiasingthediodeensurestransmission
from input to output. The DC blocks should have a very low impedanceat RF operating
D''erof p-type frequencyand RF chokeinductorsshouldhavevery high RF impedance.
m of intrinsic
BIAS
as shown in BIAS

E
I

L silicon
f !,i{oped)

nr(rrrgti6n

l(D MHz. At
Il equivalent
figure (3.23). (a)
I capacitance
npresent the Figure 3.24: Single-polePIN diodeswitches
[as is varied (a) Seriesconliguration (b) Shuntconfiguration.
:6 KA under Ideally, a switch shouldhavezero insertionloss in the ON stateand infinite attenuation
lThus, if the in the OFF state.Realisticswitchingelements,of course,resultin someinsertionloss for the
ie whenit is ON stateand finite attenuationfor the OFF statedue to non-zeroforward bias resistance.
diode is now Similarly, for reversebias shunt capacitoris not infinite & non-zeroinsertion loss results.
r is reflected Becauseof the large breakdownvoltage (= 500 volts) comparedto an ordinary diode, pIN
diode can be biasedat high negativeregion so that large a.c. signal, superimposedon d.c.
cannotmakethe deviceforward biased.
Forward Bias: When the PIN diode is forward biased,the capacitorsC-and C, almost
behaveasopencircuits so that the equivalentcircuit of figure (3.22)can now de simplified as
shown in the figure (3.25) whereRris the total forward resistanceof the PIN diode given by

b voltage

rsingle-pole,
ls networks. Figure 3.25 : Simplilied equivalent circuit for forr+ard biasedPIN diode.
 Rr = Rr+R
.'. The diodeimpedanceZoof thePIN diodeis given by
Zd - Zr= Rr+jrol,o ....;.(3.24)
\
Reversebias: When the PIN diode is reversebiased,the capacitance of the intrinsic
layer C, becomessignificantandR. will be the equivalentreverseresistanceandthe siniiplified
equivalentcircuit for reversebiasedPIN diodecanbe constructedas shownin nguret[1.26;.
The diodeimpedancezoof thePIN diodeunderreversebias,is thengiven by .,

Figure 3.26: Simplified equivalentcircuit for reversebiasedpIN diode.

zolz,=.R,*j[rtr-#) (3.2s)
......
lossis givenby .-'.
InsertionLoss:Theinsertiaon

lossindB= fL = rOros.^[L)
Insertion ......(3.26)
-''[P t
J
where Pr_= actualpowerdelivered
to theload.
t.
% = incidentpowerappliedto load directlywhen switchis absent.
Poa (Vo)2and P, o whereVo is the load voltagewithout switch and V,-
lt:.". .(Vr)'
actualload voltagewhen switchis present.With this,equation(3.26)becomes

(v \'' . In
IL = l0log*l
- - \ #' I diodc"
vt-
'/ Asw
z-
o
IL= ,Ot*r(;) ......(3.27)

Refemingto the shuntconfigurationof figure3.24(b),let the line be terminatedis Zo so

thattheimpedance lookingtowardsloadat AA'is Zo.Theimpedance lookingtowardsloadside
alongwith the switchar BB'ts thengivenby
,7 .7
- 7- LdLo
e7L7 ( 3.28)
......
; :: r ,Tddlr .fo ..
.\
nr/es and Radar MicrowaveDiodes - TransferredElectronDevices
237

......(3.23) where

.. . . .(3
. .24)
I theintrinsic ......(3.2e)
hesirnplified
.'. Thetransmission
coefficient
T is givenby
Egure'(3.26).
T = l*K= l*2"- Z'
Z"+Zo

,- 22,
22'
-= Z"+Zo ......(3.30)
Using equation (3.28) in (3.30), we ger

/\
.'[ ZoZo )
-l-l
.F _ _(2. +2" )
___=r_=_
2zdz"
L =
toto 2ZoZ" + Zo2
*' Z" "
Zd+ Zo

(3.2s)
...... 2zo
or T=
2 Z o+ 2 " ......( 3.31)
But, from definitionof transmission
coefficientT, we have
......(3.26) Zzu
T-vt-
'-V " -2 Z o + 2 , .....(3.32)
Substituting
equarion(3.32)in (3.27),weger
is absent.
ritch and V,
n-= zot.g,,(+*)0" .....( 3.33)
\ --d ./

In equations(3.32)and (3.33),it is assumedthat thereis no loss

in the line and in the
diode'Equation(3.32)canbe represented by an equivalentcircuit asshownin figure (3.27).
As seenfrom thefigure(3.27),thediodeimpedancezoisinshunt
with theloadiripedanceof
zo
. .....( 3 . 2 7 )

rtedis Zoso t'

rds loadside Y' Z"

. . . . .(.3 . 2 8 ) Figure3'27 : Equivalentcircuit representingequation(3.32)

for shunt configuration.
238 Microwavesand Radar

Erampie

-i'ilun:,:n

Figure 3.28: Equivalentcircuit for seriesconfiguration.

Similarly,for the seriesconfigurationof figure 3.24 (a), an equivalentcircuit can be

constructedas shown in figure 3.28 where the diode impedanceZo is in serieswith the
characteristic
impedanceZo..Carrying out a similar analysisfor the seriescircuit, one can
obtainthe insertionlossas

IL= zots,,(4*)dB .....( 3.34)

PIN DIODE AS SPDT SWITCH

Single-poledoublethrow (SPDT)actioncanbe obtainedby usinga pair of PIN diodes
either in seriesconfigurationor in shuntconfigurationas shown in figure 3.29(a)and (b)
respectively
In the seriesconfigurationof figure 3.29(a),when D, is forwardbiasedand D, reverse
biased,connectionis established betweenRF input andoutputI andno outputat OUTPUTII.
Whenthebiasingconditionis reversed(D, reversebiasedandD, forwardbiased),connection [.
is establishedbetweenRF input and outputII. ,t" - ,,-

Pindiodes :...j

<1 rl
"! DiL

-i - - :i
RF : .-.1

: i:l'l

Figure 3.29: Circuits for SPDT PlN-diodeSwitches

(a) Seriesconfiguration (b) Shunt conliguration

In the shuntconfigurationof figure 3.29(b),when D, is forward biased,it becomesshort

circuitedthrowingan opencircuit at RF input linejunctiondueto (1./4)section.Dois reverse
biasedso that it becomesopencircuit (high impedancestate)and connectionis established
betweenRF input andoutputII. WhenD, is reversebiasedandDoforwardbiased,connection
is establishedbetweenRF input and output I.
res and Radar MicrowaveDiodes- TranslerredElectronDevices

Example 3.1 : The forward resistanceR, of a shuntmountedPIN diodeis 0.12 e and the
capacitance of theintrinsiclayeris 0.025pF.The shuntmountedPIN diodeswitchis connected
to a transmissionline of characteristic impedanceZo=50 O. At a frequencyof 2.5 GHz,
determinethe insertionloss underreversebias and isolation underforward bias conditions.
Solution : GivenRr = 0.12O, Cj = 0.025pF, Zo= 50 gt.
From equation(3.33),the insertionrossunderreversebiasis given by

ircuit can be [l= 2o,og,ol+*)*

des with the
ruit, one can 1
where Zo= undetreversebias
<oC;
I
.....(3.34) -
2 n f C,

f PIN diodes (zn)(z.sx loe)(o.ozs

x 1o-r2)
D(a) and (b)
= 2.546KQ

d D, reverse x z's+ox ro31so-.|0"

loss= 20loe,^
Insertion [z
OUTPUT II. -'" L 2x2.546x10' I
f6connection
When the PIN diode is forward biased,then Zo = R, = 0.12 C) and the sameequation
(3.33)is usedwhich givesisolationin dB given by

= 20toe.^lz x o-tz+ sol

Isotation "'u 2x0.tZ
L l
Isolation = 46.42dB

3.14 SCHOTTKYBARRIER DIODE

Schottkybarrierdiodeis a sophisticatedversionof thepoint-contactsilicon crystaldiode,
whereinthe metal-semiconductor junction so formed is a surfaceratherthan a point contact.
The advantageof schottkydiodeoverpoint contactcrystaldiodeis theeliminationof minority
carrier flow in the reverse-biasedcondition of the diode. Due to this elimination of holes,
thereis no delay dueto hole-electronrecombination(which is presentin junction diodes)and
hencethe operationis faster.Becauseof largercontactareaof rectifying contact(refer figure
short 3.30 (a)), comparedto crystal diode, the forward resistanceis lower as also noise. Noise
-omes
D. is reverse figures as low as 3dB have beenobtainedwith thesediodes.Just like crystaldiodes,the
r established schottkydiodesare also usedin detectionand mixing
lconnection
 240
Microwaves and Radar fi!icror|art

Rectifying 13. wid

Gold or Goldor
surfacecontact l-1. Exg
Aluminium Aluminium
/ 15. Exd
16" \lid
3.16Pt
1" In al
criri
inui
t_ - {G
10Pt
(a) criti
ft)
Figure 3.30 : (a) Schottkybarrier diode (b) Its 3. -{R I
equivarentcircuit
The constructionof schottkydiodeis illustratedin siliq
figure 3.30(a).The diodeconsistsof
n* siliconsubstrate
uponrvhicha thin layerof siliconof 2lo3 micron cerri
thicknessis epitaxially
grown' Then a thin insulatinglayer of silicon 4" ..\xn
dioxide is grown thermally.After openinga
window throughmaskingprocess'a metal-semiconductoijunction
is
.' formedbyvJ sdepositing
'v''rvv
metal over SiOr.

Figure3'30 (b) showstheequivalentcircuit of theschottky

diodewhich is s.'vol
almostidentical
with that of crystaldiode.

3.1sQUESTTONS
1' what is "GUNN EFFECT"?with a neatdiagram
explainthe constructrualdetailsof a
GUNN diode.
DefiE!
2. Explainthe differentmodesof operationof Gunn
diodes.
3. Give a brief accountof RWH theory.
4. with a neatdiagramexprainthe operationof
Gunndiodeoscilrator.
5' what areavalanchetransit-timedevices?How are
theydifferentfrom transferredelectron *{. Thc I
devices?
6. with neatdiagramsexplaintheconstructionand
tu d
operationof READ diode. ::"mfl!
7. with neatdiagramsexplain the constructionand
operationof IMpATT diode. iefreil
8' with neatdiagramsexplain the constructionand 6 Afu
operationof TRApATT diode.
9. with neatdiagramsexplain the constructionand "nFFl
operationof BARITT diode.
10' with neatdiagramsexplain the construction rrld
and operationof varactordiode.
11. Explainthe operationof a basicparametricamplifier --:nlllClfl
with squarewavepumping.
12' what areMANLEY-ROWE relations?How are
theyusefulin understanding parametric
amplifiers?
l *a, e s and Rada r MicrowaveDiodes - TransferredElectronDevices
z1 |

13. with neatdiagrarnsexplainthe constructionand

operationof pIN diode.
14. Explainrheoperationof single-pole
switchusingpIN diode.
15. Explainthe operationof a SPDTswitchusingpIN
diode.
16' with neatdiagramsexplainthe constructionand
operationof Schottkybarrierdiode.
3.16 P ROB LE MS
1' In a Gunndiodeoscillator,theelectrondrift velocity
4
u,asfbundto be 10scm/sec.andthe
critical field for GaAs was 3 KV/cm. If the effective
length/ is 10 pm, determinethe
intrinsicfrequencyfo andthe criticalvoltagethat can
be appliedto the diode.
2' A GaAsGunn diodeoscillatoroperatesat 8 GHz
with drift velocityof electrgnsbeing
106cm/sec'Determinethe effectivelengthof the active
region.Also find the requirecl
critical voltagefor oscilrationsif the criticarfield is 3
KV/cm.
3' An IMPATT diodehasa drift lengthof 2.5 pm. If the
basicsemi-conductor materialjs
siliconfor which the clrift velocityis 5 x 106cm./sec, determine(a) the drift time ol tire
:c: ,-onsists
of
carriers(b) the nominarfrequencyof theIMPATT diode.
s rsepitaxially
:::i openinga 4. An IMPATT diodehasthe following parameters
i'" depositing Diodejunction resistance= R = _2 f,)
Junctioncapacitance= C: = 0.2 pF
::,i stidentical Breakdownvoltage = Vuo= g0 volts
Package leadinductance= Lo = 0.55nH
Packagecapacitance= Co= 0.3 pF
.1 detailsof a Bias current = 80 m Amps
Determine (a) the exactresonantfrequency
(b) the averageoutputpower
(c) the averageinput power
(d) the efficiency
ered electron 5' The forwardresistance of a shuntmountedPIN diode
\ is 0.i5 a andthecapacitance of
the intrinsic layer is 0.03 pF. The shuntmountedPIIrI diode switch is connected
to a
transmissionline of characteristicimpedanceZo =
55 e. At a frequencyof 3 GHz,
--.:- determinetheinsertionlossunderreverse biasandisolationunderforwardbiasconditions.
;- l 6' A shuntmountedPIN diodeswitchis connectedto
- -
a transmission line of characteristic
impedancezn= 60,Q. At a frequencyof 2 GHz,the
. i-
insertionloss and isolationwere
found to be 0'12 dB and 48 dB resiectively.Find
l-
q_l - .
the forward resistanceR, and the
capacitance C.
ri:rping.
l: parametric