Assesment statements from Pearson

Baccalaureate HL Biology
Chapter 2
Cells
Betty
Chapter 2.1: Cell theory
(Taken from the assessment statements)
2. 1. 1. Outline the cell theory
Formulated by athias !chleiden and "heodor !ch#ann.
1. All organisms are made up of cells.
2. Cells are the smallest unit of life.
$. All cells come from pre%e&isting cells.
2. 1. 2. Discuss the evidence for the cell theory
'obert Hoo(e described cells in 1))* +using his microscope to loo( at cor(,. He did not
(no# #hat they are yet- though.
Antonie .an Leeu#enhoe( obser.ed /animacula0 +li(ely some paramecia, some years
later using his microscope.
athias !chleiden stated that plants consist of /independent- separate beings0 called
cells in 11$1.
2n 11$3- "heodor !ch#ann said the same for animals.
4e ha.en5t found any non%cellular organism 6tting the characteristics of life yet.
Louis Pasteur5s e&periment in the 11)75s #here he made chic(en broth- boiled it +to (ill
all that li.ed in it, and then let the broth in an enclosed- partially enclosed and fully
open bottle. He obser.ed that the enclosed li8uid remained pure- the partially enclosed
gre# cloudy slo#ly and the fully open one gre# cloudy .ery soon. "hat is ho# he
concluded that cells cannot 9ust magically appear in an en.ironment : they need to
come from pre%e&isting cells introduced into it.
2. 1. 3. State that unicellular organisms carry out all the functions of life.
All organisms carry out al the functions of life- including unicellular organisms.
"he functions of life are +as copied from the boo(,:
1. ';P'<=>C"2<? +in.ol.es hereditary molecules that can be passed to o@spring,
2. H<;<!"A!2! +refers to maintaining a constant internal en.ironment,
$. A'<4"H +may be limited but is al#ays e.ident in one #ay or another,
B. ;"AB<L2! +includes all the chemical reactions that occur #ithin an organism,
*. ';!P<?!; +to the en.ironment is imperati.e to the sur.i.al of the organism,
). ?>"'2"2<? +all about pro.iding a source of compounds #ith many chemical bonds
#hich can be bro(en to pro.ide the organism #ith the energy and the nutrients
necessary to maintain life.
2. 1. 4. om!are the relative si"es of molecules# cell mem$rane thickness#
viruses# $acteria# organelles and cells.
atom 1 C 17
%17
m
molecule 1 nm 17
%3
m
cell membrane thic(ness 17 nm 17
%1
m
.irus 177 nm 17
%D
m
bacterium 1 % * Em 17
%)
m
organelle 17 Em 17
%*
m
eu(aryotic cell 177 Em 17
%B
m
2. 1. %. alculate the linear magni&cation of dra'ings and the actual cell
si"e of s!ecimens in images of kno'n magni&cation.

nemonic: !! goes undergroundF
2. 1. (. )*!lain the im!ortance of the surface area to volume ratio as a
factor limiting cell si"e.
2t is necessary for cells to ha.e a large surface area for membrane transport of nutrients-
#astes- #ater and other molecules.
ost cells are roughly spherical. "he .olume of a sphere can be calculated as -
#hereas the surface area is . Cubic functions ha.e a faster gro#ing slope than
8uadratic ones and so #e can see that #ith gro#ing radius- the .olume of a cell #ill gro#
faster than its surface area. "his means that the ratio
bet#een its .olume and surface
area #ill gro#- ma(ing the cell less
and less capable of eGcient
membrane transport.
"he relationship bet#een .olume
and surface area is
.
2. 1. +. State that multicellular organisms sho' emergent !ro!erties.
An emergent property is a beha.ior that emerges from an interaction bet#een many smaller
parts. 2t is often argued that cogniti.e functions are an emergent property of neurons.
2. 1. ,. )*!lain that cells in multicellular organisms di-erentiate to carry out
s!eciali"ed functions $y e*!ressing some of their genes $ut not others.
2n multicellular organisms- it is not necessary for all cells to handle all tas(s e8ually #ell : for
e&ample it is possible for some cells to focus more on immunity +leucocytes,- for others on
mo.ement +muscle cells, etc. "his grants the organism a higher eGciency on the larger scale.
2n the morula +6rst de.elopmental stage- far before an embryo : the baby is still only a
uniform ball of cells,- all cells are multipotent embryonic stem cells- #ith the ability to
di@erentiate into any of the three germ layers +endoderm- mesoderm and ectoderm, and later
into any of the cells of the gi.en germ layer. "his occurs through signaling molecules such as
hormones often acting as transcription factors. "his means that these molecules can either
inhibit or promote the e&pression of some genes. 2t results in di@erent cells ha.ing di@erent
traits- for e&ample the li.er cells ha.ing lots of smooth endoplasmic reticula. "his .arying
e&pression of di@erent genes +smooth ;' gene in li.er cells is e&pressed hea.ily there- but
little in retina cells, #ill cause cell di@erentiation and the ability to carry out specialiHed
functions.
2. 1. .. State that stem cells retain the ca!acity to divide and have the
a$ility to di-erentiate along di-erent !ath'ays.
!tem cells can be either embryonic +naturally occurring- retained their ability to di.ide and
di@erentiate into many di@erent cells, or induced. ;mbryonic stem cells are generally
pluripotent.
unipotent Can create only 1 type of cell
multipotent Can di@erentiate into any of the $ germ
layers
pluripotent Can di@erentiate into any cell +of that
organism,
"he meristema tissue in plants is an e&ample of pluripotent stem cells.
2. 1. 1/. Outline one thera!eutic use of stem cells.
H<4:
1. e&tract and gro# stem cells
2. treat #ith appropriate hormones- nutrients etc.
$. in9ect into patient5s body +along #ith some of the hormones etc.,
B. suppress the immune response of the patient
*. monitor patient for cancer
';"2?A /"'A?!PLA?"0:
!tem cells +either pluripotent or unipotent for retina, can be in9ected into the eye #ith
the right hormones and other signalling molecules for de.elopment of retina cells and
they #ill di.ide to form a ne# retina +or repair his old one, for the patient.
Chapter 2.2: Pro(aryotic cells
(Taken from the assessment statements)
2. 2. 1. Dra' and la$el a diagram of the ultrastructure of )scherichia coli as
an e*am!le of a !rokaryote
0
2. 2. 2. 1nnotate the diagram 'ith functions of each named structure.
2. 2. 3. 2dentify structures from 2. 2. 1. in electron microgra!hs of ). coli
dots : either granules or ribosomes +#rite ribosomes- that5s more li(ely they5ll as( you,
blobt in the middle : nucleoid =?A
plasmids : remember- circularF
2. 2. 4. State that !rokaryotic cells divide $y $inary &ssion
see binary 6ssion picture .
Chapter 2.$: ;u(aryotic cells
(Taken from the assessment statements)
2. 3. 1. Dra' and la$el a diagram of the ultrastructure of a liver cell as an
e*am!le of an animal cell.
0
2. 3. 2. 1nnotate the diagram 'ith the functions of each named structure
Li.er cells ha.e a lot of smooth endoplasmic reticula.
(!hoto taken from te*t$ook# !age 2/)
cytoplasm % consists of cytosol +gooey #ater%based solute, and e.erything bet#een
the nuclear en.elopeImembrane and plasma membrane
endoplasmic reticulum : net#or( of tubes and channels- al#ays connected to the
nucleus and may e&tend o.er all of the cell. Aenerally used for manufacture- storage
and partially for transport of cellular products.
o smooth : produces phospholipids- hormones- deto&i6es- allo#s transport of
lipid%based compounds- aids the release of glucose into the bloodstream by the
li.er
sarcoplasmic : in muscles- stores and releases J
K
used in muscle
contractions
o rough : has riboHomes on its surface that produce proteins- inside the ';' the
proteins are folded and further put together +basically the ribosomes produce a
polypeptide- #hich the ';' ma(es into a proper protein,. Also in.ol.ed in
transport of proteins. Closer to nucleus than !;'.
ribosomes : in.ol.ed in translation- a process in #hich a polypeptide chain is
synthesiHed based on a m'?A blueprint. ade up of r'?A and protein.
lysozomes : .acuoles 6lled #ith digesti.e enHymes- acidic content. 2n.ol.ed in
phagocytosis.
Golgi apparatus : consists of Lat sacs called cisternae. 2n.ol.ed in modi6cation-
transport and distribution of materials inside the cell. aterial enters from the ;' onto
its cis side- then migrates bet#een cisternae and then lea.es in a .acuole from the
trans side. "here5s a lot of Aolgi apparatuses in cells #hich secrete a lot +such as in
cells of the pancreas,.
mitochondria : "he endosymbiotic theory states that they ha.e probably come from
phagocyted bacteria that ha.e pro.en to be bene6cial for the cell and it therefore did
not digest the bacterium. <ne proof for this is that mitochondria ha.e their o#n
pro(aryotic =?A- D7! ribosomes and that there is a double membrane bet#een the
cytosol and mitochondrion +one from the mitochondrion- one from the cell,- they5re also
capable of binary 6ssion independently of the cell. itochondria allo# aerobic
respiration- #hich pro.ides the cell #ith multiple times more A"P than anaerobic
respiration. "he space inside the mitochondrion is called the matri*- the creases are
called cristae.
nucleus is enclosed by a porous nucleus en.elopeImembrane. "his is porous so that
m'?A and r'?A can lea.e the nucleus. "he nucleus contains nucleo!lasm- #hich is
composed of a cytosol%li(e substance and chromatin. Chromatin is uncoiled =?A +=?A
only ta(es the form of .isible chromosomes during cell di.ision, and the associated
nucleosomes +#hich consist of 1 histones,. =?A is #rapped around 1 histone proteins
and secured by a 3
th
histone protein li(e strand #ould be around a spool. Animal cells
tend to ha.e a central nucleus- #hile plant cells ha.e it pushed to the side by the
.acuole. ost cells ha.e a nucleus- but for e&ample human erythrocytes lac( it- #hile in
the fungal reproducti.e cycle- some cells ha.e 2 nuclei. 4ithout a nucleus- cells cannot
reproduce. A nucleolus is a densely pac(ed area inside the nucleus +#ithout a
membrane, #hich produces r'?A.
chloroplasts plastids. "he endosymbiotic theory applies. Contains grana- #hich are
stac(s of dis(%li(e thylakoid. "he light reactions of photosynthesis occur on the
thyla(oid membrane. "he /dar( reactions0 occur in the stroma- the /cytosol of the
chloroplast0# #hich contains the necessary enHymes.
centrosomes : a pair of centrioles at right angles to each other. 2n.ol.ed in
assembling microtubules for the cytos(eleton. 2n.ol.ed greatly in cell di.ision
vacuole : membrane bounds sac(s
o plant central vacuoles : contain #ater- #astes and regulate the turgor
+cellular pressure,
o endocytosis/exocytosis vacuoles contain material ta(en in +ie. by
phagocytosis, or out of the cell +.ia Aolgi,
2. 3. 3. 2dentify structures from 2. 3. 1. in electron microgra!hs of liver cells.
lysozomes ta(e up a lot of dye MN .ery dar( blobts
mitochondria ha.e strongly pronounced cristae
the nucleus is a circular- 8uite large and dar(er region roughly in the middle
the nucleolus is a dar(er- round region #ithin the nucleus
golgi apparatuses are oblong blobts bent a#ay from the nucleus
endoplasmic reticula are similar to golgi- but not bent uniformly. Rough ER ha.e
dots +riboHomes, on them
vacuoles loo( li(e lysoHomes- but lighter
centrioles are made up of microtubules and loo( li(e a circular tube made up of
circular tubes. "here5s 2 of them- perpendicular to each other
2. 3 .4. om!are !rokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
P'<JA'O<"; ;>JA'O<";
no membrane%enclosed nucleus
no membrane%bound organelles
=?A circular
1 circular chromosome
no histones +archaea ha.e histone%li(e
proteins- but still not histones,
no introns in =?A
plasmids
no cytos(eleton
D7! riboHomes
reproduce through binary 6ssion and
horiHontal gene transfer +con9ugation,
P1 Qm in siHe
membrane%enclosed nucleus
membrane%bound organelles
+compartmentaliHation,
=?A linear
many rod%li(e chromosomes
histones
introns in =?A
no plasmids
cytos(eleton
17! riboHomes
reproduce through mitosis and meiosis
P177 Qm in siHe
2. 3. %. State three di-erences $et'een !lant and animal cells.
PLA?" A?2AL
cell #all
plastids +chloroplasts- chromoplasts- R,
lytic .acuoles
no centrosomes
store starch
permanent #ater .acuole
no centrioles in centrosome area
no cell #all- but e&tracellular matri&
no plastids
lysoHomes
centrosomes
don5t store starch
no permanent .acuoles
centrioles in centrosome area
2. 3. (. Outline t'o roles of e*tracellular com!onents.
bacteria cell #all of peptideglycan murein- Lagella- pili and capsule
fungi : chitinous cell #all
plants : cellulose primary cell #all- may ha.e secondary cell #all of lignin
yeast : glucan and mannan cell #all
animal : e&tracellular matri& made up of collagen and glycoproteins
Ch 2.B embranes
2. 4. 1. Dra' and la$el a diagram to sho' the structure of a mem$rane
2. 4. 2. )*!lain ho' the hydro!ho$ic and hydro!hilic !ro!erties of the
!hos!holi!ids hel! to maintain the structure of cell mem$ranes.

"he hydrophilic heads are e&posed to the #ater- #hile the hydrophobic tails group together.
Because of this- the membrane al#ays arranges as a bilayer.
"he #ea( attraction bet#een the fatty acid Stails5 cause the membrane to be 8uite Luid and
Le&ible.
Cholesterol in the membrane allo# a greater Luidity +#ithout cholesterol- our membranes
#ould be 8uite rigid,. Plants do not ha.e it.
Transmembrane proteins can be either integral +go through the membrane MN must ha.e
a hydrophobic central region and hydrophilic ends, or peripheral +only on one side of the
membrane MN hydrophilic,.
2. 4. 3. 3ist the functions of mem$rane !roteins.
Transport
Receptors
Anchoring
Cell recognition I antigenic function +HC : a9or Histocompatibility Comple&,
ntercellular 9unctions
EnHymatic acti.ity
/2. 4. 4. De&ne di-usion and osmosis.
!i"usion is the passi.e mo.ement of particles do#n their concentration gradient +ie. from a
place #here there is a lot of them to a place #here there is a fe# of them,. 2t occurs because
of the natural tendency for entropy to gro#.
#smosis is the di@usion of #ater o.er a semi%permeable membrane. 2t occurs do#n its
concentration gradient I against the concentration gradient of the solute.
2. 4. %. )*!lain !assive trans!ort across mem$ranes $y sim!le di-usion and
facilitated di-usion.
$imple di"usion happens simply across the
bilayer. 2t is only possible for small- nonpolar
molecules +because of the nonpolar nature of the
middle of the membrane,.
%acilitated di"usion happens through proteins-
but is still passi.e : no A"P in.ested. "he protein
channels are usually speci6c to the substance they
can carry. Large- polar +sugars-R, or charged
molecules I ions cannot pass freely through the
bilayer and thus they di@use across their channel
proteins.
&ater can tra.el both through simple and
facilitated di@usion +it is polar- but so small that it is
not !>CH a problem,. "he membrane proteins for
#ater di@usion are called a'uaporins.
2. 4. (. )*!lain the role of !rotein !um!s
and 1T4 in active trans!ort across
mem$ranes.
Acti.e transport is de6ned by investment of
energy- usually in the form of AT(. 2t in.ol.es the
mo.ement of substances against their
concentration gradient +MN decrease of
entropy,. 2t allo#s to ha.e di@erent concentrations of some molecules inside the cell than
outside. An e&ample of this is the thyroid gland- #hose cells need to ha.e a lot of iodine
inside- #hile there is only a little iodine outside : they need to acti.ely pump all the iodine
a.ailable inside.
)embrane proteins ha.e to be in.ol.ed in acti.e transport.
*ote on entropy
Entropy is a measure of the
disorganiHation of matter.
A homogenous substance has
a .ery high entropy- #hile a
heterogeneous substance has
a .ery lo# entropy.
"here is a natural tendency in
the uni.erse for entropy to
gro+.
"hin( of it li(e this:
o Oou clean your room MN
entropy is decreased-
but you had to in.est
energy.
o Oour room then again
gets messy after a fe#
days- #ithout you
acti.ely in.esting
energy.
o (this is not e*actly ho' it
'orks# $ut it 'ill hel!
you imagine it)
,ife can be thought of as a
constant struggle to
decrease entropy.
"here are predictions- that as
$#!-).(#TA$$-) (-)(/
+in neurons- #or(s to establish ion concentrations- #hich ma(e the neuron charged,
I +http:IIbio1177.nicer#eb.comILoc(edImediaIch7BI7BTta1*.9pg,
2. 4. +. )*!lain ho' vesicles are used to trans!ort materials 'ithin a cell
$et'een the rough )5# 6olgi a!!aratus and !lasma mem$rane.
Endocytosis includes the ta(ing up of material by the cell +ie. phagocytosis or
pinocytosis,- #hile e&ocytosis is the e&cretion of material out of the cell +#aste or
secretions,.
+http:IIi#s.collin.eduIbiopageIfacultyImccullochI1B7)IoutlinesIchapterU271I1%1D.9pg,
;ndocytosis and e&ocytosis are opposite processes.
E0#C1T#$$:
1. Protein synthesis at the ribosomes of the RER.
2. Protein lea.es ';' in a vesicle.
$. Vesicle merges #ith Golgi apparatus cis side.
B. Protein tra.els bet#een Aolgi5s cisternae- is modi6ed and folded.
*. Vesicle #ith protein lea.es from Aolgi5s trans side.
). Vesicle merges #ith plasma membrane and protein is secreted.
IE*!#C1T#$$
+http:IIi#s.collin.eduIbiopageIfacultyImccullochI1B7)IoutlinesIchapterU271I1%1D.9pg,
Vesicle formation see picture.
Vesicle then often merges #ith lysosome for
digestions.
2. 4. ,. Descri$e ho' the 7uidity of the mem$rane allo's it to change sha!e#
$reak and reform during endo8 and e*ocytosis.
"he 2uid mosaic model of the plasma membrane describes the softness and Le&ibility of
the membrane : you can imagine it as a /sea of fat0 +phospholipids, #ith /icebergs0 +proteins
etc., Loating in it. As the phospholipids are only held together by .ery #ea( 3an der &aals
interactions- the membrane is 8uite free to brea( and reform. Ho#e.er- due to the
hydrophobic nature of fatty acid chains- a bilayer ball #ill al#ays reform : both in the case of
a .esicle and the cell membrane.
(roteins are also important in this- because they can help signal- #hether the substance at
the outside of the cell is e.en supposed to be ta(en up by the cell : ie. glucose #ill be ta(en
up only after it has been recogniHed by membrane proteins specialiHed to do this. LysoHomes
then also need to recogniHe the membrane proteins of the .esicle to (no#- #hether to merge
and digest.
Chapter 2.B: Cell cycle
(Taken from the assessment statements)
2. %. 1 Outline the stages in the cell cycle# including inter!hase (61# S# 62)#
mitosis and cytokinesis.
2. %. 2. State that tumours (cancers) are the result of uncontrolled cell
division and that these can occur in any organ or tissue.
"umorous gro#th is the result of the cell /forgetting0 about the chec(points in the cell cycle. 2t
does not stop because of any factors that #ould ma(e a healthy cell stop di.iding- such as a
high density of cells etc. "his can be because it may ha.e bro(en receptors for chemicals
telling it to stop etc.
2. %. 3. State that inter!hase is an active !eriod in the life of a cell 'hen
many meta$olic reactions occur# including !rotein synthesis# D91 re!lication
and an increase in the num$er of mitochondria and:or chloro!lasts.
"he cell spends most of its life in interphase and this is also the stage #here most of the cell5s
life processes occur. ?o digestion- protein synthesis etc. can occur during mitosis- only in
interphase. <n top of this- many cells lea.e the cell cycle to enter A7- so they are fore.er in
interphase.
itochondria and chloroplasts ha.e their o#n =?A and di.ide independently of the cell cycle :
they ha.e their o#n cell cycle.
2. %. 4. Descri$e the events that occur in the four !hases of mitosis
(!ro!hase# meta!hase# ana!hase and telo!hase).
2. %. %. )*!lain ho' mitosis !roduces t'o genetically identical nuclei.
After =?A is replicated- there are t#o identical sets of it.
=?A supercoiling results in chromatids appearing and
forming chromosomes. "he chromatids of a chromosome are
called sister chromatids and contain the same genetic
information.
!ince sister chromatids are separated in anaphase- each
daughter cell #ill get one sister chromatid for its genetic
information.
"he only #ay of ha.ing variation through mitosis is due to
errors called mutations.
"he contents of the cytoplasm +organelles- R, are not di.ided e8ually bet#een the daughter
cells.
2. %. (. State that gro'th# em$ryonic develo!ment# tissue re!air and ase*ual
re!roduction involve mitosis.
Gro+th can occur either through increase of cell siHe or count.
Embryonic development occurs through di.ision of the Hygote into the many cells of the
embryo.
Tissue repair usually occurs through di.ision of the appropriate stem cell- #hose daughter
cell can replace the damaged or lost cell.
Asexual reproduction or cloning in.ol.es mitosis and the o@spring is identical to the
parent.