7-1

DC-DC Switch-Mode Converters

Applications:
Regulated switch mode dc power supplies
dc motor drives

dc-dc Converters:
Step-down (buck) converter
Step-up (boost) converter
Step-down/step-up (buck-boost) converter
Cuk converter
Full-bridge converter
7-2
Functional Block Diagram of DC-DC Converter System
Unregulated dc voltage obtained by
rectifying the line voltage, and therefore will
fluctuate with line voltage magnitude
Controlled dc output at a desired
voltage level
7-3
Control of DC-DC Converters
In a dc-dc converter:
Average output dc voltage must be controlled to equal a desired level.
Utilizes one or more switches to transform dc from one level to another.
The average output voltage is controlled by controlling the switch on and
off durations (t
on
and t
off
).
Lets consider the following switch-mode dc-dc converter:
Average output dc voltage V
o
depends on t
on
and t
off
.
Switching is done at a constant frequency with switching time period T
s
.
This method is called pulse-width modulation (PWM) in which the duty ratio
D is varied to control V
o
, where D=t
on
/T
s
7-4
Control of DC-DC Converters (contd)
The switch control signal, which
controls the on and off states of the
switch, is generated by comparing a
signal level control voltage v
control
with
a repetitive waveform.
The switching frequency is the
frequency of the sawtooth waveform
with a constant peak.
The duty ratio D can be expressed as


st
control
s
on
V
v
T
t
D
^
= =
7-5
Step-Down (Buck) Converter
( )
d d
s
on
s
T
on
t
on
t
d
s
s
T
s
DV V
T
t
dt dt V
T
dt t v
T
V
= =
(
(

}
+
}
=
}
= 0
1 1
0 0
0 0
low-pass filter: to reduce output voltage fluctuations
diode is reversed biased during ON period, input
provides energy to the load and to the inductor
energy is transferred to the load from the inductor
during switch OFF period
in the steady-state, average inductor voltage is zero
in the steady-state, average capacitor current is zero
converts dc from one level to another
the average output voltage is controlled by the
ON-OFF switch
pulse-width modulation (PWM) switching is
employed
lower average output voltage than the dc input
voltage V
d
depending on the duty ratio, D
D=t
on
/T
s
Average output:




Applications:
regulated switch mode dc power supplies
dc motor drives
7-6
Step-Down (Buck) Converter: Continuous current conduction mode
Inductor current i
L
flows continuously
Average inductor voltage over a time period
must be zero








Assuming a lossless circuit
( ) ( )
( ) ratio duty D
T
t
V
V
or
t T V t V V
theref ore equal be must B and A Area
dt v dt v dt v
s
on
d
on s on d
T
t
L
t
L
T
L
s
on
on s
= =
=
= + =
} } }
0
0 0
0 0
, ,
0
D V
V
I
I
and
I V I V
d
d
d d
1
0
0
0 0
= =
=
Buck converter is like a dc transformer where the turns ratio can be controlled
electronically in a range of 0-1 by controlling D of the switch
7-7
Example..
For a buck converter, R=1 ohm, V
d
=40 V, V
0
=5 V, f
s
=4 kHz. Find the duty ratio
and on time of the switch.
7-8
Solution.
D = V
0
/V
d
= 5/40 = 0.125 = 12.5%

T
s
= 1/f
s
= 0.25 s = 250 s

T
on
= DT
s
= 31.25 s

T
off
= T
s
t
on
= 218.75 s

When the switch is on: V
L
= V
d
- V
0
= 35 V

When the switch is off: V
L
= -V
0
= - 5 V

I
0
= I
L
= V
0
/ R = 5 A

I
d
= D I
0
= 0.625 A

7-9
Step-Up (Boost) Converter
Output voltage always higher than the
input voltage
When the switch is ON:
diode is reversed biased
output circuit is thus isolated
inductor is charged
When the switch is OFF:
the output stage received energy from the
inductor as well as from the input
Filter capacitor is very large to ensure
constant output voltage

Applications:
regulated switch mode power supplies
Regenerative braking of dc motors
7-10
Step-Up (Boost) Converter: Continuous current conduction mode
Inductor current i
L
flows continuously
Average inductor voltage over a time
period must be zero


Dividing both side by T
s



Assuming a lossless circuit
( ) 0
0
= +
off d on d
t V V t V
D t
T
V
V
off
s
d

= =
1
1
0
( ) D
I
I
and
I V I V
d
d d
=
=
1
0
0 0
7-11
Step-Up (Boost) Converter: Effect of parasitic elements
Parasitic elements are due to the
losses associated with the inductor,
capacitor, switch and diode
Figure shows the effect of the
parasitic elements on the voltage
transfer ratio
Unlike ideal characteristics, in
practice, V
o
/V
d
declines as duty
ratio approaches unity
7-12
Step-Down/Step-Up (Buck-Boost) Converter
This converter can be obtained by the cascade connection
of two converters: the step-down converter and the step-
up converter
The output voltage can be higher or lower than the input
voltage
Used in regulated dc power supplies where a negative
polarity output may be desired with respect to the
common terminal of the input voltage
The output to input voltage conversion ratio


This allows V
0
to be higher or lower than V
d
When the switch is ON:
diode is reversed biased
output circuit is thus isolated
inductor is charged
When the switch is OFF:
the output stage received energy from the inductor
D
D
V
V
d

=
1
1
0
7-13
Buck-Boost Converter: Continuous current conduction mode
Inductor current i
L
flows continuously
Average inductor voltage over a time
period must be zero




Assuming a lossless circuit




Depending on the duty ratio, the output
voltage can be either higher or lower than
the input
( )( )
D
D
V
V
T D V T D V
d
s s d

=
= +
1
0 1
0
0
( )
D
D
I
I
and
I V I V
d
d d

=
=
1
0
0 0
7-14
Buck-Boost Converter: Effect of parasitic elements
Parasitic elements are due to the losses
associated with the inductor, capacitor,
switch and diode
Parasitic elements have significant
impact on the voltage transfer ratio
7-15
Cuk DC-DC Converter
Named after its inventor
The output voltage can be higher or lower than the input voltage
Provides a negative polarity output voltage with respect to the common
terminal of the input voltage
C
1
acts as the primary means of storing and transferring energy from the
input to the output
In the steady-state, average inductor voltages, V
L1
and V
L2
are zero, therefore,
V
C1
= V
d
+ V
0
7-16
Cuk DC-DC Converter
When the switch is OFF:
- i
L1
and i
L2
flow through the diode
- C
1
is charged through the diode by energy from
both the input and L
1
- energy stored in L
2
feeds the output
When the switch is ON:
- V
c1
reverse biases the diode
- i
L1
and i
L2
flow through the switch
- since V
c1
>V
0
, C
1
discharges through the switch,
transferring energy to the output and L
2
- Therefore, i
L2
increases
- Input feeds energy to L
1
causing i
L1
to increase


7-17
Steady-state current and voltage equations..Cuk
( )( )
( ) ( )( )
D
D
I
I
V
V
V
D
V
T D V T D V V L
V
D
V
T D V V T D V L
d
d
c
s s d c
d c
s c d s d

= =
=
= +

=
=
1
1
0 1 :
1
1
0 1 :
0
0
0 1
0 1 2
1
1 1
V
c1
is constant and average voltages across L
1
and L
2
over a time
period must be zero
Equating the above two equations,
7-18
Example 1: Step-down (Buck) converter
The chopper below controls a dc machine with an armature inductance L
a
= 0.2 mH. The
armature resistance can be neglected. The armature current is 5 A. f
s
= 30 kHz. D = 0.8

V
d

v
o
= V
o

+
v
oi

-
-
+
i
d

i
o
I
a

L
a

e
a

The output voltage, V
o
, equals 200V.
(a) Calculate the input voltage, V
d
(b) Find the ripple in the armature current.
(c) Calculate the maximum and the minimum value of the armature current
(d) Sketch the armature current, i
a
(t), and the dc current, i
d
(t).

7-19
Example 2: Step-down (Buck) converter characteristics
A step-down dc-dc converter shown in the following figure is to be analyzed.









The input voltage V
d
= 48 V.
The output filter inductance L = 0.1 mH
Series resistor (with L) R = 0.2
Assume in all calculations constant voltage over the series resistor R.
The output capacitor C is large; assume no ripple in the output voltage.
Rated output is 20 V and 25 A

(a) Calculate rated output power.
(b) Calculate equivalent load resistance.
(c) Calculate duty ratio D for rated output. The voltage across the series resistor R
must be taken into consideration.
7-20
Example 3: Step-up (Boost) converter characteristics
A step-up dc-dc converter shown in the following figure is to be analyzed.










The input voltage V
d
= 14 V.
The output voltage V
0
= 42 V.
Inductor L = 10 mH
Output resistor R = 1
Switching frequency f
s
=10 kHz

(a) Duty ratio, switch on and off time.
(b) Plot inductor and diode voltages.
7-21
Example 7-3: Cuk Converter
The above Cuk converter is operating at 50 Hz, L
1
=L
2
=1 mH and C
1
=5 F
The output capacitor is sufficiently large to yield constant voltage
V
d
=10 V and the output V
0
is regulated to be constant at 5 V
It is supplying 5 W to a load
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Calculate the percentage errors in assuming a constant voltage across C
1
or in
assuming constant currents i
L1
and i
L2
.

7-22
Full-Bridge dc-dc Converter
Four-quadrant operation: magnitude and direction of both v
0
and i
0
can be
controlled
This converter consists of two legs, A and B. Each leg consists of two switches
and their antiparallel diodes
A reversible flow of power is made possible by connecting diodes in antiparallel
with switches

Applications: dc motor drives and dc-to-ac conversion
7-23
v
AN
=V
d
(if T
A+
is ON and T
A-
is OFF) :: output current will flow through
T
A+
if i
o
is positive or it will flow through D
A+
if i
o
is negative
v
AN
=0 (if T
A-
is ON and T
A+
is OFF) :: output current will flow through
T
A-
if i
o
is negative or it will flow through D
A-
if i
o
is positive
The average output voltage of the converter leg A:



where t
on
and t
off
are the ON and OFF intervals of T
A+
, respectively. Output voltage
is independent of the direction of i
o


One of the two switches in each leg is ON
The output current i
o
will flow continuously
(T
A+
, T
B-
) and (T
A-
, T
B+
) are treated as two
switch pairs: switches in each pair are
turned ON and OFF simultaneously
+
- =
- +
=
A d
s
off on d
AN
T of ratio duty V
T
t t V
V
0
7-24
Similar arguments apply to the converter leg B.
V
BN
depends on V
d
and the duty ratio of the switch T
B+
:



V
BN
is independent of the direction of i
o
Output voltage V
0
(=V
AN
-V
BN
) can be controlled by controlling the switch duty ratios

+
- =
B d BN
T of ratio duty V V
7-25
(T
A+
, T
B-
) and (T
A-
, T
B+
) are two switch
pairs: one of the two switch pairs is always
ON
Switching signal is generated by comparing
a switching-frequency triangular wave with
a control voltage
If v
control
>v
tri
: T
A+
and T
B-
are ON
If v
control
<v
tri
: T
A-
and T
B+
are ON
7-26
( )
( )
( )
control control
tri
d
d d d BN AN
A B
B A
tri
control
s
on
s on
s
tri
control
s
s
tri
tri
kv v
V
V
V D V D V D V V V
T T D D pair of ratio Duty
T T
V
v
T
t
D pair of ratio Duty
T t t
T
V
v
t
t t at
T
t
T
t
V v
= = = = =
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ = =
+ =
=
=
< < =
.
+
+ .
.
.
1 2
, 1 : 2
, 1
2
1
: 1
2
1
2
4
4
0
4
1 2 1 0
1 1
1
1
1
1
V
0
varies linearly with the input
control signal

7-27
Comparison of Converters
Buck converter: step-down, has one switch, simple, high efficiency greater
than 90%, provides one polarity output voltage and unidirectional output
current
Boost converter: step-down, has one switch, simple, high efficiency,
provides one polarity output voltage and unidirectional output current,
requires a larger filter capacitor and a larger inductor than those of a buck
converter
Buck-boost converter: step-up/step-down, has one switch, simple, high
efficiency, provides output voltage polarity reversal
Cuk converter: step-up/step-down, has one switch, simple, high efficiency,
provides output voltage polarity reversal, additional capacitor and inductor
needed
Full-bridge converter: four-quadrant operation, has multiple switches, can
be used in regenerative braking

7-28
Conclusions
In many industrial applications, it is required to convert fixed dc voltage
into variable dc voltage
Various types of dc-to-dc converters
Operation of dc-to-dc converters
The step-down, step-up, buck-boost and Cuk converters are only capable
of transferring energy only in one direction
A full-bridge converter is capable of a bidirectional power flow
Like ac transformers, dc converters can be used to step-up or step-down a
dc voltage source
Applications: electric automobiles, trolley cars, marine hoists, mine
haulers, etc.
Also used in regenerative braking of dc motors to return energy back into
the supply energy savings for transportation systems with frequent stops