LOW COST SOLID STATE RF

GENERATOR

Electronics System Design-I (EC-705)

Project-I
Semester – 7
B.E. (E & C)

By:
Group No: 1

Shraddha Sharma Ankita V. Jain

(06-ECG-31) (06-ECG-41)

Internal Guide: External Guide:

Prof. M.P.Teredesai Mr.R.B. Patel

H.O.D. C.E (Business Development)
E & C Dept., Twin Engineers
SVIT-VASAD. Vadodara

Electronics & Communication Engineering Department.

Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel Institute of Technology,
VASAD.
 YEAR 2009-10

Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel Institute of Technology, VASAD.

Electronics & Communication Engineering Department.

Certificate
This is to certify that project entitled “Low Cost Solid-
State RF Generator” which is being submitted by

1) Shraddha Sharma (06-ECG-31)

2) Ankita V. Jain (06-ECG-41)
of programme Electronics & Communication have
satisfactorily completed their term work in the subject of
Electronics system design-I(project-I) code EC-705, during
the academic year 2009-10.

Date: /11/2009

Internal Project Guide Head of the

Department

Prof. M.P.Teredesai Prof.M.P.Teredesai

H.O.D H.O.D.
E & C Dept. E & C Dept.
 SVIT-VASAD. SVIT-VASAD

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Firstly, we would like to thank Gujarat University for giving us the opportunity to get
industrial experience in 7th semester.

We would like to thank our HOD, Prof. M.P. Teredesai for allowing us to carry out the
project work at the firm of our choice. We would specially thank Mr. Y.B. Shukla for
being ever ready to guide us and clear all our queries.

We are grateful to Mr. J.T. Patel, CEO of M/S. Twin Engineers for permitting us to do
our project work at his company’s premises. We thank him especially for the valuable
time he gave us in which he taught us many lessons of project management.

We also heartily thank our guides, external and internal, for the precious time guiding us
and clearing all of our doubts. Mr. R.B. Patel and Miss Kailash, our external guides at
Twin Engineers made us familiar with the concept of constant motivation and taught us
the intricacies of successfully carrying out a project.
 PREFACE

The pre-final semester of B.E. in Electronics & Communications recently involved

undertaking a project in an industrial environment along with the academic subjects. As a
part of the requirement, we decided to do our project work with M/S. Twin Engineers,
G.I.D.C. Makarpura, Vadodara.

The firm had many projects in hand and our group was fortunately assigned the most
challenging one. We were required to manufacture a low cost solid-state RF Generator.
We consider this project to be the most challenging on. It is a device that generates the
specified value of the frequency continuously with the help of solid state power mosfet
placed inside it and the combining circuitry. The generated RF frequency can be further
applied inside a food dryer. The efficiency of the whole heating system depends upon
this RF Generator which is comparatively much more than that obtained from the
conventional or microwave heating.

In the following report, we have described how we accomplished our target of

manufacturing a working prototype of a low cost solid state RF Generator. The report is
divided into chapters which deal with specific areas related to the RF concepts. We hope
that by the end of this report, the concept of RF energy and its generation will be clear.
 TWIN ENGINEERS

HISTORY & BACKGROUND

Twin Engineers is situated at 195, Behind V.C.C.I. Complex, G.I.D.C. Makarpura,
Vadodara, India. It is promoted by Mr. J.T. Patel; Ex General Manager (M/S Gujarat
Communication & Electronics Ltd.) who has also worked in Physical Research
Laboratory, Ahmedabad. Twin Engineers is growing in size and scope. It delivers full
line of durable, reliable and highly precision professional grade equipments and RF
Components.

PRODUCT RANGE
Twin Engineers manufactures a complete system for Broadcast applications.
 50W/500W VHF/UHF Unattenuated low power TV Transmitters.

 Parabolic dish antennas for satellite reception-3.7 GHz to 4.2 GHz

 Tele vision receive only in S Band and C Band

 FM Transmitters

 RF Loads

TWIN ENGINEERS’-COSTUMERS
 Prasar Bharti - Broadcasting Corporation of India, Doordarshan

 All India Radio- AIR

 M/S Webel Mediatronics

 M/S Ferno U.K.

 M/S INS AUSTRALIA

PERSONNEL

Highly skilled and experienced technical manpower having expertise in broadcast, RF

Amplifiers, RF peripheral devices and antenna. The experience of the technical staff in
the field of manufacturing professional grade electronic equipments is of more than 15
years

ASSEMBLY FACILITIES AT TWIN ENGINEERS

 Antistatic work stations for precision assembly
 Wave soldering
 Aging facilities
 Transformer winding R-Core
 Assembly of PCB and Sub Modules

TESTING FACILITIES AT TWIN ENGINEERS

Twin Engineers have a highly sophisticated test set up for its products.
It has a specialized testing and inspecting site for Antenna Field Strength measurement
which is duly certified by their customers.

QUALITY CONTROL
Twin Engineers’ Quality slogan is “TO STRIVE CONTINUOUSLY FOR
COSTUMER SATISFACTION THROUGH RELIABLE PRODUCT”.

FACILITIES AVAILABLE AT TWIN ENGINEERS

 Easy availability of AL Extusions-upto 200mm diameter x 6.5 mt. long
 Welding facilities such as argon welding
 Brazing facility
 Precision machining capabilities.
 Easy availability of Al and C.I. castings of various grades
 Inspection and measuring facilities

PROJECTS HANDLED
 Twin engineers successfully supplied TV transmitting antenna to doordarshan
 Twin engineers successfully supplied TV transmitters 2x50W uhf VLPT to
doordarshan
 Twin engineers successfully supplied TVRO(ATTENDED AND
UNATTENDED) in C band to doordarshan
 Twin engineers are now manufacturing 500W UHF LPT TV Transmitter for
doordarshan.

CONTACT:
Mr. R.B. PATEL, C.E. (BUSINESS DEVELOPMENT and R&D)
TWIN ENGINEERS
195, Behind V.C.C.I Complex
GIDC, Makarpura
Vadodara-390010
Gujarat (India)
Tele-Fax: - 0265-2647987
Email: - [email protected]

INDEX

1. Introduction 1
1.1 Radio Frequency 2
1.2 Comparison of RF Heating & Microwave Heating 7

2. System Specifications 9

3. Block Diagram 11
3.1 Block Diagram 12
3.2 Detailed Description 13

4. Schematic Diagram 14
4.1 Circuit diagrams 15
4.2 Circuit descriptions 18
4.3 Component List 21

5. Hardware Description 22
5.1 Power Mosfet 23
5.2 Balanced Feed Choke 28
5.3 Balun Transformer 29

6. Testing & Results 31

6.1 Calculations 32
6.2 Performance Measurements 33

7. Future Expansion 34
8. Conclusion 37

9. Applications & Limitations 39

10. Bibliography 42

11. Appendix 44
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 RADIO FREQUENCY

 Radio waves were first predicted by mathematical work done in 1865 by James
Clerk Maxwell. Maxwell noticed wavelike properties of light and similarities in
electrical and magnetic observations.

 His most significant achievement was the development of the classical

electromagnetic theory, synthesizing all previous unrelated observations,
experiments and equations of electricity, magnetism and even optics into a
consistent theory

 Radio frequency (RF) is a frequency, or rate of oscillation, of electromagnetic

radiation within the range of about 3 KHz to 300 GHz.

 This range corresponds to the frequency of alternating current electrical signals

used to produce and detect radio waves. Since most of this range is beyond the
vibration rate that most mechanical systems can respond to, RF usually refers to
oscillations in electrical circuits.

 Diagram of the electric (E) and magnetic (H) fields of Radio Waves
emanating from a radio transmitting antenna (small dark vertical line in the
center). The E and H fields are perpendicular as implied by the phase
diagram in the lower right.
NAMED FREQUENCY BANDS
General
Broadcast Frequencies:
Longwave AM Radio = 148.5 - 283.5 kHz (LF)
Mediumwave AM Radio = 530 kHz - 1710 kHz (MF)
Shortwave AM Radio = 3 MHz - 30 MHz (HF)
TV Band I (Channels 2 - 6) = 54 MHz - 88 MHz (VHF)
FM Radio Band II = 88 MHz - 108 MHz (VHF)
TV Band III (Channels 7 - 13) = 174 MHz - 216 MHz (VHF)
TV Bands IV & V (Channels 14 - 69) = 470 MHz - 806 MHz (UHF)

Amateur radio frequencies - The range of allowed amateur radio frequencies vary
between countries. The Amateur radio frequency allocations lists frequencies allocated
for amateur radio use.

IEEE US

Band Frequency range Origin of name

HF band 3 to 30 MHz High Frequency
VHF
30 to 300 MHz Very High Frequency
band
Ultra High Frequency
UHF Frequencies from 216 to 450 MHz were sometimes called
300 to 1000 MHz
band P-band: Previous, since early British radar used this band
but later switched to higher frequencies.
L band 1 to 2 GHz Long wave
S band 2 to 4 GHz Short wave
C band 4 to 8 GHz Compromise between S and X
Used in WW II for fire control, X for cross (as in
X band 8 to 12 GHz
crosshair)
Ku band 12 to 18 GHz Kurz-under
K band 18 to 27 GHz German Kurz (short)
Ka band 27 to 40 GHz Kurz-above
V band 40 to 75 GHz
W band 75 to 110 GHz W follows V in the alphabet
mm band 110 to 300 GHz
USES OF RADIO FREQUENCY

 Radio Frequency (RF) refers specifically to the electromagnetic field, or radio wave, that is generated
when an alternating current is input to an antenna.

 This field can be used for wireless broadcasting and communications over a significant portion of the
electromagnetic radiation spectrum -- from about 3 kilohertz (kHz) to thousands of gigahertz (GHz) --
referred to as the RF spectrum.

 As the frequency is increased beyond the RF spectrum, electromagnetic energy takes the form of
infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X rays and gamma rays.

 Many types of wireless devices make use of RF fields: radio, television, cordless phones, cell phones,
satellite comm. systems, and many measuring and instrumentation systems used in manufacturing.
Some wireless devices, such as remote control boxes and cordless mice, operate at infrared or visible
light frequencies.

RADIO FREQUENCY HEATING

• In a radio frequency heating system, the RF generator creates an alternating

electric field between two electrodes. The material to be heated is conveyed
between the electrodes, where an alternating energy field causes polar molecules
in the material to continuously reorient them to face opposite electrodes much
like the way bar magnets move to face opposite poles in an alternating magnetic
field. Friction resulting from this molecular movement causes the material to
rapidly heat throughout its entire mass.

• The illustration below depicts a radio frequency drying system with material
between the electrodes. Polar molecules within the material are represented by the
spheres with plus (+) and minus (-) signs connected by bars.

• The approx. Power delivered per unit length of heating pipe (W/met sq),P is
given by :

P = pi (E^2) f K E A tan (a)

 Where E is average peak electric field (V/m), f is the frequency of the signal (Hz),
K is the dielectric constant of product to be heated, E is the permittivity of free
space (8.85*10^-12 F/m), A is the cs. area(m^2) of heating pipe and tan (a) is the
loss factor (typically 0.1 for water).

DIAGRAMATIC REPRESENTATION OF RF HEATING

RADIO FREQUENCY DRYING

 The use of Radio Frequency (RF) drying can offer many benefits over
conventional drying, including faster line speeds, more consistent moisture levels,
lower drying temperature, and smaller equipment.
  Conventional heating (i.e. conduction, convection, radiant) has a heat source on
the outside and relies on transferring the heat to the surface of the material and
then conducting the heat to the middle of the material.

 Radio Frequency heating is different; it heats at the molecular level so it heats

from within the material and heats the middle as well as the surface.

DIFFERENCE IN CONVENTIONAL AND RF HEATING

 A conventionally dried product is hot and dry on the outside and cold and wet on
the inside. Unfortunately, this is not efficient because the dry outer layer acts as
an insulating barrier and reduces the conduction heat transfer to the middle of the
product. This dry outer layer can cause quality problems, such as surface
cracking, a skin on coatings and uneven solids dispersion through wicking of
sizing and additives from the middle to the surface.

 With Radio Frequency drying, the heating is from within so there is no hot, dry
outer layer. The product is heated throughout so the water in the middle will be
heated and will move to the surface.

 In general, because of the heat losses at the surface, radio frequency dried
products are hot and dry on the inside and cooler and wetter on the outside.

 The combination of two technologies, using the RF heating to heat the inside and
move the water to the surface where conventional methods are effective at
 removing it, offers some great potential benefits.

 Materials have a major effect on the success of RF heating. Some materials heat
very well and some do not heat well at all. The key measure of “heatability” is the
loss factor of the material. The loss factor is a material property that determines
how well the material absorbs the RF energy.

 If the material has a high loss factor, it absorbs energy quickly and thus heats
quickly. If a material has a low loss factor, it absorbs energy slowly and thus
heats slowly. In general, polymers tend to have low loss factors and thus do not
heat well.

 Water, on the other hand, has a high loss factor so it heats rapidly. This is why RF
lends itself to drying so well, it heats the water quickly but does not heat most
base materials.

1.2 COMPARISON OF RF AND MICROWAVE HEATING

The unique characteristics of RF heating and drying offer many benefits over
conventional heating and drying methods. There are numerous cases where
microwave dryers in industrial production have been replaced by RF dryers for
these fundamental reasons. The excerpts below provide a detailed explanation of
scale-up differences between microwave and RF.

 FASTER HEATING AND DRYING TIMES

RF heat products directly and throughout the thickness of the product.

 MORE EVEN HEATING AND DRYING

RF heats from within the material and does not rely on conduction. This provides
uniform temperature gradient throughout the material for more consistent product
quality. Binder/sizing migration is significantly reduced.

 SELF LIMITING DURING DRYING

The heating rate is proportional to the amount of water in the material. As the
material dries, less RF energy is absorbed, the heating rate decreases. Most
materials will not overheat. This improves product quality.

 MOISTURE LEVELING AND PROFILING

The heating rate is proportional to the amount of moisture, wet areas heat faster
than dry areas within a product. This accelerated drying continues until the
moisture is uniform throughout the product & creates consistent product quality.

 SELECTIVE HEATING
Different materials heat at different rates so it is possible to heat only one part of
 a composite material or to dry a coating without heating the substrate.

 INSTANT START AND STOP

Power and heating start and stop instantly, with a virtually no warm up or cool
down time.

 ENERGY EFFICIENCY
Energy usage is proportional to the amount of work being done. All energy goes
into the work without losses to the environment. If the line is running at less than
capacity, energy usage is lower. This can lower fuel costs.

 SPEED AND UNIFORMITY

Heating occurs instantly and uniformly throughout the mass of a homogeneous
material. No temperature differential is required to force heat via conduction from
the surface to the center as in convection or infrared heating processes

 FEWER ENVIRONMENT ISSUES

There is no combustion or combustion by-products with RF. This saves on both
capital and operating costs.

 MOISTURE EQUILIBRATION
Because wetter areas absorb more RF power than dryer areas, more water is
automatically removed from wet areas resulting in a more uniform moisture
distribution.

 SPACE SAVING
The applicator, or electrode section, is slightly wider than the load itself. Length
will be a small fraction of the length of the convection dryer required to do the
same work. Special applicator designs may be used, multi-pass, multi-zone,
arched, inclined, or vertical.

 PHYSICAL CONTACT
The load may be supported by electrodes or conveyed under or between them.
Self-supporting webs or strands need not touch anything, thus avoiding surface
marking and contamination.

 EFFICIENCY
Power is consumed primarily in the work load. There are no losses from heating
masses of cast iron or huge volumes of hot air , no long warm up or cooling times
are required. Power is consumed only when the load is present and only in
proportion to the load.

 PRECISE CONTROL
Power control is accurately metered and may be recorded. A meter constantly
displays the amount of power being applied to heat the product.
 CHAPTER 2

SYSTEM SPECIFICATIONS
2. SYSTEM SPECIFICATIONS

The project deals with the generation of predefined value of the Radio Frequency
in a circuit card. This circuit card can be installed in the heating modules for the
heating of food products.

RF Generator is formed by the combination of various solid-state devices. Here,

the solid state devices are the low cost Radio frequency power mosfets.

The output generated is fed to the 50 ohm load impedance line. There are some
system specifications on the basis of which the system was planned to be built.

 FREQUENCY:- 27.12MHz ( Radio frequencies reserved for industrial

use by the Federal Communications Commission because of their higher
penetration depth)

 POTENTIAL AT OUTPUT:- 0.5 TO 3KVolts

 MATERIAL COST :- Rs.5000/kwatt

 REDUNDANCY (of one circuit card) :- 50%

 TOTAL EFFICIENCY (for entire circuit) :- >70%

 Power MOSFET (for each circuit card)

- Frequency :-27.12 to 30MHz

- Operating DC voltage:- 30-50V(max)

- Current rating (for the power MOSFET):- Up to 100amperes

- Device Package Construction :-TO-220 or TO-247

- Output Power Variation:-Manual Control by POT(50W-1kW)

- Operating Temperature :-0-50 deg

- Configuration :- PUSH-PULL TYPE

CHAPTER 3
 BLOCK DIAGRAM
AND
DESCRIPTION

3. BLOCK DIAGRAM & DESCRIPTION

3.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM

 Signal Generator Input transformer Output transformer

Driver Matcher

push-pull amplifier

3.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM DESCRIPTION

GENERATOR: The first block is the generator which consists of a crystal

oscillator. The crystal oscillator generates an output frequency of 27.12 MHz
which is fed to driver stage. Variable coils and resistors help in attaining different
gains (dB).Value of the frequency at output can be changed by changing the
crystal value. The output obtained from the generator is around 8dB.
DRIVER: It consists of MRF476 power transistor which has an input of 30MHz,
and is housed in a TO-220 package. It is used to drive the push-pull amplifier
with the required amount of gain, which is the next stage. No adjustments or
tunings are required at this stage.

The output obtained from this MRF476 is about 40 W, which is passed to higher
stage. Although for much stable outputs; MRF 477 can be used as a pre-amplifier.
The driver gives an output of approx. 30dB.

INPUT TRANSFORMER: The input transformer used here is a ferrite bead

transformer, which is a 4:1 step down conventional transformer. It is used for
impedance matching (along with matcher) and providing complementary gate
drive signals.

PUSH-PULL AMPLIFIER: It is built around 3 symmetric pair of common

source RF power mosfet, IRF 440.The output obtained from it is around 24dB.

OUTPUT TRANSFORMER: The output transformer used here is a

conventional balun transformer, which is a 1:4 step up transformer. Here it acts as
a combiner and is used to provide -180 degrees phase shift to output obtained
from push-pull operation.
 CHAPTER 4

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM

4. SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
The circuit is divided into three parts:-
• The Signal Generator
• The Driver
• The Push-Pull Amplifier

4.1 CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS

STAGE 1

Fig 1. The sine wave signal generator

STAGE 2
 Fig 2. The Driver

STAGE 3
 Fig 3. The Push-Pull Amplifier

4.2 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION

1. THE GENERATOR
 - The generator used here is a signal generator which generates sine wave
to drive the driver circuitry. The supply provided to the generator circuit
is of about +5V to +12V. A crystal XT1 of frequency 27.12MHz is used.

- The other supporting components are various resistors and capacitors,

which can be either variable or of fixed values. The value of the gain
obtained from this stage is of about 8db to 12db.

- The value of the gain can be adjusted by changing the value of the
resistors and capacitors used in it.

2. THE DRIVER

- The driver is used to provide the timed signals for the higher stages. The
driver helps in driving of the amplifier stage. The supply given to it is
100V. The main power RF Transistor used over here is a Motorola
product i.e. MRF476.

- The driver stage active devices are operated in Class C mode. MRF476 is
basically an NPN RF transistor which is designed for large signal
amplifier applications to 30MHz. The driver is used to avoid the floating
of the resistors in the amplifier stages into the dc potential values and for
switching on and off of the solid state Radio frequency power mosfets in
the push-pull amplifier stage.

- The RF Chokes present in the circuit are used for the blocking of the RF
signals for the higher stage and provide a pure dc output for the amplifier
stage. Output obtained from this stage is of 30db or 40watts.

3. THE PUSH-PULL AMPLIFIER STAGE

INPUT NETWORK

- The push-pull amplifier stage is the final stage of the RF Generator which
generates the RF output of 27.12MHz and the power output is 1KW or a
gain of 60db is obtained.

- This amplifier is formed by the chain of the solid-state devices which are
power mosfets IRF440 here.

- The configuration is push-pull inverter chain in which the power mosfets

are mirror images of each other to have electrical symmetry and low
source-to-source impedance required for the push-pull operation.
- The resistors R4 and R5 are provided to ensure that gates of the power
mosfets do not float into a dc potential thus imbalancing the amplifier
bias points.

- Ferrite bead transformer T1, 4:1 step down transformer is used to couple
the output of driver stage to the amplifier stage. The secondary feeds the
gates of the Mosfets through resistors R6 to R17 complementary gate
drive signals to the push-pull chain of the power mosfets and for
impedance matching. It is constructed using two Fair-Rite cores, μ=850
with 2 turns of #18 stranded PTFE coated wire on the primary and 1 turn
of .25"copper braid on the secondary.

- The parallel resistors from R6 to R17 are connected in series with the
gates of the power mosfets so that the de-Q input can be given to the
power mosfets i.e. the damped oscillations are not obtained from the
power mosfets. These resistors also prevent a possible VHF emitter
coupled multivibrator oscillations which can occur in parallel mosfets at
high frequency switching. They also reduce the gain by 5db to ensure
stability.

- It is important to see to the grounding of the input components. With the

gate current approaching 8A, ground loop currents make proper ground
layout critical. A double sided printed circuit board with the bottom
essentially intact is recommended.

- The mosfet output is coupled via inductors L5 and L6 to the output

network to cancel the effective series equivalent output capacitance and
it also transforms the effective series inductance of each drain to
approximately 10ohms.

OUTPUT NETWORK

-
The input impedance is not constant over the range of output power.
Depending on the characteristics of the driver, the output power can
appear to ‘snap on’ suddenly as the drive is increased if the input network
has been previously adjusted for a good match at full output. This can be
a little disconcerting, but it is the normal result of interaction between the
driver and the load. The use of the matching transformer improves this
effect but does not completely eliminate it.

- Balanced feed choke transformer, BFC1 serves dual purpose of

compensation of output capacitance transformer and dc power
decoupling. Here it uses bifilar type of winding in which one conductor
starting is other conductor’s ending point. The high output impedance
causes the significant voltage swing at the drain which if placed across
the feed choke would cause it to saturate and become very hot.

- Push pull configuration requires a balanced circuit. The voltage

to the drain of each transistor is to be fed through a bifilar choke wound
on a ferrite core which provides several advantages like balanced flux in
the magnetic choke & dc elimination in output balun
That’s why the output is then fed to the parallel combination of the
capacitors C10, C11 and C12, C13.

- The balun transformer, T3 which is a 1:4 step up transformer.

Balun transformer is used for linking the balanced circuit with the
unbalanced one and vice versa. The phase shift of 90 degree is provided
to the input from the push and pull chains. So that a continuous one phase
waveform is obtained at the output side. The balun is constructed from
24" of RG-303 50ý PTFE coax cable by forming it into a coil of 3 turns
approximately 2.5 inches diameter

- Harmonic suppression coil, L7 and capacitors C17 and C18 are

used to form the tuned circuit for transferring the output from the
amplifier stage to 50 ohms output load impedance line.
4.3 COMPONENT LIST

Component Value Qty.

name

Signal Generator (+5v to +12v power supply)

1
C1,C3 10 kpf (104) 2
C2,C4 1 kpf (.001/103) 2
R1, R2 1 kohm 2
R3 41 ohm 1
U1 Lm 555 1

Driver amplifier (100v power supply)

Q2 Irf 440 1
C7 100pf, 500v, chip capacitor 1
L3 806nh, 2w choke 1
C8 560pf, 500v, chip capacitor 1
L4 105nh, 2w choke 1
C9 300pf, 1000v, chip capacitor 1

Power Amplifier (1000v power supply)

T2 4:1 conventional transformer; pri: 1
2T #18 stranded PTFE coated wire,
sec:1T #14 tinned braid on two Fair-
Rite #2643540002, μi=850
Q3 to Q8 APT 6015 LVR or (ARF 440) 6 nos or (20nos)
R4, R5 1000ohm, 2watt, carbon resistor 2
R6 to R17 1ohm, 2w, carbon resistor 8
C10 to C15, 0.01uf, 1000v, disk ceramic 8
C16, C17 0.001uf, 1000v, disk ceramic 2
C18 250-480pF Mica Compression 1
Trimmer Capacitor, 1000v
C19 95-230pF Mica Compression 1
Trimmer Capacitor, 1000v
L 0.470uh, 5.5t #18AWG 1
L5,L6,L7 0.145uh, 3.5t #14AWG, id=0.438 3
RFC1 2T, #18 PTFE on a Fair-Rite 1
#2643665702 shield bead, μi=850
T3 1:1 (Z) coaxial balun transformer; 1
24 inches RG303 PTFE Coax
formed into a 3 T, 2.5” dia.
BFC 1 6T, #24 twisted pair enamel wire on 1
three stacked Fair-Rite 596118021
toroids
 CHAPTER 5

HARDWARE DESCRIPTION
 5. HARDWARE DESCRIPTION

5.1 POWER MOSFET

A Power MOSFET is a specific type of metal oxide semiconductor field-effect

transistor (MOSFET) designed to handle large amounts of power. Compared to
the other power semiconductor devices (IGBT, Thyristor...), its main advantages
are high commutation speed and good efficiency at low voltages. It shares with
the IGBT an isolated gate that makes it easy to drive.

It was made possible by the evolution of CMOS technology, developed for

manufacturing Integrated circuits in the late 1970s. The power MOSFET shares
its operating principle with its low-power counterpart, the lateral MOSFET.

The power MOSFET is the most widely used switch. It can be found in most
power supplies, DC to DC converters, and low voltage motor controllers.

The two types of Mosfets are the depletion type and the enhancement type, and
each has a n /p - channel type. The depletion type is normally on, and operates as
a JFET.

The enhancement type is normally off, which means that the drain to source
current increases as the voltage at the gate increases. No current flows when no
voltage is supplied at the gate.
CHARACTERISTICS

1) ADVANTAGES

(i) High input impedance - Voltage controlled device - Easy to drive

To maintain the on-state, a base drive current which is 1/5th or 1/10th of collector
current is required for the current controlled device (BJT). And also a larger
reverse base drive current is needed for the high speed turn-off of the current
controlled device (BJT). Due to these characteristics base drive circuit design
becomes complicated and expensive. On the other hand, a voltage controlled
MOSFET is a switching device which is driven by a channel at the
semiconductor’s surface due to the field effect produced by the voltage applied to
the gate electrode, which is isolated from the semiconductor surface. As the
required gate current during switching transient as well as the on and off states is
small, the drive circuit design is simple and less expensive.

(ii) Unipolar device - Majority carrier device - Fast switching speed

As there are no delays due to storage and recombination of the minority carrier, as
in the BJT, the switching speed is faster than the BJT by orders of magnitude.
Hence, it has an advantage in a high frequency operation circuit where switching
power loss is prevalent.

(iii) Wide SOA (safe operating area)

It has a wider SOA than the BJT because high voltage and current can be applied
simultaneously for a short duration. This eliminates destructive device failure due
to second breakdown.

(iv) Forward voltage drop with positive temperature coefficient - Easy to use
in parallel

When the temperature increases, the forward voltage drop also increases. This
causes the current to flow equally through each device when they are in parallel.
Hence, the MOSFET is easier to use in parallel than the BJT, which has a forward
voltage drop with negative temperature coefficient.

2) DISADVANTAGE

In high breakdown voltage devices over 200V, the conduction loss of a MOSFET
is larger than that of a BJT, which has the same voltage and current rating due to
the on-state voltage drop.
 3) BASIC CHARACTERISTICS

(i) Vertically oriented four-layer structure (n+ p n– n+)

(ii) Parasitic BJT exists between the source and the drain.

The p-type body region becomes base, the n+ source region becomes an emitter,
and the ntype drain region becomes the collector (refer to Figure 5). The
breakdown voltage decreases from BVCBO to BVCEO, which is 50 ~ 60 [%] of
BVCBO when the parasitic BJT is turned on. At this state, if a drain voltage
higher than BVCEO is supplied, the device falls into an avalanche breakdown
state. If the drain current is not limited externally, it will be destroyed by the
second breakdown. So the n+ source region and the p-type body region must be
shorted by metallization in order to prevent the parasitic BJT from turning on.
But if the VDS rate of increase is large in the high speed turn–off state, there is a
voltage drop between the base and the emitter, which causes the BJT to turn–on.
This is prevented by increasing the doping density of the p - body region, which
is at the bottom of the n+ source region, and by lowering the Mosfets switching
speed by designing the circuit so that the gate resistance is large.

4) OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS

Id characteristics due to VDS in many VGS conditions.

It is divided into the ohmic region, the saturation (=active) region, and the cut-off
region.

 Ohmic region: A constant resistance region. If the drain-to-source voltage is

zero, the drain current also becomes zero regardless of gate–to-source voltage.
This region is at the left side of the VGS – VGS(th) = VDS boundary line (VGS –
VGS (th) > VDS > 0). Even if the drain current is very large, in this region the
power dissipation is maintained by minimizing VDS(on).

 Saturation region: A constant current region. It is at the right side of the VGS –
VGS (th) = VDS boundary line. Here, the drain current differs by the gate–to
source voltage, and not by the drain-to-source voltage. Hence, the
drain current is called saturated.

 Cut-off region: It is called the cut-off region, because the gate-to-source voltage
is lower than the VGS(th) (threshold voltage).
5) ON-STATE CHARACTERISTICS

When the power MOSFET is in the on-state (see MOSFET for a discussion on
operation modes), it exhibits a resistive behaviour between the drain and source
terminals. The resistance (called RDSon for "drain to source resistance in on-state")
is the sum of many elementary contributions:

 RS is the source resistance. It represents all resistances between the source

terminal of the package to the channel of the MOSFET: resistance of the wire
bonds, of the source metallisation, and of the N+ wells;
 Rch. This is the channel resistance. It is directly proportional to the channel
width, and for a given die size, to the channel density. The channel resistance
is one of the main contributors to the RDSon of low-voltage MOSFETs, and
intensive work has been carried out to reduce their cell size in order to
increase the channel density;
 Ra is the access resistance. It represents the resistance of the epitaxial zone
directly under the gate electrode, where the direction of the current changes
from horizontal (in the channel) to vertical (to the drain contact);
 RJFET is the detrimental effect of the cell size reduction mentioned above:
the P implantations (see figure 1) form the gates of a parasitic JFET transistor
that tend to reduce the width of the current flow.
 RD is the equivalent of RS for the drain. It represents the resistance of the
transistor substrate (note that the cross section in figure 1 is not at scale, the
bottom N+ layer is actually the thickest) and of the package connections.

SELECTION OF IRF440 AS A POWER MOSFET

It is an N-Channel enhancement Power Mosfet designed for high voltage and

high speed applications. It is available in TO-220 package and has fast switching
times, excellent high voltage stability and has a rugged polysilicon gate cell
structure.
5.2 BALANCED FEED CHOKE

The choke is designed to create a zero DC magnetic bias in the core when both
transistors draw the same average current. With the devices operating 180 degrees
out of phase, the windings present high impedance at 27.12MHz to the drain of
each MOSFET.

It also acts as a 4:1 impedance transformer which greatly simplifies matching the
drain impedance. The choke is constructed by winding 6 turns of #24 twisted pair
(approximately 5 twists per inch) solid enamel wire around three stacked Fair-
Rite toroids # 5961001801, μi=125.

This transformer uses the bifilar windings in which two wires are coiled together
and starting of one wire is connected to the end of another wire.

The basic function here in the circuit is to obtain impedance matching.

The bifilar winding technique is preferred because it is the most effective and
precise means of providing the most accurately balanced output from a
transformer. Not only is the voltage potential on the output perfectly balanced,
but the inductance, resistance and capacitance of the output are also precisely
balanced.
5.3 BALUN TRANSFORMER

A Balun is a device which converts balanced impedance to unbalanced and vice

versa. In addition, baluns can also provide impedance transformation, hence the
name Balun Transformers. They are designed specifically to connect between
balanced and unbalanced circuits. These are sometimes made from configurations
of transmission line and sometimes bifilar or coaxial cable and are similar to
transmission line transformers in construction and operation.

SCHEMATIC OF A BALUN TRANSFORMER

In a balun, one pair of terminals is balanced, that is, the currents are equal in
magnitude and opposite in phase. The other pair of terminals is unbalanced; one
side is connected to electrical ground and the other carries the signal.Balun
transformers can be used between various parts of a wireless or cable
communications system. The following table denotes some common applications.

Balanced Unbalanced
Television receiver coaxial cable network
Television receiver Coaxial antenna system
FM broadcast receiver Coaxial antenna system
Dipole antenna Coaxial transmission line
Parallel-wire transmission
Coaxial transmitter output
line
Parallel-wire transmission
Coaxial receiver input
line
Parallel-wire transmission Coaxial transmission line
Some baluns provide impedance transformation in addition to conversion
between balanced and unbalanced signal modes; others provide no impedance
transformation.

For 1:1 baluns (no impedance transformation), the input and output are usually
either 50 ohms or 75 ohms.

The most common impedance-transformation ratio is 1:4 (alternatively 4:1).

Some baluns provide other impedance-transformation ratios, such as 1:9 (and
9:1), 1:10 (and 10:1), or 1:16 (and 16:1). Impedance-transformer baluns having a
1:4 ratio are used between systems with impedances of 50 or 75 ohms
(unbalanced) and 200 or 300 ohms (balanced).

Most television and FM broadcast receivers are designed for 300-ohm balanced
systems, while coaxial cables have characteristic impedances of 50 or 75 ohms.
Impedance-transformer baluns with larger ratios are used to match high-
impedance balanced antennas to low-impedance unbalanced wireless receivers,
transmitters, or transceivers.

In order to function at optimum efficiency, a balun must be used with loads

whose impedances present little or no reactance. Such impedances are called
"purely resistive." As a general rule, well-designed communications antennas
present purely resistive loads of 50, 75, or 300 ohms, although a few antennas
have higher resistive impedances.

The "balanced" terminals of some baluns can be connected to an unbalanced

system. One terminal of the balanced pair (input or output) is connected to
ground, while the other is connected to the active system element. When this is
done, the device does not operate as a true balun, because both the input and the
output are unbalanced. A balun used in this way has been called an "un-un" (for
"unbalanced-to-unbalanced").

Some baluns can work as an impedance transformer between two unbalanced

systems if there is little or no reactance. But certain types of baluns do not work
properly when connected in this manner. It is best to check the documentation
provided with the device, or contact the manufacturer, if "un-un" balun operation
is contemplated.
 CHAPTER 6

TESTING AND RESULTS

6. TESTING AND RESULTS

6.1 CALCULATIONS

STAGE 1: SIGNAL GENERATOR

INPUT OUTPUT
Power supply: +5V Gain: 8db

STAGE 2: DRIVER AMPLIFIER

INPUT OUTPUT
Power supply: +100V Gain: 30db

O/P Power: 40watts

STAGE 3: PUSH-PULL AMPLIFIER

INPUT OUTPUT
Power supply: 1000V Gain: 57db

O/P Power: 1000watts

RF Frequency: 27.12MHz

TOTAL OUTPUT POWER = 1000 Watts

5.2 PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENTS

The amplifier was operated under two conditions. First the amplifier was driven with
a 27.12MHz RF signal, modulated by a 1 kHz sine wave, at a 50% duty cycle, up to a
peak power out of 1600W.

Then the amplifier was driven with a 27.12MHz CW RF signal up to a continuous

power out of 1200W. Due to the close correlation of the modulated data and the CW
data it was concluded that there is significant thermal margin.

Figure 1 show the performance data for this amplifier. Figure 1 is a plot of Pin versus
Pout. The curves show the classical class C characteristics, with low gain at low
power output, improving as the output power increases. The gain peaks over 30dB
when the amplifier output is between 600W and 1kW.

In a class C amplifier there is a tradeoff between maximum output power and

efficiency. Less drive will produce higher gain but at a reduced efficiency,
approximately 60% for 20 dB gain.

FIGURE 1: Pin versus Pout

 CHAPTER 7

FUTURE EXPANSION
7. FUTURE EXPANSION

8 RF
GENERATOR
(1KW each)

10 HEATING
STAGES
(2KW each)

6 HEATING
MODULES
(20KW each)

1 HEATING UNIT
(120KW each)
DESCRIPTION

The project deals with the development of a RF GENERATOR which can also be
referred to as a circuit card.

The Redundancy obtained with the project is approximated to be around 50% which
means that even if one circuit card fails, the system should still work.

If such 8 circuit cards or RF generators are connected, with an output of 1KWatt each,
there is development of a HEATING STAGE.

With each heating stage we get an output of 1KWatt. If 10 such heating stages are
combined, we get an output power of 20KWatts. This leads to the formation of the next
higher stage known as the HEATING MODULE.

Combining such 6 heating modules leads to generation of a HEATING UNIT.

A heating stage is the highest culminating point of the entire system and generates an
extremely high power nearing about 120KWatts.

In a heating stage, a method of controlling heat transferred to a surface of a moist food

product, including the step of moving the food product relative to the streams of high
velocity gas by positioning the moist food product on a conveyor and moving the
conveyor such that the streams of high velocity gas impinge against discrete areas on
upper and lower surfaces of the food product.

Hence we see how the designed radio frequency generator can be installed in a dielectric
heating unit. The use of Radio Frequency (RF) heating or drying can offer many benefits
over conventional drying, including faster line speeds, more consistent moisture levels,
lower drying temperature, and smaller equipment.
 CHAPTER 8

CONCLUSION
CONCLUSION

As per the project definition, we have manufactured RF Generator within the stipulated
time of the semester which can generate the radio frequency of 27.12MHz.

We faced problem in connecting the power mosfets in push-pull inverter configuration.

The project included a lot of profoundness and keen insight. It was tested under rugged
conditions and days of brainstorming and post testing modification of the design led to
the final product. This product is able to sustain its capacity power without resistor
failing due to high temperatures developed inside the unit at high frequencies because of
power mosfets. Also the VSWR is quite satisfactory at the required frequencies.

The RF Generator which we have manufactured is useful for large scale heating units
which work at radio frequencies. The performance matches with the industrial standards
and the price is reasonable compared to other competitors.

Hence, we manufactured a working prototype of RF Generator.

 CHAPTER 9

APPLICATIONS
AND
LIMITATIONS
8. APPLICATIONS & LIMITATIONS

APPLICATIONS

RF heating is used in:

 Fiberglass mats are dried with higher speeds and more consistent quality product.

 Foam products are dried with cycle times reduced from 4 hours to 1 hour. Many
foams are dried with a hybrid system of convection and RF.

 Ceramic fiberboard and shapes are dried faster with reduced binder migration
with combined convection and RF.

 Ceramic powders and filter cakes are dried faster and at lower temperatures,
improving overall purity and quality.

 Ceramic honeycomb extrusions and metallized coatings are dried much more
quickly and uniformly.

 Dyed yarn packages drying time is reduced and the drying provides consistent
color throughout.

The heating unit is used in:

 Drying of food products, ceramic material etc. Fiberglass mats are dried with
higher speeds and more consistent quality product.

 Foam products are dried with cycle times reduced from 4 hours to 1 hour.
Many types of foam are dried with a hybrid system of convection and RF.

 Ceramic fiberboard and shapes are dried faster with reduced binder migration
with combined convection and RF.

 Ceramic powders and filter cakes are dried faster and at lower temperatures,
improving overall purity and quality.

 Ceramic honeycomb extrusions and metallized coatings are dried much more
quickly and uniformly.
  Dyed yarn packages drying time is reduced and the drying provides consistent
color throughout.

LIMITATIONS

 There is a major difference between the way RF and microwave

equipment are available in the market. Unlike microwave sources, one
cannot purchase an RF high power source.

 Due to the high impedance nature of RF coupling, the RF source and

applicator normally need to be designed and built together. Manufacturers
of RF equipment develop the whole system, rather than only the power
source. Therefore, developments in RF processing must involve the
commercial RF manufacturers.

 The most common commercial RF frequencies are 13MHz, 27MHz, and

40MHz.

 The radio frequencies reserved for industrial use by the Federal

Communications Commission are 13.56 MHz ±.05%, 27.12 MHz ±.60%
and 40.68 MHz ±.05%. It is important that the frequency remain within
tolerance or be attenuated so as not to interfere with radio communications
- however, not all frequencies are equal when it comes to RF drying.

 A high moisture content product offers a good "load" to an RF dryer since

sufficient water molecules exist within the product to absorb the RF
energy. Earlier generations of RF dryers operated at the lower frequency
levels of 13 to 27 MHz, and these lower frequencies required that high
voltages be applied to the product. These systems had a tendency to
become unstable at low moisture contents and were prone to random
arcing problems, making the lower frequency systems unpopular for
applications where extremely low moisture levels were required.
 CHAPTER 10

BIBLIOGRAPHY
10. BIBLIOGRAPHY

www. freepatentsonline.com

www.electronicsforyou.com

www.scienceworld.com

www.google.com

www.en.wikipedia.org

www.globalspec.com

www.radiofrequency.com

www.alldatasheets.com

www.vishay.com

www.microwavedevices.com

www.rflabs.com

www.electronicdesign.com
CHAPTER 11

APPENDIX