Chapter 2 part 1

1. Discrete-Time Signals and Systems

A discrete time signals are represented as
sequences of numbers, called samples.
Sample value of a typical signal or sequence
denoted as x[n] with n being an integer in the
range -∞ ≤ n ≤∞ . Discrete-time signal
represented by {x[n]} is a function of an
independent variable that is an integer. x[n]
defined only for integer values of n and
undefined for non-integer values of n
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2. Representation of Discrete time
signals
1. Graphical Representation

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2. Functional representation

n 2 , − 3 ≤ n ≤ 4
xe [n] = 
 0, 5 ≤ n ≤ 8

3. Tabular representation

n -2 -1 0 1

x(n) 1 2 4 0

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4. Sequence representation
a. Infinite duration sequence
x(n) = { …, 1, 4, 1, …}

The arrow is placed under the sample at time

index n = 0
b. Finite duration sequence
x(n) = { 1, 4, 1 }
No arrow means the sample at time index n = 0 is
at the first leftmost number. Consist of 3
samples or points (in time) often called as a 3
point sequence (depending on the number of
points or samples given).
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 Some Elementary Discrete time signals

Singularity Functions - are used to represent

more complicated signals. The unit impulse
function – delta function, is the basic singularity
function and all singularity functions can be
derived by repeated integration or differentiation
of the delta function. The other common
singularity functions are the unit step and the
unit ramp functions.

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1. Unit Sample Sequence or Delta or Unit
Impulse function δ(t)

1, → for n = 0
δ ( n) = 
0, → for n ≠ 0
Is a signal that is zero everywhere except at n = 0
where its value is unity.
2. Unit Step Function u(n) – mu(n)

1, → for n ≥ 0
δ ( n) = 
0, → for n < 0

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3. Unit-ramp Function ur(n)
A ramp signals starts at t = 0 and increases
linearly with time, t. in discrete time domain, the
unit ramp signal is defined as
n, → for n ≥ 0
δ ( n) = 
0, → for n < 0

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4. Exponential Signal
x(n) = an for all n

if the parameter a is real, then x(n) is a real

signal. When the parameter a is complex
valued, it can be expressed as:
a ≡ rejθ
where r and θ are now the parameters and
x(n is now expressed as
x(n) = rnejθ
= rn (cos θn + jsin θn)

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 Advantage of singularity functions
The advantage of singularity function is that
any arbitrary signal that is made up of
straight line segment can be represented
in terms of step and ramp functions.

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 Simple Manipulations of Discrete time signals
When a signal is processed, the signal undergoes
many manipulations involving the independent
variable and the dependent variable. For
discrete time signal, the independent variable
is time, n. 3 methods for the transformation of
the Independent variable:
a) Shifting
b) Folding
c) Scaling

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 Shifting
A signal x(n) may be shifted in time (either
advanced or delayed in the time axis). The shifted
signal is represented by x(n-k) where, k is an
integer. If k is positive, the signal is delayed by k
units of time. If the k is negative, the time shift
results in advancing the signal in the time axis,
which is not always possible. If the signal is
available in a magnetic disk or other storage units,
then the signal can be delayed or advance at any
variable. But in real time, advancing the signal is
not possible since such operation involves
samples that have not been generated therefore is
physically unrealistic for real time signals.

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 Folding
The operation is done by replacing the
independent variable n by –n. This results in the
folding of the signal about the origin, if n = 0.
Folding is also known as the reflection of the signal
about the time origin n = 0. Folding of a signal is
done while convolution of the signal with another
signal
Note: the operation of folding and shifting a signal
is not commutative. If we denote the time-delay
operation by TD and the folding operation as FD

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Proof of non commutative property
TDk [x(n)] = x (n-k) k > 0
FD [x(n)] = x ( -n)
Now,
TDk {FD [x(n)]} = TDk [x( -n)] = x (- n + k)

Whereas
FD {TDk [x(n)]} = FD [ x (n-k)] = x (-n – k)
Clearly not equal

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 Time Scaling
This involves replacing the independent variable n
by kn, where k is an integer. This process is also
called down sampling. If x9n) is the discrete time
signal obtained by sampling the analog signal,
x(t), then x(n) = x(nT) where T is the sampling
period. If time scaling is done, then the time
scaled signal, y(n) = x (kn) = x (knT). This implies
that the sampling rate is change from 1/T to 1/kT.
This decreases the sampling rate by a factor k.

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 Addition, multiplication and
scaling of sequences
Are amplitude modifications of discrete time
signals.
a. Amplitude scaling by a constant A
y(n) = Ax(n) -∞< n <∞
b. Sum of two signals
y(n) = x1(n) + x2(n) -∞< n <∞
c. Product of 2 signals
y(n) = x1(n)*x2(n) -∞< n <∞
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 Sample Problem
 4, → 0 ≤ n ≤ 4

x(n) = 4 − n, → −1 ≤ n ≤ −5
 0, → elsewhere

1. Plot the signal x(n) and get the sequence form
2. Shift the signal by delaying x(n) by 3 units [x(n-3)]
3. Shift the signal by advancing x(n) by 2 units
[x(n+2)]
4. Show y(n) = x(-n)
5. Show y(n) = x(-n + 2)
6. Show y(n) = x(2n)
7. Show y(n) = x(n/2) 16
 Discrete time systems
Is a device or algorithm that performs some
prescribed operation on a discrete-time signal,
called the input or excitation, according to some
well defined rule to produce another discrete time
signal called the output or response of the system.
y(n) = Τ [x(n)]
where the symbol T denotes the transformation
(also called the operator) or processing
performed by the system on x(n) to produce y(n).

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 Block Diagram Representaion

X(n) Y(n)
Discrete Time
System (T)
Input signal Outout signal
Or response
Or excitation

General input-output relationship notation

T
x ( n) → y ( n)
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 Example:
Determine the response of the following systems to the
input signal

| n |, → −3 ≤ n ≤ 3
x ( n) = 
 0, elsewhere
1. y(n) = x(n)
2. y(n) = x(n - 1)
3. y(n) = x(n + 1)
4. y(n) = 1/3 [ x(n+1) + x(n) + x(n – 1)]
5. y(n) = max [x(n+1), x(n), x(n – 1)]
6. y(n) = ∑ n x(k) = x(n) + x(n – 1) + x(n - 2) + …. k = -∞
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 Accumulator
computes the running sum of all the past input
values up to the present time.
Given a system:
y(no) = y(no - 1) + x(no)
y(no + 1) = y(no) + x(no + 1)
The problem in computing y(no) since it is
dependent on y(no - 1). The additional
information required to determine y(n) for n ≥ no
is the initial condition y(no - 1). If the
accumulator had no excitation prior to no, the
initial condition is a cased said to be initially
relaxed which is a general condition
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Block Diagram representation of
Discrete Time Systems
Block Diagrams - A useful tool for visual
representation of systems, using various components
and symbols of the system.
Continuous time system Discrete Time system

X9n) Y(n)
X9n) Y(n) Ideal
= T[x(t)]
C-D
converter

Ts
Sampling period.
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Basic building blocks that can be connected
to form complex systems.
1. Adder - Addition operation. The sum sequence and is
memoryless.

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2. Constant Multiplier - Multiplication
operation. Represents applying a scale
factor on the input x(n) and is also
memoryless.

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3. Signal Multiplier – forms a product
sequence and is also memoryless.

x(n) y(n)
X

w(n)

y(n) = x(n) w(n)

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4. Unit delay element – Simply delays the
signal passing through by one sample.
Uses the z transform form to represent the
delay operation.

y(n) = x(n - 1)

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5. Unit Advance element – Contrast to the
unit delay element. Simply advances the
signal passing through by one sample and
also is denoted by the z transform.

x[n] y[n]
Z

y(n) = x(n + 1)

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6. Branching -•Used to provide multiple
copies of a sequence

x[n] x[n]

x[n]

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 Sample Problem
Using building blocks sketch the block
diagram of the discrete time system
described by the input output sequence
relation:
y(n) = ¼ y(n – 1) + ½ x(n) ½ x(n – 1)
where: x(n) is the input and y(n) is the
output of the system.

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 Classification of Discrete Time Systems

Generally, systems are classified as either

continues or discrete time systems. And both
can be further classified into the following
types:
1. Static versus dynamic systems
2. Linear versus non-linear systems
3. Time variant versus time-invariant systems
4. Causal versus non-causal systems
5. Stable versus unstable systems.
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 Static system
Is a Memoryless if and only if its output at any instant n depends at the
most on the input sample at the time, but not on the past or future
samples of the input.
• The output at any specific time depends on the input at that
particular time.
• Does not depend on past or future values of the input.
• It is a system with no memory or energy storage element.
• The input/output relation of the system does not involve integrals or
derivatives.
Example. A simple resistive network.
• Sample equations
y(n) = ax(n)
y(n) = nx(n) + bx3(n)
• General form y(n) = T [x(n),n] and does not contain delay elements
(memory)

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 Dynamic System
• Dynamic System or with memory and maybe infinite
or finite memory.
• The output at any specified time depends on the inputs
at that specific time and at other times.
• Have memory or storage elements
• The equation will always be a differential equation for
continues time system or a difference equation for a
discrete time system.
Example. Any electrical circuit consisting of a capacitor or
inductor.
Sample equations:
y(n – 1) + 2y(n) = 4x(n) – x(n - 1) (finite)
y(n) = Σ x(n – k) (infinite)
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 Linear Systems

• The principle of superposition holds.

• Is a system whose response to the sum of
the weighted inputs is the same as the
sum of the weighted responses (outputs)
of the system to each of the individual
input signals.

Definition:
T[a1x1(n) + a2x2(n)] = a1T[x1(n)] + a2T[x2(n)]
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• For any arbitrary input sequence x1(n) and
x2(n), and any arbitrary constants a1 and a2.
a1
x1(n)
y(n)
T
x2(n) a2 +

a1
x1(n)
T
y’(n)
x2(n) +
T

a2

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• Graphical representation of superposition principle. T is
linear is and only if y(n) = y’(n)
Can be separated into 2 parts:
(1) First a2 = 0 then

T[a1x1(n)] = a1T[x1(n)] = a1y1(n)

Where: y1(n) = T[x1(n)]

• The relation shows multiplicative scaling or scaling

property of a linear system. That is, if the response of the
system to the input x1(n) is y1(n), the response of a1x1(n)
is simply a1y1(n). Any scaling in the input results in an
identical scaling of the corresponding output.
(2) Second, suppose a1 = a2 = 1 then:

T[x1(n) + x2(n)] = T[x1(n)] + T[x2(n)]

= y1(n) + y2(n) 34
 Non-linear Systems

• The system does not satisfy the given equations

for linearity.
• Does not satisfy the superposition principle.
• A relaxed linear system with zero input produces
zero output. If a system produces a nonzero
output with a zero input, the system may either
be non-relaxed or non-linear.

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 Time invariant systems
• The input output relationship does not vary with time.
Also called a fixed system.
• General form: y(n) = T [x(n)] is time invariant or shift
invariant if and only if
x(n) T y(n)
implies that x(n - k) T y(n - k)
for every input signal x(n) and every time shift k.

• Is also called shift-invariance where k is an integer.

• A system satisfying both linearity and time invariant
conditions are called Linear, time invariant systems or
LTI systems.

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• A test is performed to verify if our system
is time invariant
a. Excite the system with an arbitrary input
sequence x(n) that produces an output
y(n).
b. Delay the input sequence by the same
amount of k and recomputed the output. In
general:
y(n) = T[x(n – k)]
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c. If the output y(n, k) = y(n - k), for all the
possible values of k, the system is time
invariant. If not, the system is time variant.
• Example: Differentiator:
x(n) (n) = x(n) – x(n - 1)

z-1

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 Time Variant System

• An equation not satisfying Time invariant

system equations are time variant
systems.
• Example:
1. Time multiplier
X(n) y(n)
x

n
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2. Folder

X(n) Y(n)=X(-n)
T

3. Modulator
X(n) y(n) = x(n) coswon
+

coswon
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 Causal Systems
• Non-anticipatory. The response of the system
to the input does not depend on future values
of that input [x(n + 1), x(n + 2), …], but
depends only on the present and/or past
values of the input [ x(n), x(n – 1) , x(n – 2) …].
• In mathematical terms:
y(n) = F[x(n), x(n – 1), x(n – 2), …]
where F[ ] is some arbitrary function
• Sample equations
1. y(n) = 0.5 x(n) – x(n - 2)
2. y(n) = x(n)
3. y(n - 2) + y(n) = n(n) + 0.98 x(n – 1)

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 Non-causal Systems

• Anticipatory. The response of the system to an input

depends on the future values of the input.
• Are unrealistic (cannot be implemented). It is apparent
that for real time signal processing applications, we
cannot obtain future values of the signal. But if the signal
is pre-recorded so that the processing is done off-line
(non-real time), then it becomes realistic.
• Does not satisfy the condition for causal.
• Sample equations
y(n-1) = x (n)
y(n) = 0.11x(n – 1)+x(n) –0.8x(n+1)

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 Stable Systems

• Stability is an important property for any practical

application of a system.
• An arbitrary relaxed system is said to be BIBO –
Bounded input, bounded output stable, if every
bounded input produces a bounded output. A bounded
signal has an amplitude that remains finite. Therefore,
a BIBO stable system will have a bounded output for
any bounded input so that its output does not grow
unreasonably large. Conditions are:
• If the system transfer function is a rational function, the
degree of the numerator must be no larger than the
degree of the denominator.

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• The poles of the system must lie in the left half of the
s-plane or within the unit circle in the z-plane.
• If a pole lies on the imaginary axis, it must be a single
order one. I.e. no repeated poles must lie on the
imaginary axis.
• Mathematically a bounded input sequence x(n) and a
bounded output sequence y(n) means that there exist
some finite numbers say Mx and My such that :
|x(n)| ≤ Mx < ∞ |y(n)| ≤ My < ∞
• for all n. If for some bounded input sequence x(n), the
output is unbounded (infinite). The system is unstable.

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 Unstable system
• Unstable systems display erratic and
extreme behavior and cause overflow in
any practical implementation.
• The system not satisfying the stable
system conditions are unstable.

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