IP Addressing & Subnetting Made Easy

Developed by Peter

Smith

[email protected]

Working with IP Addresses

Peter Smith

Introduction
You can probably work with decimal numbers much easier than with the binary numbers needed by the computer. Working with binary numbers is timeconsuming & error-prone.

Peter Smith

Octets
The 32-bit IP address is broken up into 4 octets, which are arranged into a dotted-decimal notation scheme. An octet is a set of 8 bits & not a musical instrument. Example of an IP version 4: 172.64.126.52

Peter Smith

Thinking in Binary
The

binary system uses only 2 values 0 & 1 to represent numbers in positions representing increasing powers of 2. We all are accustomed to thinking & working in the decimal system, which is based on the number 10.
Peter Smith

Thinking in Binary (Cont.)

To

most humans, the number 124 represents 100 + 20 + 4. To the computer, this number is 1111100, which is 64 (26) + 32 (25) + 16 (24) + 8 (23) + 4 (22) + 0 + 0

Peter Smith

 Each

position in a binary number represents, right to left, a power of two beginning with 20 & increasing by one power as it moves left: 20, 21, 22, 24, etc.

Peter Smith

Converting to Decimal
Youll need to convert binary to decimal & vice versa to compute subnets & hosts. So, its time for a quick review lesson in binary-to-decimal conversion. There are 8 bits in an octet & each bit can only be a 1 or a 0.

Peter Smith

Converting to Decimal (Cont.)

What then do you suppose is the largest decimal number that can be expressed in an octet?

Eight 1s (1111 1111)

Peter Smith

Converting to Decimal (Cont.)

Now, for double the money, what is its equivalent decimal value?
27 1 128 26 1 64 25 1 32 24 1 16 23 1 8 22 1 4 21 1 2 20 1 1

The binary number 1111 1111 converts into the decimal number: 128 + 64 + 32 + 16 + 8 + 4 + 2 + 1 = 255

Peter Smith

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Converting to Decimal (Cont.)

Therefore, the largest decimal number that can be stored in an IP address octet is 255. The significance of this should become evident later in this presentation.

Peter Smith

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IP Address Classes
IP addresses are divided into 5 classes, each of which is designated with the alphabetic letters A to E. Class D addresses are used for multicasting. Class E addresses are reserved for testing & some mysterious future use.

Peter Smith

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IP Address Classes (Cont.)

The 5 IP classes are split up based on the value in the 1st octet:

Peter Smith

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IP Address Classes (Cont.)

Using the ranges, you can determine the class of an address from its 1st octet value. An address beginning with 120 is a Class A address, 155 is a Class B address & 220 is a Class C address.

Peter Smith

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Are You the Host or the Network?

The 32 bits of the IP address are divided into Network & Host portions, with the octets assigned as a part of one or the other.
Network & Host Representation By IP Address Class
Class Octet1
Network Network Network

Octet2
Host Network Network

Octet3
Host Host Network

Octet4
Host Host Host

Class A Class B Class C

Peter Smith

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Are You the Host or the Network? (Cont.)

Each Network is assigned a network address & every device or interface (such as a router port) on the network is assigned a host address. There are only 2 specific rules that govern the value of the address.

Peter Smith

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Are You the Host or the Network? (Cont.)

A host address cannot be designated by all zeros or all ones. These are special addresses that are reserved for special purposes.

Peter Smith

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Class A Addresses
Class A IP addresses use the 1st 8 bits (1st Octet) to designate the Network address. The 1st bit which is always a 0, is used to indicate the address as a Class A address & the remaining 7 bits are used to designate the Network. The other 3 octets contain the Host address.

Peter Smith

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Class A Addresses (Cont.)

There are 128 Class A Network Addresses, but because addresses with all zeros arent used & address 127 is a special purpose address, 126 Class A Networks are available.

Peter Smith

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Class A Addresses (Cont.)

There are 16,777,214 Host addresses available in a Class A address. Rather than remembering this number exactly, you can use the following formula to compute the number of hosts available in any of the class addresses, where n represents the number of bits in the host portion: (2n 2) = Number of available hosts

Peter Smith

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Class A Addresses (Cont.)

For a Class A network, there are: 224 2 or 16,777,214 hosts. Half of all IP addresses are Class A addresses. You can use the same formula to determine the number of Networks in an address class. Eg., a Class A address uses 7 bits to designate the network, so (27 2) = 126 or there can be 126 Class A Networks.
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Peter Smith

Class B IP Addresses
Class B addresses use the 1st 16 bits (two octets) for the Network address. The last 2 octets are used for the Host address. The 1st 2 bit, which are always 10, designate the address as a Class B address & 14 bits are used to designate the Network. This leaves 16 bits (two octets) to designate the Hosts.

Peter Smith

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Class B IP Addresses (Cont.)

So how many Class B Networks can there be? Using our formula, (214 2), there can be 16,382 Class B Networks & each Network can have (216 2) Hosts, or 65,534 Hosts.

Peter Smith

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Class C IP Addresses

Class C addresses use the 1st 24 bits (three octets) for the Network address & only the last octet for Host addresses.the 1st 3 bits of all class C addresses are set to 110, leaving 21 bits for the Network address, which means there can be 2,097,150 (221 2) Class C Networks, but only 254 (28 2) Hosts per Network.
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Peter Smith

Class C IP Addresses (Cont.)

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Special Addresses
A few addresses are set aside for specific purposes. Network addresses that are all binary zeros, all binary ones & Network addresses beginning with 127 are special Network addresses.

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Special Addresses (Cont.)

Peter Smith

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Special Addresses (Cont.)

Within each address class is a set of addresses that are set aside for use in local networks sitting behind a firewall or NAT (Network Address Translation) device or Networks not connected to the Internet.

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Special Addresses (Cont.)

A list of these addresses for each IP address class:

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Subnet Mask

An IP address has 2 parts:

The Network identification. The Host identification.

Frequently, the Network & Host portions of the address need to be separately extracted. In most cases, if you know the address class, its easy to separate the 2 portions.

Peter Smith

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Subnet Mask (Cont.)

With the rapid growth of the internet & the ever-increasing demand for new addresses, the standard address class structure has been expanded by borrowing bits from the Host portion to allow for more Networks. Under this addressing scheme, called Subnetting, separating the Network & Host requires a special process called Subnet Masking.
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Peter Smith

Subnet Mask (Cont.)

The subnet masking process was developed to identify & extract the Network part of the address. A subnet mask, which contains a binary bit pattern of ones & zeros, is applied to an address to determine whether the address is on the local Network. If it is not, the process of routing it to an outside network begins.
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Peter Smith

Subnet Mask (Cont.)

The function of a subnet mask is to determine whether an IP address exists on the local network or whether it must be routed outside the local network. It is applied to a messages destination address to extract the network address. If the extracted network address matches the local network ID, the destination is located on the local network.
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Peter Smith

Subnet Mask (Cont.)

However, if they dont match, the message must be routed outside the local network. The process used to apply the subnet mask involves Boolean Algebra to filter out non-matching bits to identify the network address.

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Boolean Algebra

Boolean Algebra is a process that applies binary logic to yield binary results. Working with subnet masks, you need only 4 basic principles of Boolean Algebra: 1 and 1 = 1 1 and 0 = 0 0 and 1 = 0 0 and 0 = 0
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Peter Smith

Boolean Algebra (Cont.)

In another words, the only way you can get a result of a 1 is to combine 1 & 1. Everything else will end up as a 0. The process of combining binary values with Boolean Algebra is called Anding.

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Default Standard Subnet Masks

There are default standard subnet masks for Class A, B and C addresses:

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A Trial Separation
Subnet masks apply only to Class A, B or C IP addresses. The subnet mask is like a filter that is applied to a messages destination IP address. Its objective is to determine if the local network is the destination network.

Peter Smith

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A Trial Separation (Cont.)

1.

The subnet mask goes like this: If a destination IP address is 206.175.162.21, we know that it is a Class C address & that its binary equivalent is:
11001110.10101111.10100010.00010101

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A Trial Separation (Cont.)

2.

We also know that the default standard Class C subnet mask is: 255.255.255.0 and that its binary equivalent is:
11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000

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A Trial Separation (Cont.)

3.

When these two binary numbers (the IP address & the subnet mask) are combined using Boolean Algebra, the Network ID of the destination network is the result:

Peter Smith

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A Trial Separation (Cont.)

4.

The result is the IP address of the network which in this case is the same as the local network & means that the message is for a node on the local network.

Peter Smith

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Routing IP Addresses
When you build a network, you need to figure out how many network Ids your network requires. To do so, you must account for every WAN connection & subnet on the Network. Every node & router interface requires a Host address, or ID.

Peter Smith

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Routing IP Addresses (Cont.)

Theres no hard & fast rule on how you should dole out your allotted IP addresses. Commonly, though, the lowest numbers (1 through 10) are assigned to routers & servers but how you assign addresses is strictly up to you & your network policies & guidelines.

Peter Smith

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Configuring an IP Address
The proper way to configure an IP address on the router is through the IP Address command, which assigns each router interface its unique IP address. A router with 4 interfaces needs 4 separate IP addresses because, technically each interface (& address) is on a different network.

Peter Smith

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Configuring an IP Address
(Cont.)

The IP Address command is entered from the config-if mode because the action affects only that interface. Both the IP address & the subnet mask are defined in the command.

Peter Smith

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Verifying an IP Address
IP addresses are verified using PING, Trace & Telnet. It is important that you know that PING is used to verify IP address connections to the Network Layer & that Telnet is used to verify network IP address connections to the Application Layer.

Peter Smith

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Verifying with Telnet

The reason you need to verify IP addresses is to ensure that the various parts of a network can properly communicate with the other parts. Eg., if you can Telnet (Terminal Emulation Protocol) into a router from a remote location on the same network, you can verify that the interface & route are up and available.

Peter Smith

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Verifying with Telnet (Cont.)

Because Telnet operates on the OSI Models Application Layer, when its functioning, its safe to assume that all lower layers are also functioning.

Peter Smith

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Verifying with PING

The PING (Packet Internet Groper) command verifies OSI Layer 3 (Network Layer) connectivity. It sends out ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) messages to verify both the logical addresses & the Physical connection.

Peter Smith

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Verifying with PING (Cont.)

The PING command issued from a Cisco router responds with a number of single character responses.

Peter Smith

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Verifying with Traceroute

The Traceroute or Trace command is used to show the complete route from a source to a destination. Trace sends out probe packets one at a time to each router or switch in the path between the source & the destination IP address entered.

Peter Smith

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Verifying with Traceroute

(Cont.)

Traceroute displays the round-trip time for each packet sent to each upstream router. Traceroute has really only 2 results:

Time exceeded or Destination unreachable.

Trace is used to determine where a breakdown in a route may be occurring.

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Peter Smith

Verifying with Traceroute

(Cont.)

Example on how Trace is used:

A network has 4 routers (A, B, C & D). A Trace command is issued on router A to trace the route from itself to router D. A timing response comes back from router B, but the next message indicates that router C is unreachable. You can be fairly certain that the problem lies somewhere on the route between router B & router C.

Peter Smith

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Verifying with Traceroute

(Cont.)

Like PING, Trace has its own set of response codes:

Peter Smith

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Subnetting

Peter Smith

Introduction

Subnetting is the foundation underlying the expansion of both Local Networks & the Internet in todays world. Subnetting has become essential knowledge for the Administrator of any network. There are 2 fundamental reasons why subnetting has so much importance in todays networking environment:
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Peter Smith

Introduction (Cont.)
1) The world is running out of available

IP addresses. There just isnt an unlimited number of IP addresses available & subnetting helps extend the existing addresses until either the next version of IP is rolled out or some other technology charges on the scene.
Peter Smith

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Introduction (Cont.)
2) Subnetting reduces the size of the

routing tables stored in routers. Subnetting extends the existing IP address base & restructures the IP address. As a result, routers must have a way to extract from a IP address both the Network address & the Host address.
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Introduction (Cont.)

There are only 3 usable IP address classes: Class A Class B Class C Class A networks have the highest number of available hosts. Class C networks have the fewest number of hosts.
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Peter Smith

Subnetting Networks ID

A 3-step example of how the default Class A subnet mask is applied to a Class A address:

Peter Smith

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Subnetting Networks ID (Cont.)

In the previous slide, the default Class A subnet mask (255.0.0.0) is ANDd with the Class A address (123.123.123.001) using Boolean Algebra, which results in the Network ID (123.0.0.0) being revealed. The default Class B subnet mask (255.255.0.0) strips out the 16-bit network ID & the default Class C subnet mask (255.255.255.0) strips out the 24-bit network ID.

Peter Smith

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Subnetting, Subnet & Subnet Mask

Subnetting, a subnet & a subnet mask are all different. In fact, the 1st creates the 2nd & is identified by the 3rd. Subnetting is the process of dividing a network & its IP addresses into segments, each of which is called a subnetwork or subnet.

Peter Smith

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Subnetting, Subnet & Subnet Mask (Cont.)

The subnet mask is the 32-bit number that the router uses to cover up the network address to show which bits are being used to identify the subnet.

Peter Smith

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Subnetting

A network has its own unique address, such as a Class B network with the address 172.20.0.0 which has all zeroes in the host portion of the address. From the basic definitions of a Class B network & the default Class B subnet mask, you know that this network can be created as a single network that contains 65,534 individual hosts.
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Peter Smith

Subnetting (Cont.)
Through the use of subnetting, the network from the previous slide can be logically divided into subnets with fewer hosts on each subnetwork. It does not improve the available shared bandwidth only, but it cuts down on the amount of broadcast traffic generated over the entire network as well.

Peter Smith

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Subnetting (Cont.)

The 2 primary benefits of subnetting are:

1.

2.

Fewer IP addresses, often as few as one, are needed to provide addressing to a network & subnetting. Subnetting usually results in smaller routing tables in routers beyond the local internetwork.

Peter Smith

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Subnetting (Cont.)

Example of subnetting: when the network administrator divides the 172.20.0.0 network into 5 smaller networks 172.20.1.0, 172.20.2.0, 172.20.3.0, 172.20.4.0 & 172.20.5.0 the outside world stills sees the network as 172.20.0.0, but the internal routers now break the network addressing into the 5 smaller subnetworks.
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Peter Smith

Subnetting (Cont.)

In the example, only a single IP address is used to reference the network & instead of 5 network addresses, only one network reference is included in the routing tables of routers on other networks.

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Borrowing Bits to Grow a Subnet

The key concept in subnetting is borrowing bits from the host portion of the network to create a subnetwork. Rules govern this borrowing, ensuring that some bits are left for a Host ID. The rules require that two bits remain available to use for the Host ID& that all of the subnet bits cannot be all 1s or 0s at the same time.

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Borrowing Bits to Grow a Subnet (Cont.)

For each IP address class, only a certain number of bits can be borrowed from the host portion for use in the subnet mask.

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Borrowing Bits to Grow a Subnet (Cont.)

Bits Available for Creating Subnets
Address Class Host Bits Bits Available for Subnet
22

24

16

14

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Subnetting a Class A Network

The default subnet mask for a class A network is 255.0.0.0 which allows for more than 16,000,000 hosts on a single network. The default subnet mask uses only 8 bits to identify the network, leaving 24 bits for host addressing .

Peter Smith

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Subnetting a Class A Network (Cont.)

To subnet a Class A network, you need to borrow a sufficient number of bits from the 24-bit host portion of the mask to allow for the number of subnets you plan to create, now & in the future. Example: To create 2 subnets with more than 4 millions hosts per subnet, you must borrow 2 bits from the 2nd octet & use 10 masked (value equals one) bits for the subnet mask (11111111.11000000) or 255.192 in decimal.

Peter Smith

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Subnetting a Class A Network (Cont.)

Keep in mind that each of the 8-bit octets has binary place values. When you borrow bits from the Host ID portion of the standard mask, you dont change the value of the bits, only how they are grouped & used.

Peter Smith

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Subnetting a Class A Network (Cont.)

Peter Smith

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Class A Subnet Masks (Cont.)

A sample of subnet mask options available for Class A addresses.

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Class A Subnet Masks (Cont.)

All subnet masks contain 32 bits; no more, no less. However a subnet mask cannot filter more than 30 bits. This means 2 things:

One, that there cannot be more than 30 ones bits in the subnet mask. Two, that there must always be at least 2 bits available for the Host ID.

Peter Smith

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Class A Subnet Masks (Cont.)

The subnet mask with the highest value (255.255.255.252) has a binary representation of: 11111111.11111111.11111111.11111100 The 2 zeroes in this subnet mask represent the 2 positions set aside for the Host address portion of the address.

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Class A Subnet Masks (Cont.)

Remember that the addresses with all ones (broadcast address) & all zeroes (local network) cannot be used as they have special meanings.

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Subnetting Class B & Class C

Peter Smith

The table on slide 76 Class A Subnet Masks is similar to the tables used for Class B & Class C IP addresses & subnet masks. The only differences are that you have fewer options (due to a fewer number of bits available) & that youre much more likely to work with Class B & Class C networks in real life.

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Subnetting Class B & Class C

(Cont.)
A sample of the subnet masks available for Class B networks.

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Subnetting Class B & Class C

(Cont.)
A list of the subnet masks available for Class C networks.

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Knowing How to Calculate Subnets

To determine the number of subnets & hosts per subnet available for any of the available subnet masks, 2 simple formulas to calculate these numbers:

Peter Smith

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Knowing How to Calculate Subnets (Cont.)

Although the 2 formulas look identical, the key is to remember the number youre trying to calculate, hosts or subnets. Eg., suppose you are asked to determine the number of subnets available & the number of hosts available on each subnet on the network 192.168.1.0

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Knowing How to Calculate Subnets (Cont.)

Using the subnet & hosts formulas, the answers are easily calculated. Of course, you must know your powers of 2 to calculate the answers.

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Class C Subnets

Knowing the relationships in this table will significantly reduce the time you spend calculating subnetting problems.

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Class C Subnets (Cont.)

To determine the total length of the subnet mask, add 24 to the number of borrowed (subnet) bits.

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Class B Subnets
To calculate the number of subnets & hosts available from a Class B subnet mask, you use the same host & subnet formulas described for calculating Class C values. Using these formulas I have constructed a table that contains the Class B subnet & host values.

Peter Smith

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Class B Subnets (Cont.)

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A Short Broadcast
A broadcast is a message that every node on a network or subnetwork receives & examines. Cisco IOS supports 2 different types of broadcast messages:

Flooded Directed

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A Short Broadcast (Cont.)

Generally speaking, routers do not propagate broadcasts, which is one of the benefits of installing a router in the first place.

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A Short Broadcast (Cont.)

Flooded broadcasts (those with the nominal broadcast address of 255.255.255.255) are not forwarded by the router & are considered local traffic only. Directed broadcasts, which contain all 1s in the Host portion of the IP address, are addressed to a specific Peter Smith subnetwork & are allowed to pass.

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