Copyright 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B.

Navathe

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Chapter 1
Introduction: Databases and Database Users

Copyright 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe

Outline

Drawbacks of file systems Types of Databases and Database Applications Basic Definitions Typical DBMS Functionality Example of a Database (UNIVERSITY) Main Characteristics of the Database Approach Database Users Advantages of Using the Database Approach When Not to Use Databases
Copyright 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe

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File Processing Systems

Copyright 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe

Drawbacks of file systems

Program-Data Dependence

All programs maintain metadata for each file they use

Data Redundancy (Duplication of data)

Different systems/programs have separate copies of the same data Multiple file formats, duplication of information in different files Requires space, effort and result in loss of data & metadata integrity

Limited Data Sharing

No centralized control of data

Each application has its own private files & users has little chance to share data outside their own applications

Copyright 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe

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Drawbacks of file systems (cont)

Lengthy Development Times

For each new application programmers must design their own file formats & descriptions from scratch

Excessive Program Maintenance

80% of information systems budget

Difficulty in accessing data

Need to write a new program to carry out each new task

Integrity problems

Integrity constraints Hard to add new constraints or change existing ones

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Copyright 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe

The Solution

Unique and centralized administration of data in a given company i.e. database notion A database is a collection of related data It represents some aspects of the real world. It is a logically coherent collection of data. It is designed for specific purpose and intended users. It can be at varying size and complexity It can be generated and maintained manually

What is a Database?

Copyright 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe

Types of Databases and Database Applications

Traditional Applications:

Numeric and Textual Databases

Multimedia Databases Geographic Information Systems (GIS) Data Warehouses Real-time and Active Databases Many other applications

More Recent Applications:

Copyright 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe

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Basic Definitions

Database: A collection of related data. Data: Known facts that can be recorded and have an implicit meaning. Mini-world: Some part of the real world about which data is stored in a database. For example, student grades and transcripts at a university. Database Management System (DBMS): A software package/ system to facilitate the creation and maintenance of a computerized database. Database System: The DBMS software together with the data itself. Sometimes, the applications are also included.
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Copyright 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe

Simplified database system environment

Copyright 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe

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Typical DBMS Functionality

Defining a particular database in terms of its data types, structures, and constraints Constructing or Loading the initial database contents on a secondary storage medium Manipulating the database:

Retrieval: Querying, generating reports Modification: Insertions, deletions and updates to its content Accessing the database through Web applications

Processing and Sharing by a set of concurrent users and application programs yet, keeping all data valid and consistent
Copyright 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe

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Typical DBMS Functionality

Other features:

Protection or Security measures to prevent unauthorized access Active processing to take internal actions on data Presentation and Visualization of data Maintaining the database and associated programs over the lifetime of the database application

Called database, software, and system maintenance

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Copyright 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe

Example of a Database (with a Conceptual Data Model)

Mini-world for the example:

Part of a UNIVERSITY environment.

STUDENTs COURSEs SECTIONs (of COURSEs) (academic) DEPARTMENTs INSTRUCTORs

Some mini-world entities:

Copyright 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe

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Example of a Database (with a Conceptual Data Model)

Some mini-world relationships:

SECTIONs are of specific COURSEs

STUDENTs take SECTIONs COURSEs have prerequisite COURSEs INSTRUCTORs teach SECTIONs COURSEs are offered by DEPARTMENTs

STUDENTs major in DEPARTMENTs

Copyright 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe

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Example of a simple database

Copyright 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe

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Main Characteristics of the Database Approach

Self-describing nature of a database system:

A DBMS catalog stores the description of a particular database (e.g. data structures, types, and constraints) The description is called meta-data. This allows the DBMS software to work with different database applications.
Called program-data independence. Allows changing data structures and storage organization without having to change the DBMS access programs.

Insulation between programs and data:

Copyright 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe

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Example of a simplified database catalog

Copyright 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe

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Main Characteristics of the Database Approach (continued)

Data Abstraction:

A data model is used to hide storage details and present the users with a conceptual view of the database. Programs refer to the data model constructs rather than data storage details
Each user may see a different view of the database, which describes only the data of interest to that user.
Copyright 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe

Support of multiple views of the data:

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Main Characteristics of the Database Approach (continued)

Sharing of data and multi-user transaction processing:

Allowing a set of concurrent users to retrieve from and to update the database. Concurrency control within the DBMS guarantees that each transaction is correctly executed or aborted. Recovery subsystem ensures each completed transaction has its effect permanently recorded in the database OLTP (Online Transaction Processing) is a major part of database applications. This allows hundreds of concurrent transactions to execute per second.
Copyright 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe

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Database Users

Users may be divided into:

Those who actually use and control the database content, and those who design, develop and maintain database applications (called Actors on the Scene), and
Those who design and develop the DBMS software and related tools, and the computer systems operators (called Workers Behind the Scene).

Copyright 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe

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Database Users

Actors on the scene

Database administrators:

Responsible for authorizing access to the database, for coordinating and monitoring its use, acquiring software and hardware resources, controlling its use and monitoring efficiency of operations. Responsible to define the content, the structure, the constraints, and functions or transactions against the database. They must communicate with the end-users and understand their needs.
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Database Designers:

Copyright 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe

Categories of End-users

Actors on the scene (continued)

End-users: They use the data for queries, reports and some of them update the database content. End-users can be categorized into:

Casual: access database occasionally when needed Nave or Parametric: they make up a large section of the end-user population.

They use previously well-defined functions in the form of canned transactions against the database. Examples are bank-tellers or reservation clerks who do this activity for an entire shift of operations.

Copyright 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe

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Categories of End-users (continued)

Sophisticated:

These include business analysts, scientists, engineers, others thoroughly familiar with the system capabilities. Many use tools in the form of software packages that work closely with the stored database.
Mostly maintain personal databases using ready-to-use packaged applications. An example is a tax program user that creates its own internal database. Another example is a user that maintains an address book

Stand-alone:

Copyright 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe

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Advantages of Using the Database Approach

Controlling redundancy in data storage and in development and maintenance efforts.

Sharing of data among multiple users.

Restricting unauthorized access to data. Providing persistent storage for program Objects

Providing Storage Structures (e.g. indexes) for efficient Query Processing

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Copyright 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe

Advantages of Using the Database Approach (continued)

Providing backup and recovery services. Providing multiple interfaces to different classes of users. Representing complex relationships among data. Enforcing integrity constraints on the database.

Copyright 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe

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Additional Implications of Using the Database Approach

Potential for enforcing standards:

This is very crucial for the success of database applications in large organizations. Standards refer to data item names, display formats, screens, report structures, meta-data (description of data), Web page layouts, etc.
Incremental time to add each new application is reduced.

Reduced application development time:

Copyright 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe

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Additional Implications of Using the Database Approach (continued)

Flexibility to change data structures:

Database structure may evolve as new requirements are defined. Extremely important for on-line transaction systems such as airline, hotel, car reservations. Wasteful overlap of resources and personnel can be avoided by consolidating data and applications across departments.
Copyright 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe

Availability of current information:

Economies of scale:

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Historical Development of Database Technology

Early Database Applications:

The Hierarchical and Network Models were introduced in mid 1960s and dominated during the seventies. A bulk of the worldwide database processing still occurs using these models, particularly, the hierarchical model.
Relational model was originally introduced in 1970, was heavily researched and experimented within IBM Research and several universities. Relational DBMS Products emerged in the early 1980s.

Relational Model based Systems:

Copyright 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe

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Historical Development of Database Technology (continued)

Object-oriented and emerging applications:

Object-Oriented Database Management Systems (OODBMSs) were introduced in late 1980s and early 1990s to cater to the need of complex data processing in CAD and other applications.

Their use has not taken off much.

Many relational DBMSs have incorporated object database concepts, leading to a new category called object-relational DBMSs (ORDBMSs) Extended relational systems add further capabilities (e.g. for multimedia data, XML, and other data types)

Copyright 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe

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Historical Development of Database Technology (continued)

Data on the Web and E-commerce Applications:

Web contains data in HTML (Hypertext markup language) with links among pages. This has given rise to a new set of applications and E-commerce is using new standards like XML (eXtended Markup Language). (see Ch. 27). Script programming languages such as PHP and JavaScript allow generation of dynamic Web pages that are partially generated from a database (see Ch. 26).

Also allow database updates through Web pages

Copyright 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe

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Extending Database Capabilities

New functionality is being added to DBMSs in the following areas: Scientific Applications XML (eXtensible Markup Language) Image Storage and Management Audio and Video Data Management Data Warehousing and Data Mining Time Series and Historical Data Management The above gives rise to new research and development in incorporating new data types, complex data structures, new operations and storage and indexing schemes in database systems.

Copyright 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe

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When not to use a DBMS

Main inhibitors (costs) of using a DBMS:

High initial investment and possible need for additional hardware. Overhead for providing generality, security, concurrency control, recovery, and integrity functions.
If the database and applications are simple, well defined, and not expected to change. If there are stringent real-time requirements that may not be met because of DBMS overhead. If access to data by multiple users is not required.

When a DBMS may be unnecessary:

Copyright 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe

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When not to use a DBMS

When no DBMS may suffice:

If the database system is not able to handle the complexity of data because of modeling limitations If the database users need special operations not supported by the DBMS.

Copyright 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe

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Summary

Types of Databases and Database Applications Basic Definitions Typical DBMS Functionality Example of a Database (UNIVERSITY) Main Characteristics of the Database Approach Database Users Advantages of Using the Database Approach When Not to Use Databases

Copyright 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe

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