5

The periodic table organizes elements by patterns in properties and atomic structure.

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At night, signs created from tubes of neon gas light up the streets. One of the properties of the element neon is that it is a gas at room temperature. Another property of neon gas is that it glows when an electric current passes through it.

Skills You Will Use

In this chapter, you will: conduct investigations into the physical and chemical properties of elements assess social, environmental, and economic impacts of the use of elements, such as heavy metals

Concepts You Will Learn

In this chapter, you will: explain how experimental evidence has been used to develop models of the atom describe characteristics of neutrons, protons, and electrons describe physical and chemical properties of common elements compare physical properties of elements within and between groups in the periodic table explain the relationship between atomic structure and the arrangement of elements in the periodic table describe patterns in the arrangements of electrons in atoms of different elements

Why It Is Important
All of the substances that make up our world and ourselves are composed of elements or combinations of elements. Understanding the properties of elements helps us to obtain, produce, and use substances responsibly and effectively.

Before Reading
Monitoring Understanding
Good readers keep track of places where their understanding of new words or ideas breaks down, and they use strategies to fix up their understanding. Preview the Key Terms below and the subheadings for section 5.1. Make predictions about places where you may have difficulty understanding the ideas.

Key Terms
atom electron metal metalloid neutron non-metals nucleus proton

The periodic table organizes elements by patterns in properties and atomic structure.

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5.1

Developing the Atomic Theory

Here is a summary of what you will learn in this section:

An element is a pure substance that cannot be broken down into other substances by chemical reactions. The smallest piece of any element having all of that elements properties is one atom. Different models of the atom have evolved over time as experiments have revealed new information. Atoms are composed of subatomic particles: negatively charged electrons, positively charged protons, and neutrons, which have no electric charge.

Figure 5.1 Copper and iron are both metals and are both made of tiny particles. However, the particles in copper are different from the particles in iron.

Science, Art, and Atoms

Recent advances in technology have made it possible to make images of individual particles and even to pick up the particles and move them around. Some artists who are also scientists have used individual particles to create the tiniest works of art in existence, such as the Chinese characters shown in Figure 5.2. This artwork is much too small to ever be seen with the unaided eye. About 100 000 copies laid end to end would be needed to cover the distance across the diameter of a human hair. Both Figures 5.1 and 5.2 show artwork made from two different metals iron and copper. The Chinese characters in Figure 5.2 are made from particles of iron, and the background is made of copper particles. The individual particles of each element, called atoms, are visible as small bumps in the image. An atom is the smallest part of an element that has all of the elements properties. Creative scientists and artists are finding new ways to put atoms together. Atoms of copper are not the same as atoms of iron. This is why a piece of copper metal has different properties than a piece of iron metal. Irons strength is useful to artists because it can be used to support heavy weights. Copper has an attractive colour and lustre, and its malleability makes it easy to work with.

Figure 5.2 Made of individual iron atoms on a base of copper atoms, this is an enlargement of one of the smallest pieces of art. The characters mean atom in Chinese.

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B10 Quick Lab

Calcium Metal in Water
Like copper and iron, the element calcium is a metal. However, calcium is easy to tell apart from metals like copper and iron. 2. Dry your hands well. Your teacher will give you a few pieces of calcium metal on a paper towel. Use forceps to drop a piece of calcium metal into the water. Adjust the position of the test tube so that the mouth of the test tube covers the calcium metal. Observe what happens. 3. Light a wooden splint. 4. Use clamps or tongs to lift the test tube out of the water without turning it upright. Place the flaming splint under the mouth of the test tube, and observe what happens. 5. Repeat step 1 with a clean beaker. Add five drops of phenolphthalein to the water in the beaker, and then repeat steps 2 through 4. 6. Clean up your work area. Follow your teachers instructions to safely dispose of all materials used. Wash your hands thoroughly.

Purpose
To observe how calcium metal reacts with water

Materials & Equipment

two 400-mL beakers 2 medium test tubes 2 rubber stoppers water pieces of calcium metal candle and matches or lighter wooden splints test-tube clamp or tongs phenolphthalein indicator solution paper towel forceps CAUTION: Keep your hair tied back when working near open flames. Do not touch calcium metal with your bare hands as the metal will react with moisture in your skin. medicine dropper

Questions
7. Why is it important to keep the test tube upside down after removing it from over the piece of calcium metal? 8. The gas produced in this experiment was hydrogen gas. Briefly describe the procedure for testing for hydrogen gas. 9. How does the phenolphthalein indicator solution respond when calcium reacts with water?

Procedure
1. Fill a beaker with about 300 mL of water. Completely fill a test tube with water. Place a rubber stopper over the opening of the test tube, then place the test tube upside down in the beaker. Reach into the water, and remove the rubber stopper. Try not to let any air into the test tube.

The periodic table organizes elements by patterns in properties and atomic structure.

169

Evolving Models of the Atom

W O R D S M AT T E R

We get the modern term atom from the Greek atomos, meaning indivisible.

Different kinds of atoms give elements different properties. Atomic theory is the study of the nature of atoms and how they combine to form all types of matter. Atomic theory helps us to understand why there are different kinds of atoms. It explains how atoms combine to form over 100 known elements and all other forms of matter, including compounds and mixtures. The idea that most of the matter we encounter is made from combinations of simple forms of matter is very ancient. The philosophers of ancient Greece reasoned that the basic forms of matter, which they called elements, were fire, water, earth, and air. In ancient China, the elements were thought to be fire, water, wood, metal, and earth (Figure 5.3). Ancient civilizations used these and similar ideas as the basis for understanding the world and practising medicine. Today, we still use the term element, though in a different way. For example, we still believe that most substances are built up from simpler ones. About 440 B.C.E., the Greek philosopher Democritus hypothesized that breaking down rock into powder and then grinding the powder further would reduce it to tiny bits of matter that could not be broken down any more. His idea was not popular and, at the time, there was no experimental evidence to support it.

Figure 5.3 An ancient Chinese idea about matter is that it is formed from five elements that interact in particular ways. 170
UNIT B Atoms, Elements, and Compounds

Atomic Theory Takes Shape

Atomic theory is rooted in the idea that an understanding of atoms and their structure can help us predict many of the properties of matter. Modern atomic theory began to take shape in the early 1800s. It was then that John Dalton (17661844), a scientist and teacher in England, reconsidered the ancient idea that each different kind of element is composed of a different kind of atom (Figure 5.4). Dalton imagined that all atoms were like small spheres but that they could have different properties. They might vary in size, mass, or colour. Figure 5.5 shows how Dalton imagined atoms would look. Dalton used the following theory to explain the nature of matter: All matter is made of small, indivisible particles called atoms. All the atoms of an element are identical in properties such as size and mass. Atoms of different elements have different properties. Atoms of different elements can combine in specific ways to form new substances. Dalton also devised a series of element symbols to represent the atoms of different elements. These symbols are shown in his Table of Elements from 1808 (Figure 5.6). The small round symbols were meant to resemble atoms.
Suggested STSE Activity
B11 Quick Lab on page 176

Figure 5.4 Science teacher and researcher John Dalton

Figure 5.5 John Dalton suggested that atoms were like small spheres. Each element, he proposed, had a unique type of atom with a particular mass.

Figure 5.6 John Dalton devised a set of element symbols to improve communication between scientists.

The periodic table organizes elements by patterns in properties and atomic structure.

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During Reading
Fixing Up Understanding Using Illustrations
Make a note of the sentences or paragraphs that you do not understand. Look at the figures on that page and the pages before and after it. Reread each sentence or paragraph, and connect the words and ideas to the illustrations. How do the illustrations help you to understand the words?

Atoms Are Composed of Smaller Particles

J. J. Thomson (18561940), an English physicist, researched the idea that atoms might be made from a combination of particles. He experimented with electric currents in glass tubes called cathode ray tubes (Figure 5.7). Using the tubes, he was able to cause non-radioactive atoms to produce streams of negatively charged particles, later named electrons. Figure 5.8 shows how the cathode Figure 5.7 J.J. Thomson used a simple cathode ray ray tube worked. tube like this one.

electricity source

Figure 5.8 In a cathode ray tube,

the heated metal at one end of the gas-filled tube sends out a stream of electrons.

magnet

electrical condenser plates

Figure 5.9 Thomsons model of the

atom.

Electrons are now understood to be negatively charged particles in atoms. Because all of the elements that Thomson tested in his cathode ray tube produced electrons, he reasoned that atoms of all elements must contain electrons. In 1897, Thomson proposed a revolutionary new model for atoms, in which each atom was composed of smaller particles. Because Thomson had detected negatively charged particles, he reasoned that atoms, which have no overall electric charge, must also contain positive charges. A diagram of Thomsons model is shown in Figure 5.9. It depicts the atom as a positive sphere with negative electrons scattered throughout it.

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The Discovery of the Atomic Nucleus

New Zealand-born scientist Ernest Rutherford (18911937) tested Thomsons model of the atom while working in England. Rutherford conducted an experiment in which he shot positively charged particles at a very thin foil of pure gold. Rutherford obtained the stream of positive particles from a radioactive substance, which he placed in a lead block with a tiny hole. Out of the hole escaped a stream of these particles, which Rutherford directed at the gold foil. In the experiment, as shown in Figure 5.10, most of the highspeed positive particles went right through the foil. However, about 1 in 10 000 positive particles bounced back from the foil as if it had been deflected by something very massive and positively charged. Rutherford had discovered the nucleus, the centre of the atom. This tiny positively charged part of the atom also contains most of the atoms mass. He calculated that the size of the nucleus compared to the rest of the atom was like the size of a single green pea compared to that of an entire football field!
Figure 5.10 (a) Rutherford predicted that if nothing blocked the way of high-speed particles shot at a piece of gold foil, then all the particles would pass through the foil. (b) The data showed that something massive blocked a few of the particles. (c) Rutherford revised the atomic model to include the nucleus.

high-speed particles

high-speed particles nucleus

gold foil (a) prediction (b) evidence

gold foil (c) new model

atom

Based on his gold foil experiment, Rutherford revised the atomic model using his prediction that all atoms everywhere contain a nucleus (Figure 5.11). His model was like Thomsons except that all of the atoms positive charge and most of the atoms mass were concentrated at a tiny point in the centre. The electrons surrounded the nucleus and occupied most of the atoms volume, but they contained only a small fraction of the atoms total mass.
Inside the Nucleus James Chadwick (18911974), Rutherfords student, refined the concept of the nucleus. Chadwick discovered that the nucleus contains neutral particles as well as positively charged particles. The neutral particles in the nucleus of the atom are called neutrons. The positively charged particles in the atom are called protons. Each neutron in an atom has about the same mass as each proton in the same atom, but the neutron carries no electrical charge.

Figure 5.11 Rutherfords model depicted the atom as a tiny yet massive point of positive charge surrounded by electrons.

The periodic table organizes elements by patterns in properties and atomic structure.

173

Electrons Exist in Energy Levels

Danish physicist Niels Bohr (18851962) studied the properties of electrons in atoms and, along with other researchers, transformed Rutherfords model into one of the models that are used today (Figure 5.12). A simplified version of this model that shows how electrons are arranged in the elements hydrogen and magnesium is given in Figure 5.13. Although some of the features shown here, such as the pairing up of electrons, were discovered after Bohr did his work, this kind of illustration has come to be known as a Bohr model, or Bohr diagram.

Figure 5.12 Niels Bohr was only 28

electron nucleus

when he proposed his theory of the atom. In 1922, he won the Nobel Prize in physics.
nucleus

electron

hydrogen atom magnesium atom

electron shells

Figure 5.13 Bohr diagrams like the ones shown here for hydrogen and magnesium are often used to show the arrangement of electrons in atoms.

cloud of electrons

nucleus

Bohr suggested that electrons surround the nucleus in specific energy levels, called shells. He discovered that electrons jump between these shells by gaining or losing energy. Each shell can contain only a specific number of electrons. The maximum number of electrons that can exist in each of the first three shells is two, eight, and eight. Many people still use this model to describe the particles that make up the atom.

The Quantum Mechanical Model

The most advanced and accurate model of the atom, and the one in use today by physicists and chemists, is called the quantum mechanical model (Figure 5.14). In this model, electrons do not exist as tiny points inside an atom. Electrons exist in specific energy levels, but they surround the positively charged nucleus in a form resembling a cloud.

Figure 5.14 The quantum mechanical model of an atom describes a cloud of electrons surrounding the nucleus.

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Learning Checkpoint
1. (a) What is similar about the ancient and modern definitions of elements? (b) What is different about the ancient and modern definitions of elements? 2. What evidence led J.J. Thomson to believe that atoms of all elements contain electrons? 3. On what information did J.J. Thomson base his hypothesis that atoms contain positive particles? 4. Describe the experiment that showed that the atom has a dense, positively charged nucleus. 5. Describe three ways in which protons are different from electrons. 6. What are three features of a Bohr diagram?

Take It Further
Modern understanding of the properties of matter is built on the inquiries of many different people from around the world working over the ages. The alchemists, for example, were people who tried to use magic and chemical changes to turn various substances into gold. In 1597, the German alchemist Andreas Libau published Alchemia, a book describing the achievements of alchemists. In it, Libau explained how to prepare chemicals such as hydrochloric acid. Find out what else the alchemists discovered. Go to ScienceSource to start your search.

A Summary of the Atom

All elements are composed of atoms, and one atom is the smallest unit of any element. Although there are more than 100 different elements, each with its own kind of atoms, the atoms themselves are made of different kinds of smaller particles, called subatomic particles. Three subatomic particles are protons, neutrons, and electrons, and they have different properties. One such property is relative mass. Relative mass compares the mass of an object to the mass of another object. An electron is the least massive subatomic particle of the three subatomic particles, so it is assigned a relative mass of 1. Compared to it, a proton has a relative mass of 1836, meaning that it is 1836 times heavier than an electron. Compared to an electron, a neutron is 1837 times heavier. This property of the particles is summarized in Table 5.1, along with electric charge and location within the atom.
Table 5.1 Properties of Subatomic Particles
Name Proton Neutron Electron Symbol p n e Relative Mass 1836 1837 1 Electric Charge 1+ 0 1 Location nucleus nucleus in energy levels surrounding the nucleus

The periodic table organizes elements by patterns in properties and atomic structure.

175

B11

STSE Quick Lab

Developing the Atomic Theory

It takes many scientists exploring different possibilities to develop a theory. The atomic theory took shape only after many debates, novel ideas, and experiments. Even today, scientists are making discoveries that will add to our understanding of the atom.

Questions
3. Web 2.0 Summarize your findings as a Wiki, a slide presentation, a video, or a podcast, and present them to the class. For support, go to ScienceSource. 4. How did your scientists contributions alter the previous model of the atom? 5. How were your scientists ideas revised once further research was done? 6. Do you think todays atomic model will be changed in future? Why or why not? 7. Why are collaboration and communication between scientists necessary? 8. Ultimately, who do you think should get credit for the current atomic theory? Justify your response.

Purpose
To learn about the contribution of particular scientists to atomic theory

Procedure
1. Choose a scientist to research from the timeline shown in Figure 5.15 below. 2. ScienceSource Find information from two sources on the scientist that you have decided to research. Focus on one way that the scientists work has shaped our understanding of the atom. Find out about at least one challenge that the scientist had to overcome.

410 B.C.E.
Democritus Aristotle

1600s C.E.
Robert Boyle Isaac Newton

1700s C.E.
Joseph Priestly Antoine Lavoisier Joseph Louis Proust

1800s C.E.
John Dalton Michael Faraday Jns Berzelius Dmitri Mendeleev William Crookes Henry Moseley J.J. Thomson

1900s C.E.
Hantaro Nagaoka Hans Geiger Ernest Rutherford Harriet Brooks Henri Becquerel Marie Curie Niels Bohr Max Planck James Chadwick Werner Heisenberg Louis de Broglie Richard Feynman Murray Gell-Mann Gerd Binning Heinrich Rohrer

Figure 5.15 Timeline of contributors to the atomic theory

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5.1

CHECK and REFLECT

11. Use the following Bohr diagram of a fluorine atom to complete this question.

Key Concept Review

1. How are atoms and elements related? 2. In your notebook, redraw and complete the following table.
Subatomic Particles
Particle Proton Electron Neutron Charge Location in Atom

Question 11

(a) How many electrons does a fluorine atom have? (b) How many protons does a fluorine atom have? 12. Create a flowchart that shows the atomic model at its different stages of development. Your flowchart should include: drawings of the different versions of the atomic model the names of the scientists who contributed to each version of the atomic model labels to show how past versions of the atomic model are different from todays model 13. (a) Why do you think it took so long for people to accept the concept of atoms? (b) Describe a discovery or experiment that would have made it easier for people to believe in atoms.

3. How does J. J. Thomsons atomic model differ from the model depicted by a Bohr diagram? 4. What particles make up a cathode ray? 5. A statement is missing from the atomic theory given below. What is missing? Atoms of different elements have different properties. All matter is made of small, indivisible particles called atoms. Atoms of different elements can combine in specific ways to form new substances.

Connect Your Understanding

6. Atoms contain electrons, which are negatively charged. Why are atoms electrically neutral? 7. Why do you think John Dalton used the Greek word for indivisible to describe atoms? 8. List two ways in which atoms of different elements are different from one another. 9. J. J. Thomsons discovery about electrons was an important step in the development of the atomic theory. Explain why. 10. History shows that many scientists make important discoveries while they are still students. Use one or more examples from this chapter to illustrate this point.

Reflection
14. Consider an element that is important in your life for example, the element that makes up your watch or ring. How have your ideas about the composition of this element changed since completing this section? For more questions, go to ScienceSource.

The periodic table organizes elements by patterns in properties and atomic structure.

177

5.2

The Elements

Here is a summary of what you will learn in this section:

All elements can be classified as metals, non-metals, or metalloids based on their properties. Each element can be identified by its name or symbol, which consists of one or two letters.

Figure 5.16 Many elements have properties that make them well-suited for use in jewellery.

The Elements We Wear

Jewellery is very personal. Some people never wear it. Others wear it all the time. Sometimes, as in Figure 5.16, people wear it for special occasions. Jewellery often carries special meanings for the wearer and for others who see it. For example, the element gold is considered a precious metal. Gold is not only rare but also has a deep yellow colour and resists corrosion. These properties make gold both attractive and long lasting. Gold rings, for instance, will not corrode when people wash their hands. Because it is one of the least reactive metals, gold does not usually irritate human tissues. For some people, gold is the only metal that can be worn for long periods without causing discomfort.

Metal Elements and Alloys

Gold is soft and has a low melting point. This means it can be poured into a mould and made into a wide variety of shapes. Solid gold can be pulled, flattened, and bent without breaking it. This allows it to be used in intricate ways. However, when used as a ring or to hold a gemstone in place, golds softness becomes a problem. To make gold jewellery stronger, gold is mixed with other metal elements, such as silver (Figure 5.17). A mixture of two or more metals is called an alloy. An alloy of gold and silver is sometimes called white gold because is a lighter

Figure 5.17 These pieces of jewellery are made from pure gold and a mixture of gold and other metals.

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colour than pure gold. White gold is often used in engagement rings and wedding bands to give them strength and durability. An understanding of the elements and how they combine has led to the invention and mass production of a wide range of alloys. Alloys are not only used in jewellery but also in magnets, sports equipment, vehicles, and many household items.
DI Key Activity

B12 Quick Lab

Meet the Elements
Like the early chemists, you will examine various elements and observe their different properties. You will then look for patterns that you can use to group these elements.

Procedure
1. Create an observation table in your notebook with the following column headings: Element, Symbol, State, Appearance, Hardness, Magnetism, Electrical Conductivity. Give your table a title. 2. Your teacher will tell you how many element samples to observe. They may be examined in any order. Each time you examine an element, record its name and symbol in your table. 3. Examine each element, and record your observations of its properties in your table. Use the following guidelines to help you: State: Is it a solid, a liquid, or a gas at room temperature? Appearance: Describe its colour, lustre, opacity, and texture. Hardness: Is it easily scratched? Magnetism: Is it magnetic? Electrical Conductivity: Is it conductive?

Purpose
To become familiar with a variety of different elements and to compare their properties

Materials & Equipment

samples of elements (such as aluminum, carbon, copper, iodine , magnesium , silver, sulphur , or zinc ) magnet low-voltage conductivity tester hand magnifying lens

CAUTION: Follow your teachers directions about handling each element. Some are too reactive or toxic to touch. If a container is sealed, do not open it.

Questions
4. What similarities are there among most of the elements that conduct electricity? Do any of these elements have different properties from the other conductive elements? Explain. 5. Are all conductive elements that you observed also magnetic? 6. Given that copper is a metallic element, classify each of the elements that you observed as either metallic or non-metallic.

Figure 5.18 Pure iodine is a solid, shiny, deep purple coloured crystal.

The periodic table organizes elements by patterns in properties and atomic structure.

179

Elements and Their Symbols

Approximately 90 elements occur naturally on Earth, and in recent years, chemists have made more than 25 new elements. Based on their properties, all the elements can be divided into three classes: metals, non-metals, and metalloids.

Metals
Most of the elements are metals. Of the metals, most are shiny and silver or grey in colour. They are all excellent conductors of electricity and heat. They are also malleable and ductile. As described in Chapter 4, a malleable substance can be beaten into sheets, and a ductile substance can be stretched into long wires. Silver is an example of a metal (Figure 5.19). Pure, polished silver has an attractive, almost white appearance. It can be moulded and shaped easily and is often used to make jewellery or special table cutlery. It is also one of the best conductors of electricity. Some metals, such as sodium, react explosively with water. Others, such as platinum, will not react even if mixed with strong acids. Mercury metal is unique in that it is a liquid at room temperature.

Figure 5.19 Silver metal is used in jewellery, coins, and table cutlery, which is sometimes called silverware.

Suggested Activity
B14 Quick Lab on page 186

Non-Metals
Only 17 elements are non-metals. They are grouped together mainly because they do not resemble metals. For example, 11 of the non-metals are gases at room temperature, 5 are solids, and 1, bromine, is a red-brown liquid (Figure 5.20). Sulphur is an example of a solid non-metal (Figure 5.21). It is brittle and will crumble if struck. It does not conduct electricity and is not shiny. It is reactive and will burn in air to produce a poisonous gas. With a little heating, it will melt into a liquid.

Figure 5.20 The element bromine is a red-brown liquid at room temperature. Pure bromine is very reactive and toxic.

Figure 5.21 The element sulphur is a yellow solid.

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Metalloids
The remaining elements are metalloids. The metalloids are elements with metallic and non-metallic properties. Metalloids conduct electricity but not very well, and so they are called semiconductors. It is easier to control the flow of electricity through semiconductors than through conductors. For this reason, metalloids are often used as semiconductors in electronic devices, such as computers. Silicon is the most common metalloid. Pure silicon is shiny and grey, but unlike a metal, it is brittle (Figure 5.22). Although pure silicon is rare in nature, in combination with other elements it makes up sand and other many other compounds. The microscopic structures shown in Figure 5.23 are made from a silicon compound. About 40 percent of the mass of almost any rock comes from silicon. It is also a major component of glass.

Figure 5.22 Pieces of pure silicon

Figure 5.23 These microscopic structures, called silicon nanoflowers, contain wires that could be used in tiny electronic devices. Each flower is about 0.005 mm long.

Element Symbols
Each language has its own name for each of the elements, and so to help with communication, chemists worldwide have agreed to use the same set of symbols for the elements. The symbols are all taken from the Roman alphabet, which is the same alphabet used for English. For example, sulphurs symbol is S and carbons symbol is C. The names of the elements silicon and silver, like sulphur, begin with the letter s. In fact, they both begin with si. To tell them apart, silicon was given the symbol Si. Silver, which has the Latin name argentum, was given the symbol Ag. Table 5.2 on the next page lists some of the elements names and symbols. An element symbol consists of one or two letters. The first letter is always capitalized. If there is a second letter, it is not capitalized. These rules about capitalization are very important. For example, the symbol Co stands for the metal element cobalt, while CO represents a poisonous compound made up of carbon (C) and oxygen (O) produced in car exhaust.
The periodic table organizes elements by patterns in properties and atomic structure.

181

During Reading
Understanding Chart Features
Charts or tables are organized in columns and rows. Good readers read down the columns and across the rows, and check for other organizational features. Note the three rows where only the first column has an entry. Non-Metals, Metalloids, and Metals are subheadings, indicating that information is divided into three subcategories in this chart.

Table 5.2 Selected Element Names and Symbols

English Name Non-Metals hydrogen helium neon argon fluorine chlorine bromine iodine oxygen phosphorus carbon Metalloids silicon germanium Metals lithium sodium potassium rubidium magnesium calcium Li Na K Rb Mg Ca Cr Fe Ni Cu Ag Au Hg Pb Si Ge H He Ne Ar F Cl Br Symbol Non-English Name and Meaning

Hydro genes water generating Helios the Sun Neos new Argos inactive or idle Fluere flowing Chloros yellow-green Bromos pungent odour

I
O P C

Iodes violet
Oxy genes acid forming Phosphoros light bringer Carbo charcoal

Silex flint Germania Germany

Lithos stone Natrium Latin name for soda ash Kalium Latin name for potash Rubidius ruby-red
Magnesia a location in Greece

Calx limestone Chroma colour Ferrum ancient Latin name Kupfernickel devils copper Cuprum Cyprus Argentum ancient Latin name Aurum glow of sunrise Hydragyrum liquid silver Plumbum ancient Latin name

W O R D S M AT T E R

Titanium (Ti) is a strong yet light metal element. It is named for the Titans, powerful gods of Greek mythology.

chromium iron nickel copper silver gold mercury lead

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Learning Checkpoint
1. What makes mercury different from other metal elements? 2. Give an example of a metal element with the following properties. (a) It conducts heat and electricity. (b) It is shiny. (c) It reacts explosively with water. 3. (a) Compare and contrast the properties of silver, sulphur, and silicon. (b) How are these elements classified? 4. Give the symbols for the following elements. (a) nitrogen (b) nickel (c) lead

5. How can the meaning of the Latin name for gold help you to remember its element symbol?

Some Common Elements

Human history has long been influenced by the availability of certain elements. Iron, for example, occurs mainly in Earths surface as iron ores, minerals that contain iron. The Iron Age began several thousand years ago, when technologies to obtain iron from iron ore became widespread. When another element, carbon, was added to iron, steel was formed. Two other elements, hydrogen and oxygen, can combine to make water, a pure substance vital to living organisms. Another two elements, sodium and chlorine, can combine in another pure substance that rivals water in importance: table salt. Without either water or salt, life as we know it could not survive.

Iron (Fe)
Iron is quite common, and once separated from ore, it can be used for a wide range of items. Iron is very strong, and when combined with carbon to make steel, it is even stronger (Figure 5.24). Another advantage of steel is that it can be made fairly resistant to corrosion. In contrast, plain iron corrodes easily in moist air, forming an orange compound known as rust. Like most metals, iron is silver-grey and can be molded and shaped when heated. It is hard enough to keep a sharp edge, a property that people have used for centuries in order to make tools and household items.

Figure 5.24 Iron is very strong and somewhat flexible. These properties make it useful for building bridges and other structures.

The periodic table organizes elements by patterns in properties and atomic structure.

183

Carbon (C)
Carbon exists in several forms, including graphite and diamond (Figure 5.25). Both diamonds and graphite form underground as the remains of organisms become compressed. Coal, a form of graphite, is a black solid made mostly of carbon. Around the world, coal is mined and burned to produce heat, mainly for generating electricity. Burning coal produces air pollution and is a major contributor of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere. These gases can affect our climate. Another form of graphite is used for pencil leads. Diamond is also pure carbon. However, in diamond the carbon atoms are connected differently than they are in graphite. Diamond is the hardest natural substance known, yet light can easily pass through it. These properties make it a prized gemstone. Carbon is also one of the main building blocks of life. Your body and the food you eat contain many different carbon compounds.

Figure 5.25 Diamonds are found in a rock called kimberlite. Extremely high temperatures and pressures are needed for diamonds to form.

Hydrogen (H)
Hydrogen is the most common element in the universe. It makes up most of the atoms in stars as well as large planets like Jupiter and Saturn. Hydrogen atoms are the simplest and lightest of all atoms. The atoms of all other elements can be thought of as combinations of hydrogen atoms. At the centre of stars, including our own Sun, hydrogen atoms combine to form atoms of other elements. On Earth, almost all of the hydrogen that is present is in water. Pure hydrogen gas is colourless, odourless, and lighter than air. Its low density means it can be used in weather balloons (Figure 5.26). It is also extremely flammable, which is why it is not often used in balloons that carry people.
Figure 5.26 A hydrogen-filled weather balloon

Oxygen (O)
Pure oxygen is a gas at room temperature. It makes up about 21 percent of the air we breathe, and our bodies need a constant supply of oxygen to survive (Figure 5.27). Just as pure carbon can exist in more than one form, so can pure oxygen. The oxygen gas that we breathe is in the form of two oxygen atoms connected together. This form is simply called oxygen gas. Most of the oxygen gas in Earths atmosphere comes from plants and algae, which produce oxygen while using sunlight to make sugar. Ozone is a form of pure oxygen in which three oxygen atoms are connected together. Ozone is toxic to breathe, and when it occurs close to the ground it is a pollutant (Figure 5.28). However, in the upper atmosphere, ozone forms a layer that

Figure 5.27 This person is using an oxygen tank to help her breathe more easily. 184
UNIT B

Atoms, Elements, and Compounds

absorbs harmful ultraviolet light. Without the ozone layer, ultraviolet light would kill much of life on Earth. Oxygen is the most common element on Earths surface. Oxygen makes up more than 50 percent of the mass of most rocks, in which it is combined with the element silicon. When certain kinds of rocks are ground up, they become sand, which can melt and reharden to form glass. Most of the atoms in glass are oxygen atoms.

Take It Further
Find out about the newest elements to have been discovered or named in the past few years, and present your findings in a movie poster. Begin your search at ScienceSource.

Figure 5.28 A leaf damaged by ground-level ozone

Sodium (Na)
Sodium is a metal, and so it shares many properties with iron. Both conduct electricity and are shiny, silver-grey, malleable, and ductile. However, they also have distinct differences. Iron reacts slowly in moisture to form rust. In contrast, sodium metal reacts immediately and violently if it contacts either air or water (Figure 5.29). Pure sodium metal is usually stored in oil, where it can remain without reacting for a long time. Sodium metal is so soft that a knife easily cuts right through it. Sodium also melts quite easily as it has a melting point of 98C, two degrees lower than the boiling point of water. These properties may seem unfamiliar because sodium most commonly exists in compounds such as table salt, which it forms with the element chlorine.

Figure 5.29 Sodium metal burns in air.

Chlorine (Cl)
Chlorine, a non-metal, is a yellow-green gas at room temperature (Figure 5.30). High concentrations of chlorine gas are toxic and will quickly destroy lung tissue. At lower concentrations, chlorine is extremely useful as a disinfectant. It is added to swimming pools and community water supplies in order to kill bacteria and other organisms that spread disease.

Figure 5.30 Used in the correct concentrations, chlorine will purify community water supplies. 185

The periodic table organizes elements by patterns in properties and atomic structure.

B13 Skill Builder Activity

Using a Dissecting Microscope
A dissecting microscope is a type of compound light microscope used to view small objects. You will examine a leaf with the dissecting microscope in order to practise your microscopy skills. 1. Carry the microscope with two hands. Place it on the lab bench, and remove its cover. Plug it in, and turn it on. 2. Rotate the nosepiece so that the objective lens with the lowest magnifying power is in place. 3. Place a leaf on the stage. While watching from the side, use the coarse adjustment knob to bring the stage and objective lens as close as possible without the lens touching the leaf. 4. While looking through the ocular lenses of the microsope, use the fine adjustment knob to focus on the leaf. Focus in and out to see what happens to the image of the leaf.

B14 Quick Lab

Growing Silver
A crystal is a solid with atoms that are arranged in a very regular way. Some crystals, such as salt crystals, contain two or more types of elements. Other crystals, such as silver crystals, contain atoms of only one type of element (Figure 5.31). To produce a sample of silver, you can grow a crystal from its atoms.

Procedure
1. Place a piece of copper ribbon on the microscope slide. 2. Place the slide on the microscope stage, and focus on one edge of the piece of copper ribbon. Record your observations of the copper ribbon. 3. Squeeze a drop of silver nitrate solution onto the copper ribbon. 4. Look through the microscope to observe changes to the copper ribbon. Look for silver crystals forming on the edges of the copper. 5. Wash your hands after putting the materials and equipment away.

Purpose
To grow a silver crystal

Materials & Equipment

microscope slide dissecting microscope 2 cm of copper ribbon 0.1 M silver nitrate solution in a dropper bottle

Questions
6. Based on your observations, what are some of the properties of copper and silver? 7. How do you know that the crystals that formed were silver crystals and not copper? 8. Do you think the changes you observed were physical or chemical? Explain.
Figure 5.31 The arrangement of atoms in a silver crystal is very regular.

CAUTION: Do not get silver nitrate on your skin. Wear gloves for this activity.

9. Silver is a highly valued element. Why could we not grow silver on a massive scale instead of mining it?

186

UNIT B

Atoms, Elements, and Compounds

5.2

CHECK and REFLECT

6. List the following elements in order of their ability to conduct electricity, starting with the least conductive: Si, Ag, S.

Key Concept Review

1. Give the names and symbols of three elements that are gases at room temperature. 2. (a) Give the names and symbols of the two elements that are liquids at room temperature. (b) Classify each of the elements you named in (a) as a metal, a metalloid, or a non-metal. 3. Using Table 5.2 on page 182, identify what element was named after each meaning below, then write the symbol for that element. (a) Germany (b) ruby-red (c) the Sun (d) violet (e) water generating (f) acid forming (g) charcoal (h) colour (i) liquid silver (j) flowing 4. Using Table 5.2 on page 182, find the common name and symbol of each element from the ancient Latin name provided below. (a) natrium (b) ferrum (c) argentum (d) plumbum 5. Using Table 5.2 on page 182, find and list the following. (a) the symbols of five elements beginning with the letter C (b) the names of three elements named after places (c) the symbols for any five non-metals with symbols composed of two letters

Connect Your Understanding

7. The metal element shown in the following photograph reacts violently with water. Suggest the identity of the element shown. Justify your response.

Question 7

8. List two elements present in each of the following. (a) steel (b) water (c) table salt 9. (a) What is ozone? (b) Explain how ozone can be both harmful and beneficial to life. 10. What pure elements can you identify as you look around your surroundings? What are the elements being used for?

Reflection
11. Briefly describe three environmental issues related to pure elements that you learned about in this section. 12. Write five element names that you were unfamiliar with before reading this section. For more questions, go to ScienceSource.
187

The periodic table organizes elements by patterns in properties and atomic structure.

5.3

The Periodic Table

Here is a summary of what you will learn in this section:

The periodic table organizes the elements by their properties, such as the mass of each elements atoms and the elements melting point. Atomic number is the number of protons in an atom and uniquely identifies an element. Bohr diagrams of the first 20 elements of the periodic table reveal important patterns that relate to the elements properties.
Li = 7 Ti V Cr Mn Fe Ni = Co Cu Mg = 24 Zn ? Al = 27,4 Si = 28 ? P = 31 As S = 32 Se Br Cl = 35, 5 K = 39 Rb ? = 45 Sr ?Er = 56 Ce ?Yt = 60 La ?In = 75, 5 Di Th = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = 50 51 52 55 56 59 63,4 65,2 68 70 75 79,4 80 85,4 87,5 92 94 95 118? Zr Nb Mo Rh Ru Pl Ag Cd Ur Su Sb Te I Cs Ba = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = 90 94 96 104,4 104,4 106,6 108 112 116 118 122 128? 127 133 137 ? Ta W Pt Ir Os Hg = = = = = = = 180. 182. 186. 197,4 198. 199. 200.

H=1 Be B C N O F Na = = = = = = = 9, 4 11 12 14 16 19 23

Au = 197? Bi = 210 Tl = 204 Pb = 207

Figure 5.32 Dmitri Mendeleev arranged the elements according to certain properties.

Patterns among the Elements

By the 1780s, chemists wondered why some elements, such as oxygen, were gases, while others, such as gold, were metals. To complicate matters, by the 1860s, the list of known elements had grown to 63. No one knew if that list included all the elements that existed or whether there were hundreds or even thousands more that were still undiscovered. Many chemists continued to search for a unifying pattern among the elements. Then, in 1867, Russian chemist and teacher Dmitri Mendeleev (18341907) found the pattern (Figure 5.32). He did it by gathering all the information that he could about the known elements and writing it down on cards, using one element per card (Figure 5.33). The information included properties such as estimates of the mass of the atoms of each element, colour, density, melting point, and what each element did or did not react with. He then sorted the cards into rows and columns, based on similarities in the elements properties. This arrangement of cards formed a table, as shown in Figure 5.32. Within Mendeleevs table, and for the first time in history, a complete pattern of the elements emerged.

Figure 5.33 Mendeleev gathered information on each known element and wrote it on a card.

188

UNIT B

Atoms, Elements, and Compounds

A Table Based on Properties

In Mendeleevs table, all the cards representing metals ended up on one side, and all the non-metals ended up on the other. Metalloids were in the middle. Even most of the elements that were gases at room temperature were grouped together. Mendeleev was on to something. Mendeleev knew that some elements were very similar, and it made sense to him to group them together (Figure 5.34). For example, he grouped together sodium, lithium, and other metals that reacted violently with water. Mendeleev had so much confidence in his arrangement that he left a gap in his table if he could not find an element with the right properties to put in a column. The gap represented an element that was yet to be discovered. Other chemists were doubtful. Then, in 1886, the element germanium was discovered. Its properties were an exact match of the properties predicted for a missing element in Mendeleevs table. After that, other scientists were convinced that Mendeleev had it right. Today, we use a table based on Mendeleevs table called the periodic table of the elements.

Figure 5.34 Dmitri Mendeleev was the first to create a table that logically organized all the elements, including those undiscovered at the time.

B15 Quick Lab

Exploring the Periodic Table
Your teacher will provide you with a copy of the periodic table. Within the periodic table, you will look for patterns among the elements properties. 2. All the elements to the left of the metalloids, except hydrogen, are metals. All the elements to the right of the metalloids are non-metals. Label the metals and non-metals, but do not shade them. 3. All the elements in the farthest left column, except hydrogen, react violently with water. Shade them the same colour, and label them alkali metals. 4. All the elements in the column to the right of the alkali metals are slightly less reactive than the alkali metals. Shade them another colour, and label them alkaline earth metals. 5. Find column 17, and shade all the elements in it the same colour. Label the column halogens. Find column 18, and shade those elements their own colour. Label them noble gases.

Purpose
To become familiar with the periodic table

Materials & Equipment

a periodic table pencil crayons or highlighters

Procedure
1. Find the element boron (B) and shade it in. Then, with the same colour, shade in all elements that make a diagonal below and to the right of boron, starting with silicon (Si). Finally, shade in germanium (Ge), antimony (Sb), and polonium (Po). These elements are the metalloids.

Question
6. Why does it make sense to colour columns rather than rows?
189

The periodic table organizes elements by patterns in properties and atomic structure.

The Modern Periodic Table

Figure 5.36 on the next page shows the periodic table of the elements. The periodic table is a chart that places all of the elements in rows and columns. In the modern periodic table, elements are listed from left to right and top to bottom according to a property called atomic number.

Atomic Number
1p

H atom

2p 2n

He atom
Figure 5.35 A hydrogen atom has one proton, and a helium atom has two protons.

Atomic number is the number of protons in an atom of an element. The lowest atomic number is 1, which is the atomic number of the element hydrogen (H) (Figure 5.35). This means that every hydrogen atom has one proton in its nucleus. Hydrogen is placed in the top row and farthest left column of the table. The next element in the periodic table is helium (He), which has atomic number 2. All helium atoms have two protons. Another way to look at it is that any atom with two protons must be a helium atom. Moving down to the next row and back to the farthest left column, the element with atomic number 3 is lithium (Li). Atomic number increases by one with each consecutive element. This increase continues though the entire table until the atomic number is well past 100. No one knows what the highest possible atomic number is, but as of 2009 it was 118.

Learning Checkpoint
1. Use the periodic table to find the atomic number of each of the following elements. (a) C (e) S (b) O (f) Cl (c) Na (g) Fe (d) Si

2. How many protons are in an atom of each of the following elements? (a) lithium (d) aluminum (b) nitrogen (e) copper (c) fluorine (f) gold

3. Name the element with the following number of protons. (a) 1 (e) 20 (b) 2 (f) 31 (c) 10 (g) 47 (d) 19

190

UNIT B

Atoms, Elements, and Compounds

1
metal

C
atomic number symbol

solid liquid

2
ion charge (if more than one, first one is the most common)

18
2

1
metalloid

H
Br
13
5

1+

O
14
6

He
17
helium 4.00

hydrogen 1.01

2
non-metal gas name atomic mass

15
7

16
3

2
boron 10.81 carbon 12.01 nitrogen 14.01 15
3+

Li
13

1+

Be Al Ga Ge
14

2+

oxygen 16.00 B N P As
3

C Si
16

O
oxygen 16.00

F
fluorine 19.00

10

Ne
neon 20.18

lithium 6.94

11

3 4
3+

Na
5
4+ 3+

beryllium 9.01 1 + 12 2+

Mg
6
5+ 4+

S Se

17

Cl Br

18

Ar Kr

sodium 22.99

3
22

7
3+ 2+

8
2+ 4+

9
3+ 2+

10
2+ 3+

11
2+ 3+

12
2+ 1+

19

K Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd

magnesium 24.31 1 + 20 2 + 21

Ca

Sc

Ti

23

24

Cr

25

Mn

26

Fe

27

Co

28

Ni

29

Cu

30

Zn

aluminum silicon phosphorus sulphur chlorine argon 26.98 28.09 30.97 32.07 35.45 39.95 2 + 31 3 + 32 3 34 2 35 1 36 4 + 33

nickel copper zinc gallium germanium arsenic selenium bromine potassium calcium scandium titanium vanadium chromium manganese iron cobalt krypton 58.69 63.55 65.41 69.72 72.64 74.92 78.96 79.90 39.10 40.08 44.96 47.87 50.94 52.00 54.94 55.85 58.93 83.80 1 + 38 2 + 39 3 + 40 4 + 41 5 + 42 6 + 43 7 + 44 3 + 45 3 + 46 2 + 47 1 + 48 2 + 49 3 + 50 4 + 51 2 53 1 54 3 + 52 37 + 3+ 4+ 4+ 2+

Rb

Sr

In

Sn

Sb

Te

Xe

rubidium strontium 85.47 87.62 + 1 56 2+ 55

yttrium 88.91

6
hafnium 178.49 104 tantalum 180.95 105 tungsten 183.84 106 rhenium 186.21 107 osmium 190.23 108 iridium 192.22 109 platinum 195.08 110 gold 196.97 111

Cs Rf
dubnium (262) seaborgium (266) bohrium (264) hassium (277)

Ba Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg

palladium silver cadmium indium tin antimony tellurium iodine zirconium niobium molybdenum technetium ruthenium rhodium xenon 106.42 107.87 112.41 114.82 118.71 121.76 127.60 126.90 91.22 92.91 95.94 (98) 101.07 102.91 131.29 + + + + + + + + + + + + 4 73 5 74 6 75 7 76 4 77 4 78 4 79 3 80 2 81 1 82 2 83 3 84 1 86 2 + 85 72 + 2+ 1+ 1+ 3+ 4+ 5+

cesium 132.91

barium 137.33

5771

Hf

Ta

Re

Os

Ir

Pt

Au

Hg

Tl

Pb

Bi

Po

At

Rn

thallium 204.38 113

bismuth 208.98 115

polonium (209) 116

astatine (210) 117 118

radon (222)

87 rutherfordium (261)

1+

88

2+

mercury 200.59 112

lead 207.21 114

Fr

Ra

francium (223)

radium (226)

89103

Uub
ununbium (285)

meitnerium darmstadtium roentgenium (271) (272) (268)

Uut
ununtrium (284)

Uuq

ununquadium ununpentium ununhexium ununseptium ununoctium (289) (288) (293) (?) (294)

Uup

Uuh

Uus Uuo

57

La Pm Np Pu
6

3+

58

Ce Th Pa
4

3+

59

Pr U
4

3+

60

Nd Am
4

3+

61

3+

62

Sm

3+ 2+

63

Eu

3+ 2+

64

Gd Cm

3+

65

Tb Bk

3+

66

Dy
4

3+

67

Ho Cf Es

3+

68

Er Fm

3+

69

Tm Md

3+

70

Yb
3

3+ 2+

71

Lu No
3

2+

7
thorium 232.04 protactinium 231.04 uranium 238.03 neptunium (237)

dysprosium holmium erbium thulium ytterbium lutetium lanthanum praseodymium neodymium promethium samarium cerium europium gadolinium terbium 162.50 164.93 167.26 168.93 173.04 174.97 138.91 140.12 140.91 144.24 (145) 150.36 151.96 157.25 158.93 + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 3 90 4 91 5 92 6 93 5 94 4 95 3 96 3 97 3 98 3 99 3 100 3 101 2 102 2 103 3+ 89 + + + + + + +

Ac

Lr

The periodic table organizes elements by patterns in properties and atomic structure.
plutonium (244) americium (243) curium (247) berkelium (247) californium (251) einsteinium (252) fermium (257)

actinium (227)

mendelevium (258)

nobelium (259)

lawrencium (262)

Figure 5.36 The periodic table of the elements

191

ion charges atomic number

Atomic Mass and Ion Charge

Each element has its own square on the periodic table. The information given in the square is not always the same on different versions of the periodic table, but the elements name, symbol, and atomic number are almost always given. Figure 5.37, taken from the periodic table on the previous page, shows two other pieces of information: atomic mass and ion charge.
Atomic Mass Atomic mass is the average mass of an elements atoms. Atomic mass is given in atomic mass units (amu). As Figure 5.37 shows, the atomic mass of iron is 55.85 amu. From the periodic table, we can see that the atomic mass of hydrogen is 1.01 amu. This means that iron atoms are about 55.85 times heavier than hydrogen atoms, which are the least massive of all atoms. Atomic masses are always expressed as decimal fractions. One reason that they do not have whole number values is that, except for fluorine, atoms of the same element have different numbers of neutrons. For example, the most common type of hydrogen atom has one proton and one electron but no neutron. A small percentage of hydrogen atoms have one proton, one electron, and one neutron, and an even smaller percentage have one proton, one electron, and two neutrons. Recall that most of an atoms mass comes from its protons and neutrons. For this reason, hydrogen atoms with different numbers of neutrons have different masses. The atomic mass of hydrogen is an average of these masses. Notice that atomic mass generally increases in order of atomic number. There are a few exceptions to this pattern. For example, iodine (I) has a lower atomic mass than tellurium (Te). Ion Charge Ion charge is the electric charge that an atom takes on when it loses or gains electrons. An atom or group of atoms that has lost or gained electrons is called an ion. Metal atoms can lose electrons in certain situations. Electrons have a negative charge, and so an atom that loses electrons becomes a positive ion. For example, if an iron atom loses three electrons, it becomes an ion with a 3+ charge (Figure 5.38). If an iron atom loses two electrons, it becomes an ion with a 2+ charge.

26

3+ 2+

Fe
iron 55.85
atomic mass

Figure 5.37 Information from the periodic table about iron (Fe)

Fe

3e

Fe3

Figure 5.38 When an iron atom loses electrons, it becomes a positive ion.

192

UNIT B

Atoms, Elements, and Compounds

Elements with atoms that can form similar ions are grouped together in the periodic table. Metals generally lose electrons and become positive ions. Many non-metals can gain electrons and so become negative ions. Some elements do not form ions. Helium, for example, does not normally form ions. For these elements, no ion charges are shown in their squares in the periodic table.

Learning Checkpoint
1. Use the periodic table to find the atomic mass for each of the following elements. (a) H (b) He (c) N (d) F (e) S (f) Ca (g) Ag

2. Name the element with the following atomic mass. (a) 12.01 amu (b) 16.00 amu (c) 39.10 amu (d) 83.80 amu

3. What is the electric charge on an ion of each of the following elements? (a) Li (b) Be (c) N (d) S (e) Al (f) I

4. Although the element hydrogen is a non-metal, it is located on the left side of the periodic table. Explain how placing hydrogen in this position relates to its ion charge. 5. Describe the patterns in atomic masses and ion charges in the periodic table.

Periods and Chemical Families

The periodic table has seven horizontal rows. Each of these rows is called a period. A number written on the left side of the table identifies each period. For example, hydrogen and helium are in Period 1. Potassium is the first of 18 elements in Period 4. There are 18 vertical columns in the periodic table, and each represents a different group (also called a chemical family). The elements within a group share certain physical and chemical properties. Each group has its own number, written at the top of the periodic table. For example, the element carbon (C) is in Group 14. It is also common to refer to a group by the first element in it. Group 14 is also called the carbon group. Some groups have special names (Figure 5.39). We will discuss three of these very important groups in more detail: alkali metals halogens noble gases
1 1 2
Alkaline Earth Metals

18
Noble Gases

17
Halogens

H
Alkali Metals

He
10

Li
11

Be
12

F
17
Groups 3 - 16

Ne
18

Na
19

Mg
20

Cl
35

Ar
36

K
37

Ca
38

Br
53

Kr
54

Rb
55

Sr
56

I
85

Xe
86

Ca
87

Ba
88

At

Rn

Fr

Ra

Figure 5.39 Four groups in the periodic table known by special names

The periodic table organizes elements by patterns in properties and atomic structure.

193

Properties within Groups

When we compare the physical properties of elements within groups, a number of patterns become clear. Refer to the periodic table on page 191 as you read about these patterns.
Alkali Metals (Group 1): Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs

Similarities: All of these metals are silver-grey in colour (Figure 5.40). Like other metals, they are malleable and ductile, and they conduct electricity and heat. However, compared to other metals, the alkali metals have low melting points. They all melt below 170C, a temperature easily achieved by most ordinary kitchen ovens. They are all soft enough to cut with a knife. In addition, they all react easily with water and air. Differences: There is a gradual change in the physical properties in this group from the first element, at the top, through to the last, at the bottom. Moving from lithium to cesium, there is a regular increase in density. The elements also get softer and easier to cut. Lithiums melting point is 170C, while potassiums is 64C. Cesiums melting point is just 28C.
Halogens (Group 17): F, Cl, Br, I

Figure 5.40 Alkali metals

Similarities: All of these elements are non-metals. Each has a noticeable colour. Although bromine is a liquid and iodine is a solid at room temperature, with slight heating they form gases, like the other halogens. All are very reactive, and chlorine, bromine, and iodine can be used as disinfectants. Differences: From fluorine, the first element in the group, down through to iodine, the colours of the halogens grow in intensity (Figure 5.41). Their melting points also gradually increase from 219C for fluorine to 113C for iodine.

Figure 5.41 The halogens. From left to right: fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine

194

UNIT B

Atoms, Elements, and Compounds

Noble Gases (Group 18): He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn

Similarities: Although all exist naturally as colourless gases, these elements will glow with bright colours if an electric current is passed through them, as in a neon light (Figure 5.42). None of these gases is chemically reactive except in certain special situations. Differences: The density of the gases increases steadily moving from helium through to radon. Balloons filled with helium or neon will rise in the air, with helium balloons rising faster than neon balloons. Argon balloons sink slowly in air. Balloons filled with krypton, xenon, or radon would sink quite quickly in air, with radon balloons sinking the fastest.

Figure 5.42 This lighted glass sculpture of a sea anemone contains noble gases. As an electric current runs through the gases, they light up, each with a different colour. Some of the gases are denser than the others, making the sculpture different colours in different areas.

Learning Checkpoint
1. Give the names and symbols for the elements found at these locations in the periodic table. (a) Period 3, Group 1 (c) Period 4, Group 11 (b) Period 2, Group 13 (d) Period 5, Group 17

2. Give the period and group for each of the following elements. (a) Mg (b) Si (c) Cl (d) He (e) Au (f) Pb

3. Compare and contrast the physical properties of different alkali metals. 4. Compare and contrast the chemical and physical properties of the halogens and the noble gases.

The periodic table organizes elements by patterns in properties and atomic structure.

195

During Reading
Fixing Up Understanding Using Key Words
As you read, identify the key words and write them in your notebook. Look at the key words, and try to restate what you read using the words as cues. Talk with a partner to compare what each of you understood from what you read.

Atomic Theory Supports the Periodic Table

Mendeleev created his periodic table long before studies of atomic structure revealed the arrangements of subatomic particles. As a result, Mendeleev did not know about atomic number, which is used to order the elements in the modern periodic table. Instead, he used atomic mass. Similarly, he did not know about electrons or their arrangements within atoms. When electron arrangements are considered, it makes Mendeleevs work all the more remarkable.

Chlorine: A Typical Atom

Atoms of all elements have the same basic structure but different numbers of protons, neutrons, and electrons. Chlorine is an example. The element chlorine is used as a disinfectant in swimming pools and to purify drinking water. A diagram of an atom of chlorine is shown in Figure 5.43 on the next page. Notice that the number of protons and the number of electrons are equal. This is true of all atoms.
The Nucleus The nucleus, shown at the centre of the chlorine atom, and also enlarged, is a tiny part of the atom that contains protons and neutrons gathered together into a ball. The nucleus contains only a small part of an atoms total volume. Depending on the atom, the region outside the nucleus of an atom is 10 000 to 50 000 times the diameter of the nucleus.

Suggested Activity
B17 Quick Lab on page 200

All chlorine atoms have 17 protons. Each proton has a charge of 1+, so the total positive charge in the nucleus is therefore 17+. Different kinds of chlorine atoms can have different numbers of neutrons. It is the number of protons in an atom that determines what element the atom is, not the number of neutrons. The most common types of chlorine atoms have 18, 19, or 20 neutrons. The nucleus contains 99.99% of the mass of the atom because protons and neutrons have much greater mass than electrons.

196

UNIT B

Atoms, Elements, and Compounds

neutron nucleus

proton

valence electron valence shell inner electron inner shells

(a)

chlorine atom

(b)

Figure 5.43 (a) A Bohr diagram of a chlorine atom, which contains 17 protons and 17 electrons. The number of neutrons varies between chlorine atoms. (b) A diagram of the nucleus of a chlorine atom

Suggested STSE Activity

B18 Decision-Making Analysis Case Study on page 201

Electrons Electrons exist in shells, or energy levels, surrounding the nucleus. The innermost shell can hold a maximum of two electrons. Each of the next two shells can hold up to eight. Electrons often exist in pairs.

Electrons occupy more than 99.99% of an atoms volume. Electrons can move between energy levels. The outermost shell that has electrons in it is called the valence shell. Electrons in this shell are called valence electrons. Other shells containing electrons are called inner shells, and the electrons in them are called inner electrons. The properties of elements are strongly affected by their valence electrons. Early researchers of the atom were surprised at first to discover that when a shell becomes more than half-filled, the electrons begin to pair up, as shown in Bohr diagrams. Even though the negatively charged electrons repel each other, pairing helps electrons to get closer to the positive protons in the nucleus. Friedrich Hund (18961997), a German physicist, was the first to work out how electron pairing occurs (Figure 5.44).

Figure 5.44 Physicist Friedrich Hund 197

The periodic table organizes elements by patterns in properties and atomic structure.

Take It Further
People have used various shapes, colours, and arrangements to organize the elements in meaningful ways. Some are shown on the next page. Go to ScienceSource to start your search for different versions of the periodic table.

Patterns in the Arrangements of Electrons

Figure 5.45 shows Bohr diagrams for the first 20 elements of the periodic table. As you examine the Bohr diagrams, look carefully at the electrons in the outer shells. A very important pattern in the arrangement of electrons is that elements in the same group have the same number of valence electrons. Notice, in particular, the following points: Group 1: Atoms of hydrogen, lithium, and sodium each have one valence electron. Although hydrogen is not in the same group as the alkali metals, it does share some chemical properties with them because of their similar valence electron arrangements. For example, they can all form ions with a 1 + charge. Group 18: A helium atom has only two valence electrons, which is the maximum number for the first energy shell. Atoms of neon and argon each have eight valence electrons, the maximum number for the second and third shells. The noble gases share many properties because their atoms all have filled valence shells. The number of valence electrons is not only related to the physical properties of a group of elements. The number of valence electrons is also related to the ways in which atoms of elements combine to form compounds.

1
1 2

18

He

2
3 4 5

13
6

14
7

15
8

16
9

17
10

Li

Be

Ne

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

Na

Mg

Al

Si

Cl

Ar

19

20

Ca

Figure 5.45 A segment of the periodic table showing electrons arrangements for the first 20 elements

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UNIT B

Atoms, Elements, and Compounds

Organizing the Periodic Table in Different Ways

Scientists continue to organize the elements in different ways. Dr. Theodor Benfey, a U.S. chemist, suggested a spiral version of the periodic table (Figure 5.46). In Dr. Benfeys periodic table, the elements are shown in an unbroken series, starting with hydrogen and radiating outward. Figure 5.47 shows another periodic table, known as the physicists periodic table. This periodic table is three-dimensional and groups the elements according to the energy levels of their electrons.
n=2

Suggested Activity
B19 Inquiry Activity on page 202

n=1

H N O Li B Fe P S Na Ti Al

He Be Ne Co Mg Ar Sc Zn Cl Cu Ni F

C Mn Cr

Cm Am Pu Np U Fr Rn Cs Xe Rb Kr At I Ar Ba Ro Ac Ce Th Pr Yb Lr Db Ta W Mo Cr Mn Co Fe Ru Rh Pt Ir 111 110 Mt Os Hn
n=7

Bk Gd Tb Cf Es Fm Md
n=3

Eu Sm

Si

Dy Ho Er

Pa Nd

Pm Tm

No Jl

Po

Te

La Lu Sr K Hf Na Ca Y Ne Br Zr Cl Nb Mg F He Li Sc Be Ti H V O B S Se N C AI p Zn Ga Si Cu Ni As Ge Cd In Ag Sb Pd Sn TI Hg Bi Au Pb 112

Rf

Tc

Re

Bh

Gd Tb Eu Tc Ru Dy Sm Mo As Se Rh Ho Pm Nb Ge K Ca Br Pd Er n=4 Nd Zr Ga Kr Aq Tm Pr Y Cd Yb Ce Lu Cm Bk Am Re Os Cf Pu W S b Te Ir Es N p Ta S n R b S r I Pt Fm n=5 U Hf In Xe Au Md Pa La Hg No Th Lr Ns Mt Sq Bi Po 110 Ha Pb Cs Ba At 111 n=6 Rf Ti Rn 112 Ac 113 116 117 115 Fr Ra 118 114 119
n=8 m s +s n +m

120 121

Figure 5.46 Dr. Benfeys periodic table

s p

Figure 5.47 The physicists periodic table

Learning Checkpoint
1. Give the number of valence electrons in an atom of each of the following elements. (a) hydrogen (b) aluminum (c) carbon (d) oxygen (e) chlorine

2. For each of the following groups of elements, give the number or numbers of valence electrons in the atoms. (a) Group 1 (b) Group 2 (c) Group 15 (d) Group 18

3. (a) What is similar about the valence electrons for atoms of elements in Period 2? (b) What is similar about the valence electrons for atoms of elements in Period 3? 4. At room temperature, oxygen is a colourless gas and sulphur is a yellow solid. Why are they in the same group in the periodic table?

The periodic table organizes elements by patterns in properties and atomic structure.

199

B16

STSE Science, Technology, Society, and the Environment

Working with Toxic Elements

In the 18th and 19th centuries, mercury was used in hat making. The mercury produced toxic vapours, which caused symptoms of mercury poisoning in the hat makers and in people who wore the hats. Mercury poisoning could impair vision, speech, hearing, or balance as well as cause mood swings and memory loss. The Mad Hatter from Lewis Carrolls classic fantasy books about Alice in Wonderland was a cartoon version of a hatter (hat maker) affected by mercury poisoning. Today, laws restrict how mercury can be used. Other people who work with toxic elements include scientists who study radioactive elements, painters, and pottery makers. Some of the metals that give paints and pottery glazes their bright colours include toxic cobalt, lead, and cadmium.

1. In order to protect the health of workers, how could workplaces limit the use of toxic elements? 2. What types of restrictions would you consider for artists working with toxic elements in their own homes? What questions would you need to answer in order to write a set of guidelines for artists? 3. What steps can people take to work safely with toxic elements? 4. If removing toxic elements from Earths surface will contaminate the environment, should we do this? What restrictions, if any, would you place on mining for toxic elements? Justify your response.

B17 Quick Lab

Drawing Bohr Diagrams
In this activity, you will practise drawing Bohr diagrams of atoms and ions of different elements. 3. Find lithium on the periodic table. Begin a second Bohr diagram. Write down the number of protons in the nucleus of a lithium atom, and draw the energy shells and electrons in each shell. 4. Look up the charge on a lithium ion in a periodic table. Draw a Bohr diagram of a lithium ion. 5. Find sodium on the periodic table. Draw a Bohr diagram of a sodium atom.

Purpose
To practise drawing Bohr diagrams of atoms and ions

Materials & Equipment

a copy of the periodic table

Procedure
1. Find hydrogen on the periodic table. Begin a Bohr diagram of a hydrogen atom by writing 1p to show that there is one proton in its nucleus. Draw a circle to represent the nucleus. 2. Draw the energy shell around the nucleus as well as the valence electron.

Questions
6. How many protons and electrons would be shown in a Bohr diagram of a helium atom? 7. How is a Bohr diagram of a lithium atom different from a Bohr diagram of a lithium ion? 8. Describe the similarities and differences among the energy shells in your Bohr diagrams for lithium and sodium.

200

UNIT B

Atoms, Elements, and Compounds

CASE STUDY

SKILLS YOU WILL USE

Skills References 4, 7
Evaluating reliability of data and information Using appropriate formats to communicate results

B18

STSE Decision-Making Analysis

Heavy Metals in Fish

Issue
Due to environmental pollution, the concentration of heavy metals in fish is on the rise. For people who eat a lot of fish, heavy metal contamination is a serious concern.

Background Information
Many metals are necessary for human health. For example, iron is so important in the diet that some people need to take iron supplements. However, the heavy metals, including cadmium, mercury, and lead, are toxic. Heavy metal pollution results mainly from industrial processes, such as refining ores, burning fuel, and using nuclear energy. Heavy metals are also used in some types of batteries and computer equipment. When these pollutants are released into the air, they come back down with precipitation. In this way, and from water washing over contaminated landfills, heavy metals get into the water supply. Once in the water, they build up in the food chain. Fish near the top of the aquatic food chain often contain high amounts of heavy metals. Therefore, Health Canada and the government of Ontario have set guidelines about how much of different types of fish people should eat to avoid heavy metal poisoning. Pregnant women in particular are cautioned not to eat too much of certain types of fish, as heavy metals can harm the fetus. It is not always clear how much humans are affected by heavy metals in their food. However, scientists have seen an effect on contaminated organisms. Fish stop functioning normally. They seem to be unaware of their natural predators and do not use their ingrained escape-and-evade techniques. Heavy metal contamination also seems to affect their sense of smell. Some fish have trouble recognizing their own offspring, and instead of protecting them, they eat them. This behaviour could have a serious impact on the numbers of some types of fish in the future as well as the other organisms in their environment.

Your task is to work with a partner find out who may be at risk from heavy metals and why. Determine what, if anything, the government should do to protect people from this risk. Use a graphic organizer to keep track of information. After you complete your research, you will present your findings in a poster, an interview, or another form of media.

Analyze and Evaluate

1. ScienceSource Gather information to help you answer the questions below and complete your overall task. 2. Why might Aboriginal peoples and people in remote communities feel the effects of heavy metal contamination of fish more than most groups in Canada? 3. (a) What other cultures rely heavily on fish in their diet? (b) Should people from these cultures also have concerns about heavy metal poisoning? Explain. 4. What can be done to protect people from heavy metal poisoning from their food? 5. Suppose you go fishing at a pond contaminated with mercury and catch a minnow (a fish at the bottom of the food chain) and a large trout (a fish at the top of the food chain, which eats other fish). Which fish would have a higher concentration of mercury in its body? Why? 6. Create an informational poster, a question-andanswer interview that you and your partner can share with the class, or another form of media, giving the three best ways to protect people from heavy metal poisoning.

Skill Practice
7. In your research, did a certain type of graphic organizer seem more helpful than another? Why?

The periodic table organizes elements by patterns in properties and atomic structure.

201

SKILLS YOU WILL USE

B19 Inquiry Activity

Building a Periodic Table
Scientists use models to explain things we cannot see or to display patterns in data.

Skills References 2, 8, 9

Gathering, organizing, and recording relevant data from inquiries Interpreting data/information to identify patterns or relationships

Part 2 Classifying Items Collectively

6. On a large sheet of paper, make a grid with five equal-size columns and five equal-size rows. Make sure the boxes are large enough to hold the largest nut or bolt. Number the boxes 1 to 25, starting on the top left at number 1 and working across the row from left to right. The first box in the second row should be number 6. 7. Place the smallest bolt at number 1 and the largest nut at number 25, as shown below in Figures 5.48 and 5.49. Now organize the rest of the nuts and bolts on the grid.
1 smallest bolt 6 2 3 4 5

Question
How can a model represent the patterns in the periodic table?

Materials & Equipment

24 assorted nuts and bolts in a bag extra nut or bolt large sheets of paper ruler balance element cards graph paper

10

Procedure Part 1 Classifying Items Individually

1. Examine the 24 nuts and bolts from the bag provided by your teacher. 2. Your bag originally contained 25 nuts and bolts, but your teacher removed one of them. Identify whether a nut or a bolt was removed, and describe the missing piece in as much detail as possible. 3. Share your classification ideas for the missing object with another group. How were your ideas similar? How were they different? 4. Revise your classification or description based on your discussion. 5. Collect the missing nut or bolt from your teacher. How close was your description to the missing object? Revise your classification or description based on this new information.

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25 largest nut

Figure 5.48 Grid for organizing nuts and bolts

8. Follow your teachers instructions to measure either the length and width or mass of each nut and bolt. Record the measurements on your grid.

202

UNIT B

Atoms, Elements, and Compounds

B19 Inquiry Activity

(continued)

Part 3 Classifying Elements

9. Collect an element card from your teacher. 10. Compare the properties on your card to those of your classmates. Find classmates with cards that have similar element properties. You will form a group with these students. 11. Make a list of the properties your groups elements all share. Share the list with your teacher or class. Once your teacher confirms your list, you will be given a group number. 12. Arrange all of your groups element cards in order of atomic mass. 13. Make another five-by-five grid, as you did in step 6. Complete it, using the order of the elements in the class. Include the atomic mass for each element in your grid. Write the elements group number at the top of the grid.

16. Use your data on the elements from Part 3 to make a graph of atomic mass versus atomic number. 17. Record any patterns you notice in this graph. 18. Compare the two graphs you made. What similarities do you see? 19. Examine the periodic table on page 191. Compare your arrangement of elements with the arrangement of elements in the periodic table. Describe their similarities and their differences.

Skill Practice
20. How many electrons do the following elements have? (a) carbon (b) chlorine (c) magnesium (d) neon

Analyzing and Interpreting

14. Use your data from Part 2 to graph a nut or bolt number versus nut or bolt size (length, width, or mass). (The number of each nut or bolt is the number of the box in the grid where the nut or bolt was placed.) 15. Record any patterns you notice in this graph.

Forming Conclusions
21. Return to the guiding question for this inquiry activity. Examine the periodic table on page 191. Based on your data and experiences, answer the question.

Figure 5.49 Arranging the nuts and bolts

Figure 5.50 The element cards

The periodic table organizes elements by patterns in properties and atomic structure.

203

5.3

CHECK and REFLECT

10. Use the Bohr diagram below to answer the questions that follow.

Key Concept Review

1. Refer to a periodic table to answer the following questions. (a) What is the chemical symbol for sodium? (b) What element has the symbol Hg? (c) What element sits directly below carbon in the periodic table? (d) Which element has atoms with a greater mass: lithium or potassium? 2. Name four properties that Dmitri Mendeleev used as criteria for organizing the elements. 3. Name two groups on the periodic table that include elements that conduct heat and electricity. 4. What is the special name for Group 17 on the periodic table? 5. Using hydrogen as an example, explain the difference between atomic number and atomic mass. 6. What happens to an atom if it loses a valence electron? 7. Which of the following atoms typically form negative ions? (a) F (b) Li (c) Ne (d) S (e) Al (f) Be

Question 10

(a) What element is shown? (b) How many electrons does this atom have? (c) How many protons does this atom have? (d) What group in the periodic table does this element belong to? 11. In one of Dmitri Mendeleevs first periodic tables, he left two question marks between zinc and arsenic. (a) Why did he predict that eventually someone would discover elements to fit in the spaces he left in his periodic table? (b) What were these two missing elements named when they were later discovered? 12. Suppose a sample of a metal has a low melting point and reacts easily with water. What group does the element belong to? 13. Would the latest elements to be discovered have heavier atoms or lighter atoms than the other elements? Explain.

Reflection Connect Your Understanding

8. If something occurs periodically every Monday, for instance it can be said to occur in a pattern. How do you think the periodic table got its name? 9. How do chemical symbols help scientists from different countries communicate? Why is this important? 14. How has your understanding of the term metals changed since completing this section? Write a definition for metal, and list examples of metals with different properties. 15. List three ways that you can use the periodic table in your studies that you did not know about before completing this section. For more questions, go to ScienceSource.
204
UNIT B Atoms, Elements, and Compounds

S C I E N Ceverywhere E

Diamonds:
Responsible Mining and Production

In the 1990s, geologists working in northern Canada made an exciting discovery several diamond deposits! With the opening of the Ekati diamond mine, 300 km northeast of Yellowknife, Canada became a diamond-producing nation. Canada soon became the worlds third-largest producer of gemstone-quality diamonds, behind only Botswana and Russia. For some remote Aboriginal communities, the diamond mines in the Northwest Territories and Nunavut have become an important source of income. Shown here is the Diavik diamond mine of the Northwest Territories.

This raw diamond must be processed before it can be used. Diamond mining and processing raise some important ethical, economical, and political issues. Diamond-processing facilities produce waste heat and substances that can harm the environment. Mines, too, have an environmental impact. Mines can interrupt the path of migrating animals. Sometimes, lakes will be drained in order to reach underwater diamond deposits. Aboriginal communities that hunt or fish for food are concerned about the impact of the diamond industry on the local environment.

Diamonds are valued as gems for their clarity and sparkle and because they can be cut into detailed designs, as in the diamond shown here. But diamonds have many other uses than as gems. The hardest natural substance on Earth, diamond resists wear, chemical change, and temperature extremes. Diamond is hard enough to cut many types of rock and so is often used to make specialized saw blades, drill bits, or grinding wheels. In medical and laboratory equipment, thin, clear diamond membranes cover the openings where laser beams or X-rays pass through.

The periodic table organizes elements by patterns in element properties and atomic structure.

205

CHAPTER REVIEW
a Application

ACHIEVEMENT CHART CATEGORIES t Thinking and investigation k Knowledge and understanding c Communication

11. Examine the photograph of mercury at room temperature and answer the questions that follow.

Key Concept Review

1. What is the smallest amount of an element that can exist? k 2. Compare and contrast the charge, the location in an atom, and the relative mass of an electron with those of a neutron. k 3. Beginning with the innermost shell, list the maximum number of electrons that an atom can have in its first three shells. k 4. List three halogens, and describe a property that they all share. k 5. (a) What is the Latin name for lead? (b) What is the symbol for lead?
k k

Question 11

(a) What properties of mercury would have led early chemists to classify it as a metal? Explain. c (b) What property makes mercury different from most other metals? k 12. (a) List two properties that generally increase, beginning with the first element in the periodic table through to the 100th element and beyond. k (b) Are there any exceptions to the pattern described in (a)? Explain. k

6. Name four non-metals that are solids at room temperature. k 7. What is the difference between an insulator and a conductor? Give an example of an element that is a weak conductor. k 8. (a) If an atom has 43 protons, what element is it? k (b) If an atom contains 66 electrons, what element is it? k 9. Use Figure 5.45 on page 198 to answer the following questions. (a) How many shells containing electrons does a potassium atom have? k (b) How many valence electrons does a calcium atom have? k (c) Name the element that has a full valence shell of two electrons. k 10. Draw a Bohr diagram of a chlorine atom.
c

Connect Your Understanding

13. The symbol for gold is Au, based on the Latin term aurum. Is there any reason why Go could not have been chosen as the symbol for gold? t 14. How did Dmitri Mendeleev use the estimated mass of atoms to help him to order the elements in a table? a 15. (a) What element is diamond made of? What is the name of another pure form of this element? k (b) Name three uses for the element that you listed in (a). a (c) What are some environmental issues related to using the element that you listed in (a)? a

206

UNIT B

Atoms, Elements, and Compounds

16. Mendeleev believed that one of the gaps in his first periodic table would eventually be filled by an element he called eka-silicon. Such an element had not yet been discovered. In 1871, he predicted what the properties of this undiscovered element would be. In 1886, he was found to be correct. Use the information in the figure and table below to answer the following questions.
14

17. In the early 1800s, just over 30 elements had been identified. Today, there are more than 100 known elements. Why might there have been such a rapid increase in the discovery of elements? t 18. In the last 50 years, many new elements have been made in laboratories. How do the numbers of subatomic particles in atoms of these elements compare to the numbers in a common element such as iron? a 19. Create a warning poster or public service announcement about an element that can cause harm if improperly used or stored. c

atomic mass
31

Si
28.1

4 2

Ga
69.7

32

Eka-silicon
?

4 2

33

As
74.9

3 5

50

Sn
118.7

2 4

Reflection
20. Now that you have studied atomic theory, how has your understanding of the composition of matter changed? c
Atomic Mass (amu) 28.09 69.72 ? 74.92 118.71

Question 16

Properties of Selected Elements

Element silicon gallium eka-silicon arsenic tin Colour steel grey grey-black ? silver to grey-black, sometimes yellow grey-white

21. Briefly describe three ways in which pure elements are used that you did not know about before reading this chapter. c

After Reading
Reflect and Evaluate
Summarize the fix-up strategies you learned to use in this chapter. Working with a partner, create a tips sheet for other readers about fixing up understanding when they are reading. Add other strategies that you have used successfully to understand what you read.

(a) Which of the four elements in the figure would you use to predict the properties of Mendeleevs new element? Explain your reasoning. t (b) Approximately what atomic mass would you predict for eka-silicon? t (c) What colour would you predict ekasilicon to be? t (d) What do we now call eka-silicon?
t

Unit Task Link

Use your knowledge of the properties of the elements to explain why pure elements would not be used as toothpaste ingredients. Identify elements that you would not want to add to toothpaste, even if these elements were in the form of compounds.

(e) Mendeleev did not predict an atomic number for eka-silicon. Why not? a

The periodic table organizes elements by patterns in properties and atomic structure.

207