FLUID MECHANICS

FUNDAMENTALS AND APPLICATIONS

Dr. Erfan Zalnezhad

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya, Malaysia

Contents
1 INTERNAL FLOW 2 EXTERNAL FLOW: DRAG AND LIFT 3 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND MODELING

4 TURBO-MACHINES

1 INTERNAL FLOW
11 Introduction 12 Laminar and turbulent flows 13 The entrance region
Entry length

14 Laminar flow in pipes

Pressure drop and head loss Inclined pipes Laminar flow in noncircular pipes

15 Turbulent flow in pipes

Turbulent shear stress Turbulent velocity profile The Moody chart Types of fluid flow problems

16 Minor losses 17 Piping networks and pump selection

Piping systems with pumps and turbines

2 EXTERNAL FLOW: DRAG AND LIFT

21 Introduction 22 Drag and lift 23 Friction and pressure drag
Reducing drag by streamlining

24 Drag coefficients of common geometries

Drag coefficients of vehicles superposition

25 Parallel flow over flat plates

Friction coefficient

26 Flow over cylinders and spheres

Effect of surface roughness

27 Lift
End effect of wing tips Lift generated by spinning

3 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND MODELING

31 Dimensions and units
Nondimensionalization of equations

32 Dimensional homogeneity 33 Dimensional analysis and similarity 34 The method of repeating variables and the Buckingham PI theorem 35 Experimental testing, modeling, and incomplete similarity
Wind tunnel testing

4 TURBO-MACHINES
41 Classification and terminology 42 Pumps
Pump performance and matching a pump to a piping system Pump cavitation and net positive suction head Pump in series and parallel Centrifugal pumps

4-3 Pump scaling laws

Dimensional analysis Pump specific speed

4-4 Turbines
Positive-displacement turbines Dynamic turbines Impulse turbines

4-5 Turbine scaling laws

Dimensionless turbine parameters Turbine specific speed Gas and steam turbines
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REFERENCES

1- Munson, Bruce R., Donald F. Young and Theodore H. Okiishi, 2009.

Fundamental of Fluid Mechanics, John Wily & Sons, 6th edition.

2- Yunus A. Cengel and John M. Cimbala, Fluid Mechanics :

fundamentals and applications, Mc Graw Hill, 1st edition, 2006.

3- Frank M. White, Fluid Mechanics, Mc Graw Hill, Fourth Edition.

Chapter1: Internal flow

Internal flows through pipes, elbows, tees, valves, etc., as in this oil refinery, are found in nearly every industry.

Chapter1: Internal flow

Objectives

Have a deeper understanding of laminar and turbulent flow in pipes and the analysis of fully developed flow. Calculation of the major and minor losses associated with pipe flow in piping networks and determine the pumping power requirements. Understanding of various velocity and flow rate measurement techniques and learn their advantages and disadvantages.
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Chapter1: Internal flow

11 INTRODUCTION
Liquid or gas flow through pipes or ducts is commonly used in heating and cooling applications and fluid distribution networks. The fluid in such applications is usually forced to flow by a fan or pump through a flow section. We pay particular attention to friction, which is directly related to the pressure drop and head loss during flow through pipes and ducts. The pressure drop is then used to determine the pumping power requirement.

Circular pipes can withstand large differences between the inside and the outside without undergoing any significant distortion, but noncircular

pipes cannot.
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Chapter1: Internal flow

Theoretical solutions are obtained only for a few simple cases such as fully developed laminar flow in a circular pipe. Therefore, we must rely on experimental results and empirical relations for most fluid flow problems rather than closed-form analytical solutions. The value of the average velocity Vavg at some streamwise cross-section is determined from the requirement that the conservation of mass principle be satisfied.

= mass flow rate

The average velocity for incompressible flow in a circular pipe of radius R.

Average velocity Vavg is defined as the average speed through a cross section. For fully developed laminar pipe flow, Vavg is half of the maximum velocity.

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12 LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOWS

Laminar flow is encountered when highly viscous fluids such as oils flow in small pipes or narrow passages.

Laminar: Smooth streamlines and highly ordered motion. Turbulent: Velocity fluctuations and highly disordered motion. Transition: The flow fluctuates between laminar and turbulent flows. Most flows encountered in practice are turbulent.

Laminar and turbulent flow regimes of candle smoke.

The behavior of colored fluid injected into the flow in laminar and turbulent flows in a pipe.
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Reynolds Number
The transition from laminar to turbulent flow depends on the geometry, surface roughness, flow velocity, surface temperature, and type of fluid. The flow regime depends mainly on the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces (Reynolds number).

At large Reynolds numbers, the inertial forces, which are proportional to the fluid density and the square of the fluid velocity, are large relative to the viscous forces, and thus the viscous forces cannot prevent the random and rapid fluctuations of the fluid (turbulent). At small or moderate Reynolds numbers, the viscous forces are large enough to suppress these fluctuations and to keep the fluid in line (laminar).

The Reynolds number at which the flow becomes turbulent is called Critical Reynolds number, Recr:. The value of the critical Reynolds number is different for different geometries and flow conditions. For internal flow in a circular pipe, the generally accepted value of the critical Reynolds number is Recr =2300

The Reynolds number can be viewed as the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces acting on a fluid element.
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Wetted perimeter

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13 THE ENTRANCE REGION

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Hydrodynamic entrance region: The region from the pipe inlet to the point at which the boundary layer merges at the centerline. Hydrodynamic entry length Lh: The length of this region. Hydrodynamically developing flow: Flow in the entrance region. This is the region where the velocity profile develops. Hydrodynamically fully developed region: The region beyond the entrance region in which the velocity profile is fully developed and remains unchanged. Fully developed: When both the velocity profile the normalized temperature profile remain unchanged. Hydrodynamically fully developed

In the fully developed flow region of a pipe, the velocity profile does not change downstream , and thus the wall shear stress remains constant as well.
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PL= f.(L/D).(.V2ave/2) f= 8w/(. V2ave)

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14 LAMINAR FLOW IN PIPES

1919

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2020

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2222

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2323

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Inclined pipes

2424

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= 1252

= 0.3073

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15 TURBULENT FLOW IN PIPES

Most flows encountered in engineering practice are turbulent, and thus it is important to understand how turbulence affects wall shear stress. Turbulent flow is a complex mechanism dominated by fluctuations, and it is still not fully understood. We must rely on experiments and the empirical or semi-empirical correlations developed for various situations.

The intense mixing in turbulent flow brings fluid particles at different momentums into close contact and thus enhances momentum transfer.

Turbulent flow is characterized by disorderly and rapid fluctuations of swirling regions of fluid, called eddies, throughout the flow. These fluctuations provide an additional mechanism for momentum and energy transfer. In turbulent flow, the swirling eddies transport mass, momentum, and energy to other regions of flow much more rapidly than molecular diffusion, greatly enhancing mass, momentum, and heat transfer. As a result, turbulent flow is associated with much higher values of friction, heat transfer, and mass transfer coefficients. 3333

Chapter1: Internal flow

Turbulent Shear Stress mixing length lm: related to the average size of the eddies that are primarily responsible for mixing.

The velocity gradient at the wall, and thus the wall shear stress, are much larger for turbulent flow than they are for laminar flow, even though the turbulent boundary layer is thicker than the laminar one for the same value of freestream velocity.

Molecular diffusivity of momentum v (as well as ) is a fluid property, and its value is listed in fluid handbooks. Eddy diffusivity vt (as well as t), however, is not a fluid property, and its value depends on flow conditions. Eddy diffusivity t decreases toward the wall, becoming zero at the wall. Its value ranges from zero at the wall to several thousand times the value of the molecular diffusivity in the core region.
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Turbulent Velocity Profile

The very thin layer next to the wall where viscous effects are dominant is the viscous (or laminar or linear or wall) sublayer. The velocity profile in this layer is very nearly linear, and the flow is streamlined. Next to the viscous sublayer is the buffer layer, in which turbulent effects are becoming significant, but the flow is still dominated by viscous effects. Above the buffer layer is the overlap (or transition) layer, also called the inertial sublayer, in which the turbulent effects are much more significant, but still not dominant. Above that is the outer (or turbulent) layer in the remaining part of the flow in which turbulent effects dominate over molecular diffusion (viscous) effects.

The velocity profile in developed pipe flow fully is parabolic in laminar flow, but much fuller in turbulent flow. Note that u(r) in the turbulent case is the time-averaged velocity component in the axial direction.
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Power-law velocity profile

The value n = 7 generally approximates many flows in practice, giving rise to the term one-seventh power-law velocity profile.

Power-law velocity profiles for fully developed turbulent flow in a pipe for different exponents , and its comparison with the laminar velocity profile.

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The Moody Chart and the Colebrook Equation Colebrook equation for smooth and rough pipes) The friction factor in fully developed turbulent pipe flow depends on the Reynolds number and the relative roughness /D. Explicit Haaland equation

The friction factor is minimum for a smooth pipe and increases with roughness.

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The Moody Chart

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Observations from the Moody chart

For laminar flow, the friction factor decreases with increasing Reynolds number, and it is independent of surface roughness. The friction factor is a minimum for a smooth pipe and increases with roughness. The Colebrook equation in this case ( = 0) reduces to the Prandtl equation.

The transition region from the laminar to turbulent regime is indicated by the shaded area in the Moody chart. At small relative roughnesses, the friction factor increases in the transition region and approaches the value for smooth pipes. At very large Reynolds numbers (to the right of the dashed line on the Moody chart) the friction factor curves corresponding to specified relative roughness curves are nearly horizontal, and thus the friction factors are independent of the Reynolds number. The flow in that region is called fully rough turbulent flow or just fully rough flow because the thickness of the viscous sublayer decreases with increasing Reynolds number, and it becomes so thin that it is negligibly small compared to the surface roughness height. The Colebrook equation in the fully rough zone reduces to the von Krmn equation.
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Chapter1: Internal flow

In calculations, we should make sure that we use the actual internal diameter of the pipe, which may be different than the nominal diameter.

At very large Reynolds numbers, the friction factor curves on the Moody chart are nearly horizontal, and thus the friction factors are independent of the Reynolds number.

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Chapter1: Internal flow

Types of Fluid Flow Problems

1. Determining the pressure drop (or head loss) when the pipe length and diameter are given for a specified flow rate (or velocity) 2. Determining the flow rate when the pipe length and diameter are given for a specified pressure drop (or head loss) 3. Determining the pipe diameter when the pipe length and flow rate are given for a specified pressure drop (or head loss)

The three types of problems encountered in pipe flow. To avoid tedious iterations in head loss, flow rate, and diameter calculations, these explicit relations that are accurate to within 2 percent of the Moody chart may be used.
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Swamee-Jain Equations

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16 MINOR LOSSES
The fluid in a typical piping system passes through various fittings, valves, bends, elbows, tees, inlets, exits, enlargements, and contractions in addition to the pipes. These components interrupt the smooth flow of the fluid and cause additional losses because of the flow separation and mixing they induce. In a typical system with long pipes, these losses are minor compared to the total head loss in the pipes (the major losses) and are called minor losses. Minor losses are usually expressed in terms of the loss coefficient KL.

Head loss due to component

For a constant-diameter section of a pipe with a minor loss component, the loss coefficient of the component (such as the gate valve shown) is determined by measuring the additional pressure loss it causes and dividing it by the dynamic pressure in the pipe.
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When the inlet diameter equals outlet diameter, the loss coefficient of a component can also be determined by measuring the pressure loss across the component and dividing it by the dynamic pressure:

KL = PL /(V2/2).
When the loss coefficient for a component is available, the head loss for that component is Minor loss Minor losses are also expressed in terms of the equivalent length Lequiv. The head loss caused by a component (such as the angle valve shown) is equivalent to the head loss caused by a section of the pipe whose length is the equivalent length.
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Total head loss (general)

Total head loss (D = constant)

The head loss at the inlet of a pipe is almost negligible for well-rounded inlets (KL = 0 03 for r/D > 0.2) but increases to about 0.50 for sharp-edged inlets.
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The effect of rounding of a pipe inlet on the loss coefficient.

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All the kinetic energy of the flow is lost (turned into thermal energy) through friction as the jet decelerates and mixes with ambient fluid downstream of a submerged outlet.

The losses during changes of direction can be minimized by making the turn easy on the fluid by using circular arcs instead of sharp turns.
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(a) The large head loss in a partially closed valve is due to irreversible deceleration, flow separation, and mixing of high-velocity fluid coming from the narrow valve passage. (b) The head loss through a fullyopen ball valve, on the other hand, is quite small.

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hL=0.175 m V2=3.11m/s P2=169kpa

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Chapter1: Internal flow

17 PIPING NETWORKS AND PUMP SELECTION

A piping network in an industrial facility.

For pipes in series, the flow rate is the same in each pipe, and the total head loss is the sum of the head losses in individual pipes.

For pipes in parallel, the head loss is the same in each pipe flow pipe, and the total rate is the sum of the flow rates in individual pipes.
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Chapter1: Internal flow

The relative flow rates in parallel pipes are established from the requirement that the head loss in each pipe be the same.

The analysis of piping networks is based on two simple principles: 1. Conservation of mass throughout the system must be satisfied. This is done by requiring the total flow into a junction to be equal to the total flow out of the junction for all junctions in the system. 2. Pressure drop (and thus head loss) between two junctions must be the same for all paths between the two junctions. This is because pressure is a point function and it cannot have two values at a specified Point. In practice this rule is used by requiring that the algebraic sum of head losses in a loop (for all loops) be equal to zero.
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Characteristic pump curves for centrifugal pumps, the system curve for a piping system, and the operating point.
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f=0.0315

6666

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Additional Problems
1. Show that the Reynolds number for flow in a circular pipe of diameter D can be expressed as Re=4/(D). 2. Someone claims that the volume flow rate in a circular pipe with laminar flow can be determined by measuring the velocity at the centerline in the fully developed region, multiplying it by the cross-sectional area, and dividing the result by 2. Do you agree? Explain. 3. Someone claims that the average velocity in a circular pipe in the fully developed laminar flow can be determined by simply measuring the velocity at R/2 (midway between the wall surface and the centerline). Do you agree? Explain.

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Additional Problems
4. Consider fully developed laminar flow in a circular pipe. If the diameter of the pipe is reduced by half while the flow rate and the pipe length are held constant, the head loss will (a) double, (b) triple, (c) quadruple, (d) increase by a factor of 8, or (e) increase by a factor of 16. 5. Oil with a density of 850 kg/m3 and kinetic viscosity of 0.00062 m2/s is being discharged by a 5-mm-diameter , 40-m-long horizontal pipe from a storage tank open to the atmosphere. The height of the liquid level above the center of the pipe is 3 m. disregarding the minor losses, determine the flow rate of oil through the pipe.

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Chapter1: Internal flow

Additional Problems
6. Water at 10C (=999.7 kg/m3 and =1.307 10-3 kg/m.s) is flowing steadily in a 0.2cm-diameter, 15-m-long pipe at an average velocity of 1.2 m/s. determine (a) the

pressure drop, (b) the head loss, and (c) the pumping power requirement to overcome
this pressure drop. 7. Consider an air solar collector that is 1 m

wide and 5 m long and has a constant

spacing of 3 cm between the glass cover and the collector plate. Air flows at an average

temperature 45C at a rate of 0.15 m3/s

through the 1-m long passageway. Disregarding the entrance and roughness effects, determine the pressure drop in the collector.(=1.109 kg/m3 and =1.941 10-5 kg/m.s)
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Chapter1: Internal flow

Additional Problems
8. Air enters a 7-m long section of a rectangular duct of cross section 15cm20cm made of

commercial steel at 1 atm and 35C at an average

velocity of 7m/s. disregarding the entrance effects, determine the fan power needed to overcome the pressure losses in this section

of the duct. (=1.145 kg/m3 and =1.8954 10-5 kg/m)

9. Oil with =876 kg/m3 and =0.24 10-5 kg/m is flowing a 1.5-cm-diameter pipe that discharges into the atmosphere at 88 kpa. The absolute pressure 15m before the exit is

measured to be 135 kpa. Determine the flow rate of oil through

the pipe if the pipe is (a) horizontal, (b) inclined 8 upward from the horizontal, and (c) inclined 8 downward from the horizontal.
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Chapter1: Internal flow

Additional Problems
10. In an air heating system, heated air at 40C and 105 kpa absolute is distributed through a 0.2m 0.3m rectangular duct made of commercial steel at a rate of 0.5 m3/s.

Determine the pressure drop and head loss through a 40-m-long section of the duct.
(1atm=1.127 kg/m3 and =1.918 10-5 kg/m.s)
11. Shell-and-tube heat exchangers with hundreds of tubes housed in a shell are commonly used in
practice for heat transfer between two fluids. Such a heat exchanger in an active solar hot-water system transfers heat from a water-antifreeze solution flowing through the shell and solar collector to fresh water flowing throw the tubes at an average temperature of 60C at an rate of 15 L/s. The heat exchanger contains 80 brass tubes 1cm in inner diameter and 1.5m in length. Disregarding inlet, exit and header losses, determine the pressure drop across a single tube and the pumping power required by the tube-side fluid of the heat exchanger.
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Additional Problems
After operating a long time, 1mm-thick scale builds up on the inner surface with an equivalent roughness of 0.4mm. For the same pumping power input, determine the

percent reduction in the flow rate of water through the tubes.

(=983.3 kg/m3 and =0.467 10-3 kg/m.s)

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